elctial

MODULE :4 Lonductivity in Metals

AL metods ant qood 'conducts o auctich t ia bLause
thy
hawe LoGsy bond elecbrons n tthi uteumost s l which are caled
lsare hu eledons. These re eleCons an Move nside the mtols
wndn te action of xteunal eectic d.

X* CoNCEPT of PHNDN
Au mttals a tir alays Chystaline mateal yhenu he atoms
situated at a panticuan poaition in Cystal lathice .
bcause o themal enengy thee Sns a rilbrahing
al directin
pesition n phase. Thuse vibation o ions n engtal
fom
atice a quantised The aantised
Latticevibratin ae called
phonons. The amplitud tatia ntbratione an dircty raportional
to tempenature.

Vanation of resistivity o metal .Yr.t temperature Impurties

Cmathison rule
The reaisinty sf metal t the How o curent s due to scatkeaing
nduction eletron by lattic ribratins a phenns. Hene, clecoo
move wndn the acion lectne ield n the phauen held. The
amplitud datice vioratin pnporkianal to tempenatune fA)
t te tumpnatne the mbot mateial mase amplitude
Jatiee ibratin als ncases, n mohe sy nmoe elecbon
Scated which eads to inenase o resistiity metala. Hene,
reaistiity metals directy proportional tot E B o
tompeatwe. The dupndna reiski hey t metas wnd
nomal Conductiiy
PaT

TCok)
2eno kein
 |Satal ftfo
Matteissen's camation ducvases the
metal
tempnatune of minimwm
ohun te reaches
deenasing
Metal alsD tivib So at
Nais
bhe resiblalimpuities in th mital. Now
the vaniatiant
matal i
4 umpty o any ia
tmatu
raistinity ith
mateissons nal. e
gritn by

whene Total the ruistivhy matals, jo u nistiyde

ymtal vaiu wi Ha tumguna,
impunity - riraishty ¢

Elchicai Conduchinty G Mobility af byMetalo

xpessin
the
The conduchi ity d mateiala u qiven
neu whne cnductinty mtals
n > conentrati on ¢ electon
e’ charqe st elcth

sonductiny matuiala is propori onal to mobilityt

elctons
’Mobilty o change canins is dafind au thu ratio dut
vdouty Va is the dit elocity a e

Eis apdied electical held

Em m
 Sulstitutt

CLassical fre elechron thaor

AssunDtins:

mmtal ths elechn ane cald free eluchne conduetia ue

Bhey cnbbw to the conducton in tHhe mitad.

adsena ahutnie jield

Ven tmal relo aty, K Boltman contan

3) Tu elecostatc forei s attraction bho the ee electong the ini

gligible.

vugigaute.
5 lsde the mtol tw ctic tential s cmataes tu eluho
batie at
an not a escap fm
from al due t potutial
’ Falra af Clasical ree ceckron thenrH
D Tempatte di dupenda ¢ electrical conducinhy
Jhe cauical tree elachontoy dicta Hat

HorweN expiment iduna shaus that tae conduchiiu

amsly prpo kionalb the alsotui temperatune

6n econ conenbation

Condutinhy dindty popotisal to tthe elacon denity n

divalunt4 tivalwt matals shotd posses highe elcbical
Conduetinby than movovalen metals But xpmntal
daleatios chow that sil cy cop an moe conducting
inc a alluminim

Sonamunkid
Quantwn re elacton thoy
He retaind Somu o th
aiaumption o lasical thy
iwntoducd fw nu auwmptin.
a

TUe eningie Plchons ane auanizd

The disue egy uel doy auli excudisn pnnciple
according to ohch ho2ecton can
Quantum Stale
 potential inaide t mtal is Lonstau
4 1L
toru of atachon i4 repultn btw the tree electons G ions

Density of stateslacE)
Guity of ctalu Cg (E)] s dutind as the no- awaiae engy
stalis pen hut enengy pu wnut voun alout aa gien enegy E
aot
material.
in the valena band the
8RNm2 E'2 dE
h3
states alout E Oe
The alove eauatin gios te no-o enengy
an intuval dE ,which is popotional to Ea
9(E) Vese E is shown n the tig w.
A pot o
ncneases thin almost beuone constant
7irst

FERMI ENERY (Er)

corresponding to the highest occupied uuel in the
he enegy called teum energy- The
ot okeluin (0K) is
Valnce band At okK all t e
called tenmi leuel
risponding eung lured is
Corr
ae empty and al theAe belo
eumi lwel
ngy wels a electrons.
the completely hlld wibn
eumi
elctros ot
FERMI FAcrOR f(e) aiven ilhegy state
occupation a a
the prbaility of thmal eauiibnum.
For a mateial nd
 level
K>Bottn matan

for E<Ep at ok

Cmphy 0tec
ok

-all elecoons ayg belootte fimi

cttcr

:l at T ok all t la kemi
tnegy leels halot
huly ocupicd by eucto eaing the uppn bvel fulluy
vaaut (eestp empty)
an electon below the
umi lenel.

case G tobabilihy o occupaion for E>Er at T ok

o t||
Ths wndicates that at alone the
esmi d l is nt engy
Ok
occupied by elctrons thy vacant
> not ennay s pplcd
no movement n
 Probabi Lity t occupati on forEEF
Lase iij)
eo

elecbron to ocepy temi uel

case liv t high temperatue i e i alK

thi case lectro an excitd to vacant
Duing
leel
aeneqy teel
Vanatipn o Fermi hunction for ditt tenper ature
T=OK

T>ok

Femi at TOk
gy
/3
= 5.85 xD(n)*3 Joe

6.62xI0Js
h: Plancki constant
m mas

n= ho
 in eV kar a smtal at
dnity is I0, Sob balm', dtomic weigt 167.9 and ,
Dne Londucti n elacton atom.aiven Jo 6 24 x\oe
Nab.026 x10K mol
E; /3n)3
8m

n no o alecbpns ben dtbm x NA XO

13 6.24x Iba eV
NA 6. D25 x IDeS /kno
n= ly 6.025x lox lD5o0 n=S.86 xID8
lo7.9

(s.csai8
3.14 )

=8.8 2 y I D J

(to conwent to ev)

E 5.518 ev

4. 3824A X106
819.1y t031
4.985 025S y 04
 Calulak te pYDbalty o an
lee aloe teami lave
lctn ocupyig ehungy
D.0 2eV
E- E

t)
At fCE) E- E
e KT t|

(E) t o O.238 at 20ok

e +1 3.186tl

At
= 0.35q at I 400k
fE)
1.38 x1O -23 x 400

an ena
Caleuwa t e probali uty o an electon ag occying
at Qoo k
b.02eV blo t

E-Eg = -0.0 x |-6 x t o J

-C0.02 xI-6X I0-19) +
) At T=Qo0k f (E)
e 200

O .3137 +|
+1

at 200k
lE) o.16
 DCCupancy ot
S.T the su tie probaliuty
prolalility ., an enengy sta
eugnay probabiity ot E (Eg +AE)
Cupancuy probali luty at E (Er -AE:1
{LE)
pE| |EE t A

pKtaE E1

at E E -E e -AE

ut be

l+x

6 S.T
to
DCcupation probaity at an enegy Ef t AE
non- occupation
To çove': þrobalruby at an enra Ep - E
Dcyahon prpb at E (EF +aE) = non-c
fcE) e E-E ccupatisn prob at F- (Er -A:
kt +l
f()
+| e kr
 at EEr - AE
Kr
et e AEt
Put e

non occupation probalility = I -f'e)

e+|

Equali

PROVED)
|+2

A Fndthe temp at which thee i I probali iy that a stai

with an
engy O5eV alore temi nngy ocupied.
=.1

-0.5 x l.6 I 1 j

E-ES+|
I.38 x I0-23 T

o. 57% I04 4|

0-57y10+
T

D-57 x104
0.57x104

0.57 yD 4

?|T= 1240.41 k
MoDULE4-part 2

’ SUPER ONDUcTORS
ln ctoaçn euctical conducting matnials like
and cemical componds tte reaistana to
elctical
mtals,
ali
conduci ity disappean at a panticula loo temerah
phenomunon calld Supu Conduciity
The tumeabn at shich the electical reaistiviby 4
mattrial becons uo (o) is calld cntica
tuat matia Tempenatuu

mercuy loes s ristiity comptly at 4.2k ,Hu

madnias hich exhibit suu
Juper Condu cors. cnductinky
EledbnCa

Nmal maaa

Temenature (r)

mitals an shoLn in tg. ln

non suupn conductina stal
t e eishiihy duas as th
Howe at tematune decra.
fantiuda the istance Suddnl
denas b wo 0). The
mnature at which th ma
Gos from normal stati to Sugn conductina shota
callud cittical eotempatu CTe).
ln nomal netal
t istance deenase with. decn
temp uwthil
wolo)
 Meissner's eHect
*
stic Hud Couted belaw the cntical tump. Th the maanetic
kild dins ane explled | expandd trom he matial . Thi eltet
is known as miss etect.
Speciman
At this skage the sheciman
Spntanoly bucomL pentet
dianaguehie. mateniad. Thi prous
is neeible

manic Ihduckin tor thL Speiman wnd nomal statt is

B=Mo(H+M) H> magntie fiad applied
magnizatin t tu mateial
ehen T<Te
Thn B=O
cor) = Ht M

Suacaptabiluky
Twi shows peciman Jehats oJ peatect diodmagnetic material.

applid cucbical ield.

_> Ectical con ductiity
E > Elactnic hidd.applied.

8> Electical heistnty

At curent dnsity) o
-
Acording to maxwells wawe eauation
AXE
 B=D 0 or comstant

I mans that ux cannot change hen

trantioA
fronm nomal to Supn canducting tahes pau , thich
mpliu Hhat magntie tue expanion |expulaion sha
not tahe paa thi contradita shod
place meisnn
redued
ect.
Acordina to hch the Hux muat be eno (0) 4
Aupn cnductor iss not juat apet conductor

EHeb o exteanal maqntic fteld on

Supenconductors
Supenconduchivty stai exisi oy uthin tu imt ntcal tumt
above ctan magnhic held called citical
magucic held then
Supenconductity aunis hes ey qos to nomd staL. Hene
Hsse,the
vauu ot cnial held CHe) voies with
tempnature e the
Supencondctor. The dipenduna o He m tump
He = Ho 2

Ho
Te?
vohen He u nitcal maathe field shrcung
Te ) at tempT G Ho u cnitical fied
at adoute
sreg
uao. Te itial tem

(Q Lead has supaconductig

at
bransilkog kemp 126K.26K s the imitia
iud at pk 50x Ib A<m. (alwai t
cihcal Hed at b6k
 Gita e 7.26 He?
He

omagic
LOnduching tn haa cntical temp o 37k at
cntical ield o oa3D6 Tesla ao<.
ald a
D D306 Tesla at ok
Ho
a t r= 2k
Te =3.1k

He Hali-)+
Her D-oB06 1-4 = 03Ds /1- D.ae2 o.0io6(o.Tos)
1369

’He t-0a16 Tesla

Bardwn caee and creiten

by
Supen conduckiity was explainsd
thenyThe tuory
thuory s
is bsd am ntoratien
the bai uantum
ntemudia¥
intemmdiaa atele calld Nns.
pantcle
2elchrou throgh tte

Àon tues a caolunb athactiietNu

a athca
WA ecow approcA disim in lattia.The distaim
elchon e lattica os hh mal
Dha
etectn exetG a amal attathve re
re
f t u electrons .tus a elumentagy patheu alled .
anotn decton by exchanghg a
On phonon
place at nomad ke
take
Cstpe pair docs na
Spi memnta
 Types a Supsaconductos.
Type - 1
(8t supen conduchor
) Tape -2
CHard supA conduckor)
* Tup -1
magetiation

normal ol

ordsactn

Tupe -2
manehati sn (m)

Vortex region
Stupen
Zordnch
staa
pplied nmagntic
Hei He H 2 tietd (H)
 Toe I- Jwpenconducting txilbit miene
hm pea LOnductg stal to normal stot ocwn it
nital magnetic fiud CHe). At
SLpe conductivty G magnhe hed start to penerai ius ide
mateal.
: A Pb, Ha
.: He magnetic tHeld He is veylaw
Hc Laus thu bue t matical
cannot cais sbrong olucbro mognt.

Type 2 - Sueconductos eberttett haractis ed by boo

initial tilds He, a HeaTue mateial u peaeity dianagnc
u complitey ejeted aut, on at lawe magmtie
ficld to eitical
i ncomle by ctically dupunuctor.Tis stak ia
mixed tal vottex stat

lype 2- Supencondctos ae wd o cmtt Supwondwcting

mators q magnS

7 Hgh temperature Supercon ductor:

t n the
the Jein transiti aM tempuau iu high
upuconducts a called high femp supeondutors.
Ytriwm, Baiwm 4 cappn shous th
Suphconducinity at a2k
Bigmuth calcium sppr
suncondaetinty at 10sk.
 10A
Sc Sc
inulating
aya by
Supen 2 t auros
äpvated
tos wwret DC A
Csndcor
Suisndactor \Supr
Jumction Jrugln
bamis
auantum conductiuty
draiu heuator tSupaeogsghon
tuougha tgng tnndlling
airs con tent bawn mulating
maucting
ti nealaudby by
speuatid
metal bos 4
2DA to 10
2
metal
Barit
quantun kuesn
as sothe metal
HL to One
impiches which elecbon an
muator byConidn2mtal
an Sepenaid tunnelling Suontum
(onide Tosephon jnnti whica
Sepated by an inauahihg mateial thickne 18A au
shom n tig. t t ik be conmeted i a urcuit

n stn ide caily The ettet the inulting lasen

Hrat
ne ide to the othen sid
Bcoz oj tis phase dit supeu cument apas acrnec the
jwnction

t though the jwmchion i given buy

Is = e sin C)
4 phae ditenu ht
pass b both thu sides.
Te atical Etbe wment at ov.

applied qunss the iwnction ane

junctin i knn as
adio fnequnycunentarosc the
sephon etect
geheatea an AC gitn y

thu sidu the hañn shaos

oupen poir on both quantum mmechanical
tu dit o tmngy y 2ev , using
caluations.
shun Hal
Hcan be
2714 -
 alove eqation knon
Altnahaling cumnt eaanes

Ac cument u produud lay

the AC Jostapha eltet
SC

SQUID
’
Supenconduching
used to
QUantum Tutenenene Burice
meas wealk mashatie ux
ASupiacandu cking Quantn lbeene dwiie
ki sed to was
exbramy weak magetc Hux. Ths
a senitive maantomh made up o supncond
ring, sthich contaùns one
The are 2 typs st SpUIDS
more
Josephos jwncbos.
Ac RE SquiD

Jhe DC Squid has too

Joepha jnctions n paralll
based o t .
De josepsn ect.
Do sad is biased n a D egual
 to akout tice the
Supenconducting ument.
junction is enatd change n tat
Dc vataga
A Laop nhans the curent throgh jwnction
1(i) E puetrabing
ÀuCs bu cwmnt throah the dbun (32). Thi uads to
wmchions wrlaing ymmenically. This ayminetng proinidia

AC IRF SQUID RF- radio treauy

LCurnt Source AC SQUID
VRE
To RF

tuned circuit

Te RF sQuID is based oh Ac psephon elect and uses onl

bue josehon jnctin , it u dss Senaitive
empaired to Dc SquID
but is chuapu aud easie to manulackure. ito
Iha RE SQuID contans Singk jseplhon junchio coupled
pant o
coil and RF cal. RF Loil is
lbop trough an due to nduced flu
Teaonan ciruit to read out cuent hangs
drinen
Jhe tuud circut is
the chnge un t wput oil
DSillator ich maswts
RF
- tim piod te coil
Dutoutecause the dtected RF Cutput ia
aducs un t e RE
 a puiodic funcion.
SuPERCaNDUCTIVITY
AppLICATIONS OF ADS IN QUANTUm comPuTIN
A

0 Charge Quit Fux Qutit (3) phast Qulit

In quautuin computina charge qwnt s

alio knon as
coopea pour box t is a Quht whose base states a
charged tala The Statas
alsene d xss Coopen pair in th island (Uhe doted rea
mtae fea.ln suput
changed qyht is fomdonducting uantum computng
by a tiny
caupled by joaephons nction tosenconducking island
Supncondin3
L
Rux auila also known as
Cunent
Quis. The duiu fncha
quantum bits. te jodephcns
deiand &uch tat curet wl how
contmuowsy hn an extenal magneti appeied
 quit
ae tpe sauID
is juncion.
De the des
oelctD Hu
tiktene
o
wel too the jwntisn
4 josaphons singe a
bias curnt non-eo withitho state votage (o) zeo te in
yuwntion josephons biased cnrent a ult phase A
is qit
Es
ukit Phase