(hapter

Moryat hjx:
he lrnatior of ekctor s fiorn a hd ulore 15 ralkd
henionic cnissior) Whern a metal 1s llarrire bya
icgt of sufficiersthy short nave lergh, elcdions aelitad

fiom This phenomercr) b calld phetoekduicchect.

hato lerticEHect
he pheronertn n which croissor cd clectarns takesphae
dor the sutace d ceatár metols whan light is 3itobe

iantenay fals on ther is calci Photo dhetnc dect.

The dectons thus cfttecd are cald Photo elcctrons ord
the few of these photo dectuns s calcd Proto ckctnc
CUAMent.

One photorn(f energyE-hv) is anpetcly absorteod byone

dechon n E which gains Che quartam of creay and
eoitt omthe metal.

Finstein's Arotrekctic ligucticrn:

Tbe aneqy ot photrs is
tonsfetnerd to the eectons at
the surfae of the Etal nhenit is ilurinatad by a
ioht of Suitabe fiequenay.
Htere the enerqy of photon ís used în tuo parts
i1A paut of cragy is usctd to set free thc eection tHan
Gtdm and away fiom t e metal surtace. hs enerqy 1s

known a2s phto-eleitric wok fuction' of themetal

and derctd by
iThe ctrer port is Sd in qivirg kinetiC cHergg

o to the eedon, where v velocity of the

photo eletton.

hvg0tm
Thi's enyatian 6 knawn as Enstérns photo dectc aotir

hen the eneoy ot photon n only hbeicte the

clectron frorn metal the kinetc enery of photd election
nill be zOO

where 6 is alld he threshod frequrncy

Wlork function to The irímum phaton eregy

reuired to kerate on electon from the sufoce of
the mcial is calld pto ekctuc nok functicn.
vesholotrequuenny (vThe mhnm hequaray or
reidert laht nitIch cor) u s e pctockctn ENTIION
is coll hreshod fve
GjuEr
 Lews cf Pctr Fatuc EHert
. he
minimum requercy whh ussphaee cetrc
Cissicn is alled thieS0d hcquray ord t fers
trom p mEtol to metal
R.he 1ot of photvekctions i5 diettHy proptI tioral to
the intersity of incident lght
3. he enegy of photo ekdrens s dheaty propontional
to he theuercy of inacert oclotion.

4. he phov decticcn55en a an mstortorus proes

6. The photo electric emásio d s n& olepercd yp the
tempeioiNe ot the etal
Apphotiohs od photo eecthic elfert:
Photo electic cells are usad
in tceuson i n btalar alarms
bi) incourntirg mochines a s micIO aMrtr
i n phototelegraphy i)for cobur dantikiction
i in veprodctionof turd vi n auto matic switcg d
om firms Sieet lehts
ix in autnatio do Cpering x] for omparís0n of luniniti
CNoits ord poners of lhght scwcs
Wovking of photo ekctic cell
The photo ckctic cell 15 a sersitive dence vuhich
corverts light cregyirto clectri ol crerqy
energy
Morngonomatic lials
Evocuaico Ouortz Blb

Galvonoroeler
A PHOTOELECTRICCELL
The photockctic cell corsists of two
phato Snsitive sufacs
rand endlosad în arn cvatuatd
quaiiz bulb. he phteP
is connected to the
negative teminal of a bottery and the
plale is Connetted tw the positive temimalof thebateau
throuah a
qalvanometer G. When mono chiomahc haht
is olowed to tall on
plate Pekctiohs ale ejected fiom t.
These are photo eleatons cjccted fetiom 11. These ac
are
photd elkcthons ard aie attoc tecd by pote . rba
ext
photo electrers electnc currecrt flows in the cvail
od
Ve
gvanometer shows cleflecton. hihen thee sre lgi
0 all on pble P there 1s po
defkthion in the galveronetes
 Refiaction of light at he bounoo
h e pheromenon tf bending
t lght

betweten two dierert malia 3 callad tet1actiorn

Lons of kefnction
.he inoiderst toy -theromal and the refiactrd toy are
coplanar. Norma elleceel
K
.The radert ard retiackd
Tays are on qpposte Sides
of the nomal at thepoirnt rer
of incideme Darsar Poirntof inoclanc
3. The ratio of áne 0f the
of nddarce to he
Rerfiocta
argk koy
Sine of ahc ange otf
retractionsa orstant, tlootak sr
for givern frcqueray ot hght orad 1Or a gien pair ofmaterigls
This law is callkd ns rells law and the ratio is alled
et efiactíve înoe
MSini
SinR
he qranter the value ot the refiactie iroeso,he qeater
the bending oflight,.bth toig s u
 Gtical Ange:
l
When alight tay pas*s
fiom a detrga meiunmto
taver mdium, the ame oC
ofincidenae for the Dereer
Cngleof rehoction baones
Co1s alld tia
Ang Co) Totalfolonal
Peflectiorn
he onglc of încidene
at nhich Ietructd ay
ir
îrtcrace of Glo
grOzcs oh
media s caled as
Chtialfnge. Re lection
ensr
Total Tntanal keection.
hephenomenon n whih a lght ay gets totaly retlectcd

backinsamemaau, when it înadents at an ange

qhcater than the ctil arge ,on a bouhdy acts5 which
the ehactive index oedienses is calle lotal Irtoral Re flection.
Corditions of lotal Toterral keflection.
liabt should tiavel tiom an opiOlly oderaer to arn

optlaly less derse mediu

RThe angk of macane hould be qaata thm the aiia
ang e.
 Nave uide:
Wave quicle ís a hollvw tube thDugh yhich.clrtomme
enengy on be trarBMAd fiorm ore phe to rother
ploce withot much loss Dt eneigy

Optial fiber
optic fiber is quicle rough i h
diclectvic nave
F a

înthe torw ot biaht canbe

electiomogvetic cnevqy
trarBmitte nthvcnj lrttle leakoge. Liqht i5 troBi t
of otal
rough t e optical fiker by the phereme non
wntemal retlaction.

inciple and Working of Optical fiber

An optical fier oBists tt a pure abss coIe surtouroleol
by coccíal qlas5 Or plastic clacloding of loner refiactive
dex. The dacddine prociteel by anather cooxial layer
callec sheath w he líght is iansmitto
thioughthe cort by
total trternal roflection at the interfoe of
core ard cladoling.
he angle of îheoence must be
qeater thon citiclk angb. \h
ange at which the lignt thovels Fbas
best transmissich s
Claddia
callec the acoptana orge

Te ight gataing apadt inaident inuy

iou
Pnant
pfoptio fiéxr is expressel
BA Aceeptoa t ng
le

Tn t a s of ruimcnaol opertnc|
lere NanrialApeture NA V-
where M ¬tiOctive îrdex of core
UIeficctive index of daddbng

he reflection of liqht iay artirues bayocl the crd of

ptical fiber.

ApplicattOnN ot opt«al ibes

Opticanl fi bers ave uSe o

.in (abs TV comecthions,

. in teccorruríications,
3.as fber 3copes în medhmedial diag0stic equiprment,
4. im scientific fnstrumevnts to Tllumînats Subjects,
. in míllítany munications beause ot data seauriy
6. 1n ekctonic decorative gadacts 3uchas tower ass,
X-mos tiees etc.

Principle of bser
LASER: Liqht mpitction by Simuldted Gnisson of
Radiatiorn
The píncpe of procuCTIOD of laser noves the phenonor
of struktad emission
In phnCiplc ot loser cmissin thec ae tatoinporses:

tinulatd absorptior Nhen phatons of energy equalto the

dtevene of tno cneiqy leuls is cicent 0n the atonm,the
jumps t0 Vhe ercitea
elctg gn sufCiert erequ ad

Statc
 t Ecr a shot tinc of the Order of 10°seonds,he excited
C tadates spor eareOusly by emttirg a photon gf
UTe teqenaI as he incident pholon at in a diffcreant
phnse ad in clifevent directón ord reveils back 1o the qan
stotc.
Stote
Metastable stalbe: {lt a cer tain Staqe, the cXC ikd elecions rau

Tennain n an ntrmedioit evel wirthout qing enesgY and thi

ntcrmediatt level s alled metstnlble stoke

This statos have a longer litetime when onpared to excitca S
Tat
Sponnneos bmisziOn: his s the poce5s in hch clectons
n the excited stat retn to the
qouna iatt by emittina
photons.
wWhen an exci td aom is ht
by
pet photon fiorm outsde
a

similar to that involued n POraUS

ession, the atom mau
be stimlattd to emt angther
photorn
Stimulatd tmssion: hís io the
pro æs5 m which îneident
photon intaocts ith the excited elechorn otes
it 7
retun tO the qround state by
emiting photon
To the stmlatd emison, the crtsidc photo n bres the
excitec atom t0 eit anger pror) of he
same fiequenay
and 5or phse in the saE direcTiOr). This stimulatrd prts
leads to the oppaaornce ot two photons in the place otone
ár rumbei 15 Couba. lhese tuo
photohs mau cause
frt hev stinulatd cims5I0n piGC5 and So cn
 thus a choin 1eCtíon s t up leachirg t0 the lght

omplitication
The beam of haht that cornes at hom te laser aystem,

1S pOwe ful, monOchromatiC, nanow ord hqhly parailel,

Populaton Inverson: This s the pocess of achie ving

areatr
popilation ot higher cneigy satt as compaued to the lower
heigy slate.

To acheve stimulatrd e155ioh o photons, the nuber of atoTS

ín the exCTCd stoate shoulo be more than nuvmber of atoms in he

OVOund state.
Optical pUmpng: "his ís the methool 0f obtaining populotron
1version. In this a tesh tube supplies eheiqy to the lasr

madium íS USed as p u p i r SOurte TO aChee populatror invasion

Optical Ksonator! his rs a systtm in which a tully Stluered

minor is filed at one erd and partally luered mÁror s

fixed at e cnd of the laser meadhiun.

bampks Of ktrbyLoser.
4Rloylager:
full
Rerlctihsh Tube) lar tialy Rflaton
Viror
Nhrro

Loser Oupur
lose Menhian
uby
K lasr is a Tlid sterte lase that uses he syrithetic ruh
ys as its lasei mechiur a y laer produd a visible

deep ied figiht of avc lcnqth 641-3nn

fuby leser consists of thice important elemenls. ey are;
Lase MEcin
R Iomp SCUICE dnd
3. Cpticrl iea etor

ASinge tyStral of uby m the fom of a aylinder 15 taken

as lbsermedium. Ruby (f1,: p3 is a aystal ot

aluminium oxde doped with Small anOurÍs of hciumions

S
tlash tube hat aupples rEngy t0 the laser medium
USCd as pUmp S0 ICe.

fnoptical resonator ystm 5 pIesert by fully silered and

pa tially sílvercd mnrors on the cither sice of the nby tod.

to tosh tor a ew miooxconds

The flash tulbe is ode
Thena lo1ge number of Chomium atoms are eated After
a firme cfthe oder of 10 seards some par tof Chomium
t t s inderqo transiticn to the meta stable stat arcd the

other pot ietuirns to the qround state, fitorns înthe

meto sable stte aiE SimIaird by photons. As a IeSult,ever
ttn51rcd tt reke & acher dersticalphoton. hSe tNo
hcitns auj Coó tuther simuated emishio)
potS5 and So On
 Tus han eachon sets up leclirg to the lght ompífiraton
Bccse of seetal Ieflections bock ond torth orcd
co tirnuous
pmping action), a vey intense beom of light
erges tut thouch
the potiall silverecl end ace of the
uby rod.
he loser beo tiom Iuby 15 not cortífuous buta plkdoutpt.
A laser pulse comes out hom kuly for one tlash of the losh tbe

Helum-Neon Gas laar

he tleLm- Neor laser is a type oF qas lose which

oduces a visible Icd liqht of have
lenqth 632.8
his laser onsists or thiee
mpoitant elements They are
Iheyare: .

4.laser medium

. lamp salle and

. Optical te5ornator D.Cpowe SuPply

Anoolc
Cothod He hum-Non Gos Mxtue \
laser wm
OutpitAMA

Output Rerlector
Couper Gos tuic

Orssts fa tusedl gos tube î wheh

The appa ta tus

mtue Of te unda a piessuie

of Amm of tg ard Ne
a
S USed a5 lasa mchum
Of O1mmof tig
urder a piessut
 A hh vcitie: 1 uply which plcuces enecetc ela ccbons
tal tiacl mixtue uSEd as the Pump
hioug qas

is fncd at righl sre ad afpoitaly

ally sileiecd niüncr
the glass tube a
Stlveicd uer is fiaecd fon the leht sicle of
cptial eSNOtor SjStem.
acioss the qas oikkne tve
WEn high olteige 1s appied
ekctorrs tianstes Stme
of their aneqy o the tle
enegetic
atoms. Cnsequerthy he tle
atoms passes nto the excitu
cclísons
metastable states, Die to e the înelastc
Sttes or
of the tWO ga SeS, the excted te otoms
oetween he
ators
attms n h e metastable stt
reqy 0 he Ne
AIaSfCrS
enission takes plae he
inacases Sufficlerthy,stimulated
radation
the
emitteodfion atms o v e bock ard torth
Ne
which causes turtrer Stimuatd mgsthn
nO uoIS
hetween the
intense bam ight emenges Yrough te portialy
and a high
Silverad mtor sidc.

The tHelium- Neon ga5 byer

i5 a
highly orodhomatic and
ontiruoUs Wave laer
Chorhcterisths of losEr

4. Mono chromaticity 2. ucc tiorality

3. Coherena and tHHgh Ttendiy

 LsES cf LASER:
Lasa can be utd:

i n baiccde SCanmers
2. in printire
B. in crnprtoas
4. 1n Ommuniatrs
5. in atrospheriC Yemot seNsing
6. 1n tocking ot ortitícial zatlites

7. n taatoo removal and halr temovcl

8. n eyp sugeny
9. in aner teatmert

10. 0 Cut, burn or dstoy tisuc.

1. n dding and uttng
R.mdríling ornd makng
in asei shows
15. for visual eftects
dispesc biids from ciupCts
14. to
16. gereralt BDmages.