C1 Atomic structure key concepts

All substances are made up g- atoms

subatomicparticlesn-toms.ae
made up of nearly
is
all

concentrated in
mass

3 parts

o protons ✓
/ the nucleus

µ
particle

Katie
0 Electrons Atomic mass
o Neutrons
charge
proton I 1

r
negligible
)
Electron -
l

Neutron 1 o

The
charges
of protons and
Atoms can hold electrons cancel
2. 8 electrons out
atoms have the
in their shells number of
→ ( natural atom
)
same
protons and
electrons

+
[ +

nucleus is very
✓
small Eompared to

rest of atom

Helium Atom
 C1
History of the Atom key concepts

Daltons Billiard Ball 4805)

mm

Atoms are solid

spheres making
up each element

JjThcmpsonsplumbpudding_ 4904)

-
A
positively changed
ball with
-

negative
electrons
-

↳ Bohr then
added shells
-

Rutherford
-
planetary Model

Nucleus contains
protons and neutrons .

o Electrons are in shells .

+ t

0
 C1 Isotopes key concepts

Isotopes are a dissonant version of an elements atom

+
The proton number containing
doesn't
a different number of
change as
neutrons
the element would also
mass number of
change ↳
atom changes
To find
neutrons, minus

µ
Particle

Katie
Atomic mass
charge protons from
mass number
proton I 1

Electron negligible -1

Neutron I 0

Carbon -
13
→ carbon on the
periodic table
has a relative
mass of 12
( carbon 13 has
an entree neutron)

RelativeAtcmicMass_
The mass number on the periodic table takes isotopes
into account
↳ how
many isotopes
and abundance

( %)

( mass number ✗ percent) t ( mass number ✗ percent) Relative atomic

of isotope 1 Of isotope 2
mass can be
a decimal
100
C1
Periodic Table key concepts

used to
identify patterns in elements

staircase

fdivides and non

metals
- metals

organised by atomic number

and properties

chemical behaviours
electrons the
of elements
in outer in
group -7
number =

shell are
same
group
similar
period number = number of
shells

us*•÷
electrons in outer shell

Grows atomic number

]
I 4 element
symbol
period 2
(

t
number of relative atomic
shells mass
 oh Mendeleev's Table key concepts

Mendeleev began to
look at the demerits
and them
organise
↳ atomic mass
and properties

0 Noticed that there were exceptions

that didn't fit his table

0
left gaps as predictions for undiscovered
elements

0 had to switch some elements around

because of isotopes

Differences to modern table

-

1) organised by atomic mass

not atomic number

2) Mendeleev test gaps

 C1 Ionic
Bonding key concepts

A bond between a metal and non -

metal

particle
Ion a
charged
-

↳
The overall
charge
formed when of an ionic compound
atoms loose or is 0 as the
charges
gain electrons balance out

anion f) =
gain an electron
(non -
metals)
charges in an atom
are balanced , however
cation 4) loose an electron if they loose /
gain
=
an

(metals) electron they are

of unbalanced and form icons

metals have less full

outer shells so it's
The compounds
easier to loose
are held by
together
electrostatic
strong attract)
forces (+ and -

Diagram

④:.
+ -

+ -

-
+ -
+

+ -
+ -

↳ ×
properties
Magnesium looses 2 electrons which

oxygen gains 0
High melting boiling +

>+ points
02
Mg
-

0 can conduct electricity

when molten or dissolved
Forms a Giant Ionic crystal Lattice
lions can move)
 Covalent
C1
Bonding key concepts

A bond between non -

metals

covalent Bond -

a shared pair of electrons

Exam-p.ie
✗ ✗

✗ ✗
It 0 H
• •
H20

✗✗

Each atom electrons

gives
Atoms in each individual
molecule are covalently
bonded however there are

intermolecular

Intermolecular
forces
↳
forces are not
covalent bonds
Giant
structural
Made up of molecules
which are bonded

together I
-

molecules have low

strong weak
intermolecular
boiling points because covalent
forces
the weak forces are bonds
to overcome
easy
- cant conduct electricity
as there are no free
electrons
 C1 Allotropes key concepts

Different structures containing atoms of the same element

↳ coolant
giant
structures

Diamond
-

Triangular shaped lattice

meaning any weight is

evenly distributed

-
Diamond is very strong
- cannot conduct electricity
as each atom is bonded
to four others so there's no

free electrons to delocalise

Graphite often used as a lubricant

layers which can slide over

each other

-
can conduct electricity as
each atom is bonded to
three others
 d- Metallic Bonding key concepts

A bond between metals

+ -

t -
+ Electrons in the
outer shell delocah.se
and form a sea
-
-

of electrons

↳ creates positive
+ -

+ -
-
+

)
ion

strong electrostatic forces

Hold bond
together L

metals are

propertiesogMetals_ typically shiny

solids
o strong
Falke
because of organised
0
high melting and
boiling point
because electrostatic
of strong
forces

0
good conductors as electrons
are delocalised

0 malleable because atoms can

slide over each other

 C1 Moles key concepts

constant number
↳ 6.02×1023 links to
mass
no
of particles

in question
sample → (g)
&
element compound
m①→°f
or

moles
→
✗

tofind relative
multiply number of
mass of a compound
moles
by 6.02 ✗ 1023
,

add up relative mass

for number of particles of each atom from
the periodic table

If given a mass of one

substance , find the moles
and then use ratio to

find the
substances
mass
other u
The numbers used to
EL balance equations
create a molar ratio

-
4 At + 302
-
→
-
2A 1203

4 3 2 ratio
: : ←
moles moles moles

have Al
we
10g Of
=
O•37m
means we have half the
can then
moles for A 1203 as the
substitute into
ratio
0.185msec equation
is 4 :
2- = > the moles
to find mass of
A 1203
 C1
Empirical Formula key concepts

simplest ratio of elements

in a compound

↳ HR06 -

=>
-

find highest common

factor
1° )
Divide all
by HCF

( H20 ,

E-xperimentalE-mpiric-a-ormulatmagnes.mn
A student heats 1.08g of magnesium so it reacts to form magnesium oxide. The total
mass of magnesium oxide formed was 1.80g. Calculate the empirical formula of
magnesium oxide

oxygen
and

magnesium oxygen found by

subtracting
mass :
0.72
~ mass of
1.08
magnesium
relative
24 16
from magnesium
oxide
mass :

0.045

O.045-fmj-u.ve
moles :
-

) 0.045 0.045

/
mass

=① =①
then
divide
\]
by
smallest ratio is 1 :c
number to 50
formula is

find ratio
MG0
 C2 States of Matter states + Matures

All substances can exist in 3 States

↳ based on conditions
its in ( temperature and
pressure)

solid Liquid Gas

fixed lattice -
random
arrangement
-
no set shape

Strong forces
beginning to overcome law forces
-
-
-

of attraction of attraction
games
low most
energy more
energy energy
-
- -

vibrate
-

quickly -

can slow -

free moving

melting boiling boiling

→ →
Solid Liquid Gas
melting } G
)
T
✓ ✓ V L

Freezing condensing 5

Solid → Gas = sublimation

Gas → solid = deposition Graph is flat during
state
changes as
is used
energy
 C2 Filtration +
Crystallisation states + Mintures

Filtration separates an
insoluble solid from a

liquid

-
Filtration

The solid is ~
residue
test as the residue
in the filter paper
, i

compared to the '

which is I
liquid
collected as the I
situate MY filtrate

crystallisation separates
a soluble solid from
a liquid

Crystallisation
The liquid evaporates ,

leavingasthe solid behind

crystals

TTTT
-

Heat crystals
 Core practical

Chromatography
C2 states + Mixtures

separates and identifies

substances
Mobile phase -
molecules can

move

solvent
front stationary phase -
molecules can't
move

⑦ each
spends
substance
different amounts
of time dissolved in the
solvent ( mobile) and stuck
on the paper ( stationary)

line
a b a origin ↳ this means different
things more different amount
up the paper
In (separates out)

1) Draw a line at bottom

of paper ( origin) line must be in
→ it doesn't
pencil so

2) put a spot of mixture dissolve

on line

3) place bottom of paper

in solvent ( below line )

4) Solent will move up the

substances
paper, deranging
it
the
with

If the substance

Raines stays the

on line
it will be insoluble
distance substance in the
Rg =
moved
by solvent

distance moved solvent

by

Every substance has a different ↳ will be between

Rs value 0-1 as over would
be over paper
 Core practical

C2 Distillation states + Mixtures

simple

condenser turns
f f gas back into
liquid

can
only separate
substances with
very
cold water runs different boiling
through the condenser points
to cool the
gas

Fractional

coolest
Fractionationcolumn
means liquids that
begin
to evaporate before their

boiling back
point condense
down
hottest

Every substance has a

different boiling point

→
each will
separates mixtures of
evaporate at a
liquids time
different
 ( 2 Water Treatment states + matures

potable -

sage to drink

we don't use
distillation as this
is expensive and
creates pollution

3stag→
1) sedementati.cn

2) Filtration

3) Chlorination

sedementahc.nu Filtration
water is left so that
smaller particles
large particles clump are then removed
and settle
together

chlorination
-

Chlorine is bubbled
through to kill bacteria

water used in chemical

anabasis must be pure
as it could intestine
with sample
 C3 Acids and Alkalis chemical
changes
strong weak weak strong

0 5 7 9 14

Acid FtAlkali
d
an alkali is
equal amounts
a soluble base
of H1-1OH
-

ions ( neutralises acids)

Dissociating
concentration -

how much of a
when disowned in water substance is
disowned in solvent
acids form
}
Ht ions
mass of solute (g)

)
alkalis form OH
-

ions volume 9- soloutioncdms

stromglweako.ua
other +
*

strong complicity
At
= dissociate

weak = dissociate partially

other
OH
-

(F)
ccmmcnacids_
other
'

OH
Acid
Hydrochloric HCl
Nitric Acid
HN03
Sulfuric Acid 1-12504
The substances break
up into ions and the CommcnAckalis_
other atoms in the
molecule Sodium Hydroxide NA0H
potassium Hydroxide K0H
calcium
Hydroxide Ca(OH)z
 C3
Indicators chemical
changes

Show the pH universal indicator

of a substance
changes sample colour
to compare to pH scale

↳
human error can
All indicators bad results
cause
have limitations

Indicator Acid Neutral Alkali

{
Methyl
orange
Indicators Phenolphthalein
give a clear
end point Red Litmus
paper

Blue litmus
paper

GasTests_

Carbon Dioxide

↳
bubble
through
limewater

Hydrogen
↳ lit splint will
cause
hydrogen
to explode and
cause a
squeaky
pop
 C3 Neutralisation chemical
changes

acid + base → neutral

+
H H 20
-

+ OH →

acid + metal oxide /

hydroxide → salt + water

acid metal
+ → salt +
hydrogen
acid + metal carbonate → salt + water + carbon Dioxide

salt -
Product of acid + base

IonicEquations_
normal equation = HCL + NA0H → NaCl + H20

↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
ionic equation HE # Nat+ OH Nafta H20
-
-

= + → +

Remove spectator irons

lions that don't
change )
↳
will end up
with
-

+
It + OH → H20
 C3
Solubility Rules chemical
changes

soluble -
dissolves in water

insoluble -
doesn't dissolve in water

soluble
insoluble
all nitrates

0 most chlorides silver/ lead

→
chlorides
o most
sulfates
→
lead / barium /
Calcium
sulfates

Most carbonates
and
are
hydroxides
insoluble
 Core practical
C3
Making Salts chemical
changes

sulfate isn't
copper naturally
abundant . we can use copper
oxide to prepare it

copper + Sulfuric → copper +

water
oxide acid sulfate (clear
( Insoluble (colourless ( soluble ↳Ñd )
black powder) liquid ) blue
crystals)

CU0 + Hz 504 → cu sou + Hzo

Method
1) add excess copper this makes sure
oxide to the acid → that all acid
is reacted
2) Gently
• ✓
warm solouticn
to Speed up reaction

3) filter solouticn to
remove unreached
copper oxide

4) heat to evaporate
the water and
concentrate the copper
sulfate
5) leave the
remaining
parts to evaporate
over time to form
blue
large crystals
 C3 Titration chemical
charges

method used
used when
to control exactly is soluble
how much acid everything
is needed to react
with a base I
can't filter
of excess

Burnett Indicator should

← have a clear end
gradually adds
point ( not universal
drops to the
indicator)
reactant

reactant with

✗ indicator
( colour change
indicates when
to stop)

once amount is
sound,
repeat without
indicator
 C3
Electrolysis chemical
charges

The process of separating an ionic

compound using electricity

Ioniccomp~ds
setup
+ -

+ -
ionic compound

-
+ -
+
c) (electrostatic forces)
+ - + -

§
can conduct
when molten
electricity
/ dissolved
o

§
&g
lions are
free to move ) -
+
-
§ +

+ -

+
-

✗ electrolyte
f(
+ '
- ionic compound + -

can conduct
,
+ electricity) +
( cation)
>

pb
lattice has moves to cathode
been broken

Br ( anion )
-

Ions turn into

moves to anode
atoms during
electrolysis
1
when electrolyte

::÷÷
↳
reduction
oxidation happens at
must include Ht
happens at the the cathode and OH ions from
-

anode water

|B①
oxidation -
loss of electrons

Reduction -

gain of electrons only

product
1-
④
Ht
-

is made OH

if metal is less reactive

hydrogen metal
than then
produced
, If halogen is
is present then it will
be Produced If not then
.

will be Produced
oxygen
 Core practical
C3
Copper sulfate
chemical
changes

Electrolysis
using0electrode~enhsdc.int react

o copper metal will

µ+IiÉso→
g- be produced as it
'
is less reactive than
OH
g-
hydrogen
no halide ions are

present so oxygen is
produced
Kusa ,
solution

usingcopperelectrodescop.pe anode

copper cathode
-
cu cu
]
co
"
cu for the anode will loose
co
← cit
cu
mass and the cathode
cu cu
cu
"

co
"
too will
gain mass
cu
fu cu

Cusa, solution
 C4
Reactivity series Extracting metals

n Potassium n orders metals based on

Ox¥lise_
how well they
sodium
react with lithium
cold water
calcium gain of oxygen
Magnesium
Aluminium
react with
carbon dilute acids

zinc
Iron

hydrogen
copper
silver
Gold

metal water
+ → metal + hydrogen
hydroxide
 C4
Displacement Extracting metals

more reactive metals displace less reactive ones

calcination → calcium +z①

sulfate sulfate

calcium displaces
zinc

ca

Zn
( oxidised)
( reduced )
} gain /electrons
of
loss

\ reactions
displacement
are redox as reduction
and oxidation happen
at the same time
C4
Extracting with Extracting metals

carbon
potassium
sodium
lithium
electrolysis
calcium

Magnesium
Aluminium
carbon displaces
carbon Metals below *
Zinc
carbon
Iron

hydrogen
copper
silver
natural
Gold

Iron
+ carbon →
carbon + Irc
oxide Dioxide
t
iron has
been extracted

2. FE20> 1- 3C → 3.CO21-4FE
 C4 Natural Extraction Extracting metals

low-grade ones

↳ not alot of metal

(not worth extracting)

Bideaching_
-

uses bacteria
-
breaks down one

produces metal ions

purified with electrolysis

phytoentracticn-w.es
plants
-
extract metal from
soil
-

store in leaves
-
burn plant to produce
metal
 C4
Dynamic Equilibrium Extracting Metals

equilibrium =
equal
towards and backwards
reaction happens at the
same rate
At B ⑦[ + D

↳ reversible

Reactants -_ Products

↳ means that reactants

combine to form products
at the same speed the
products combine to
form the reactants

position of equilibrium
be
can on
right or test
( if we have more products
or more reactants
↳ can be affected by
1) temperature
2) pressure
3)
ccncentrationhyreacti c nwi l -
anychangee.g.is
①
amb. a
pressure
t we

.
the
decrease
position
of equilibrium will

shiftto the side that

will increase the

pressure ( form more

molecules )
 C4 Haber Process Extracting metals

Nitrogen +
hydrogen → ammonia

1 I
can reach
dynamic equilibrium 8

used to produce
industrial plant
fertilisers
NT3H ← ZNH
-

reaction
toward
creates :

low pressure
-

higher temperatures
(exothermic

\ -
means that
low temps
idealconditians_ are desired to

shift equilibrium
Temp 450°C
right and
:
to

pressure : 200 atmospheres form ammonia

catalyst : Iron
however cow temp
,

= slow rate of
reaction so the
'
'
sweet spot is

450
-
 C5 Transition Metals separates a

Transition metals
the
are most
typical
metals
( copper,
iron,
gold)

properties
I
hard /
-

strong / shiny middle section

conductors Of table
-

good of
heat and
electricity
high melting points
-

make good catalysts

-

high densities
+
speed up
reactions without
used
being up

coloursulccm~nds
Fett Fest ;3+
+

( ft
MN2 T

Transition
Metals form
colourful
compounds
 C5 Corrosion separates 1

metals corrode as
react with
they oxygen
↳ oxide
forms metal
( iron oxide is rust)

water is a
catalyst
for the reaction
Econ ( speeds it up)

① barrier method
↳
barrier
putting a

between metal and

( paint toil)
oxygen
② sacrificial method

↳ metal with
coating
a more reactive metal
( oxygen reacts with
more reactive metal
instead)
 C5 Molar Volume separates 1

how much space 1 mole

of takes up
gas

↳ can be influenced
by temp or pressure

=
hotter
particles
& to
have more increasing pressure Volume
means
you force the
energy oo
=

particles together
more spread = less spread out
out =
higher = lower volume moles molar
temperature ✗ volume

I
always 24
for any gas
( at room temp
II. room pressure )
How much gas is produced when 11.5g of sodium reacts with
excess water at room temperature and pressure?

2 Nat ZH20 → 2 NaOH +

-
Hz ]
§
molar
gas volume

① § =
24

¥5T ② ✓

balanced
equation ( molar
ratio) shows that
= 0.5 we have half the
moles number of moles
of Hz

= 0.25 moles
③ volume
= 6.0dm 's
0-25×24
 Atom
C5
Economy separates 1-

reactants → products
% of reactants turned
into useful products

useful products relative mass

✗ ' 0°
total products relative mass

%yield_
actualyield ✗ too
theoretical
yield
↳ found using balanced
equation and molar
ratio
( how much you
should
make)
 cs Titration separates 1

method used
used when
to control exactly is soluble
how much acid everything
is needed to react
with a base I
can't filter
of excess

Burnt Indicator should

← have a clear end
gradually adds
point ( not universal
drops to the
indicator)
reactant

reactant with

✗ indicator
( colour change
indicates when
to stop)

once amount is
found ,
repeat without
indicator
 C5 Titration separates 1

calculations
concentration

mass 59 or
moles →
M"

can volume car volume

t
91dm
-3
dem
-
3
t
mot 1dm -3
]dm- 3

Example
-3
It takes 25 - Oasis of 0.1 not 1dm
sulfuric acid to neutralise 30.0cm
>

of sodium hydroxide solution .

Find
the concentration the
of
sodium hydroxide .

⑦ A0H Naz 504 ZH20

→ +

§ £

(
1) write down
what we
know from
Volume : 30cm
>
volume : 25cm 's the
question
ccnc : ? come :O I MO1 1DM
-3
.

2) find moles
of the
chemical with
known work
.gg , yo , .
, o.gg , no, , man ,
volume is in
Hz 504 dm 3)
-

✓ 2 ratio 50 3) use balanced

:|
equation to

0-0025 ✗ 2 = 0.005 find moles of

other chemical
M01 Of NaOH
4) use equation to

find of other

É
cane
convert chemical
work =
→ volume to
den -3
= 0 .
167m01 Idents
 C5 Chemical and separates a

Fuel cells
chemical cells
↳
produce a
voltage across the cell

work until one of the reactants

They has been used up

hydrogen oxygen fuel

-
cells

↳ reaction between H and 0 releases

energy
can produce
ZH2 +02 →
ZH20 a
voltage from
the reaction

n-dvantagesoffuelcellsstreng.tn weakness

Very efficient hydrogen has

-
-

as there are to be stored as

gas ( hard to
stages to a
sew
store)
the reaction so
energy isn't lost
ñéat hydrogensogas is
-

as
explosive can
be
-

no
parts
moving isn't
dangerous
so
energy -

generating hydrogen
lost
through friction gas requires fossil
only product is Jules ( not
environmentally
friendly
-

)
water (no nasty
polutants)