JoLRNAT.

oF PRoPULSÌoN ÀND PowER

Vol. 14. No- 5. SeplenrbeÍOctober1998

Pulsed Plasma Thruster

R. L. Burton*
Uniwrsitr at UÍbana ChampaiSn, Urbana, lllínoís
oí lllitlois 61801
and
P J. TurchiÌ
Ohío St.Líe Uníwrchy, Colunhus, ohio $2lA

The 35 Joà. hislory of rüe developmenrâíd âpplicniiotr of the püLed plasmâ ihrtrster (PPT) ie re-
vieÍed, The PPT operât€sby cr.tting È puhed! high-cürrent dischaÍgelc.oss th€ expos€dsuÌ{tce ora
solid insuìútor, such as a Terlon6 bú Thê ârc disch.ree ablut€s nàlêrial from this suÍfâce, thereby
pÌovidüs pmpdlúl thâí is ionizcd, h.âtcd, ând âccel€Ìatedto high speeÍl lypicâlb, thc cuÍeít pulse
l.sts for â fev micrcsecotrds, d ven by t câpacitor thâi is chargld !íd dhchâÌs€d lpprolinÌàlelJ once
per second,Itxtâüst speedsÍ!Íge from 3 to 50 kn/s, dcpeDdiíg on ah€detnils of the PPT d€sign.W€
revi€r tho bàsicphysicsând typesoI PPT\,,nd dis.üssthe perfornrànceolíight ând laborstory versions,
with spdiâl âtiention to yeìocityrnd plüme measurem€tts.lve âIso pr€sentth€ stà1usÕf PPr theorv âtrd
modelús, wilh enphâsis on mass evolutioÍ ànd plisma âccêlerstion,!íd d€scriberec€út varialions on
PPT opêrârion, Iaboraíory thíusl n€asüremetrttechnique!, ând íh€ sepaÌâtecompôdenti ol FPT effi-

I. Introduction Durir8 tìe !a\! selerâl decades.the researchand develop

lìN N o r . . 1 , .l . ( , 1 . r h e / o n d : . p c J e r ' â ' k . ì
l ( r L Õ $ - d M . r s - o r o B ! k o u r i r l e S o \ r e r l ^ n "çnc. vì ' e
Prd- ì
mondNlater,Edio coúmnicalion waslosl, ìnd wiú itcontrol
to provide thrce-
of the 'a electrìc proptrlsion systenr designed
axis iLude conlrol. The zond 2 pulsed pÌasmathrusters
(PPls) wcre the lì.st :Ìpplicarionof elect.ìcpÍopxlsionon any
Orhersuccessfuìflight âpplicationsof the PPT fÒllorvedin
lhe Unired States.h ì968 â PPT oD lhe LES-6 sâteulÌebegü
ì0 yeds of servicepÌÕvidingattitudecont.ÒI.In 197,+a PPT
was depÌoyedon the Syrclüonous M€teÒrÕlogical SateÌlìte
(SMS). And beginniry in 198i the Nâvy TRANSIT naviga
riotr sateÌliìesylren employedthee spacecrâft calledthe TlP/
NOVA (IRANSIT lmprolemenÌPfograDt senes,$hich used
PFIS: a for dftg mrkeup to nÌaintain a "drâg free" orbit l
posìtion- These spaceúaft accunuÌaled â roÌal of 28 tlmslef
yearsoí successfüloperatio!.
El€ctíc propüÌsionis usedbecaNe it proaideshigher €x-
hâust speedsthan availúle chemicalÌy,allorvins signincant
propeÌÌdt sr!ìrg! foÍ seleraÌ ap!Ìicatìonsin space.Today,
theseappìicatiôrsinclxdeonboad protulsìonfor saÌellites that
aÌreadyrequiresieniflcantelecrical powef to accomPlìsh rheir
mhsion. e.9., comDrunication.Such !.opuhioí prinÌariÌy
se es stltionkeepingúeeds.'' but the câPâbilityclearly ex
tÈndsÌo orbit [ansfê.' drâg compensltionând formâÌ]onfly
ing.''" Ànd âtlitude control.'l" Flight experieDceg.Ìinedin
tlÌesenedr'Èúth missionshas encÒuÍAged appÌicaiionoí el@-
tric populsion for planetarydnd deepspaceex!Ìoülion.'r"
EÌectÍc prôpüÌsìonhasaÌsodeÌnonsimted sevenl systenèd'
va agesov€r chemic.l pÍopuÌsion,leadirg lD its seÌecliotrin-
sreadof high ,f,r.Thc rcasonsfor this selectioncan inclÌrdèâ
longer life and less propellârt lealoge ard roxic Propella ,
making el€clric pÍoPulsioDconletitìve, even at conÌparabÌe
ReceivedJune,1,1993irerGion receivedJunè25, l99sr accepled
rbr publicationJune 29, 1993.Cúpyislìt O 1998 by Ìh. Anìcrican
lNritute ofAercnaÌrics andAÍrcnrutics, In.. ÁlÌ riShÌsÌeseÃed.
*PÌofessoi Depxí.ìcnt of Aercnautic.Ì ând Asúona.tical Engi
neering,104 Sonthwrielìt Sireet.Aí$.iale FcÌlow AIAA.
ïÌÍorèsor. Depâímenl of aêrospâccEngineerins,Applied Ì\'Ic_
chânicsând AviâtioD.Asso.ilte Fêüow AIAA.
nent of eÌectricpÍôluÌsion has embraceda greât vaÌiety of
candidlie\ystèns.nve of which âIe row fliShlqnalned.Star_
dar.tterNÌ5Ì6provìdeth€ laxÕnÒnyofúese rec|nìques,which
de loosely organizedinto three DÌaincatesoriesof eleciro
üemal. elecbomagnerjc. ând eleclrosÌaticproluÌsion.Of the
nve flight quaììlìèdsyÍems, two a.e eìectrÒthèmal Gesistojet
and .rjet), ole is elecrosiatic(ion nrntster),ând two areelec'
tromagnetic(HaÌl thruslerríd lle PPT). Toeelher,thesede'
vicescovÈÍâ lvide rangeol /.r and èficieDcy.
This papeffeaiewsúe propuÌsionchdacteriíics of the ab
. . , i o rl e , l I ì ' . e d J , o u Ì . e dp ì J . m cn . o _
thnNÌer,rr7seneràÌlyÀbbreviaieds PPT. Of àll the vüious
eÌecldclhÍusÌerconcelts.the PPT was dre fiÌst to achìeÍeãc-
ceptàncÈ for applicationon spacemissionsbecauseofits sys
reú simplicitl. Mmy yeüs Ìarerlhe PPÌ wes iìtlowed by the
augnrenledhydraziDeth.uster, Ìhe kilowattlev€l 'ìÍcjet. the xe
non ion engine. and the HaÌl of sta!ìonàry Pìâsma thrusier
(SPT). ln .onÌrâst with the PPT. these steady-stâtedevices
.chievedlheìr optinum levelsof peúrrftâúceâfterdecadesof
developìneDtin the labor.lory lldeed. thè thnsl effciency of
fl;ghi úodels of rÌre xenon ion engineaDd the SPT 100 can
exceed50%. The simpliciÍy, robuÍness, shofi develolmenÌ
Ìime. and low cost of thc PPT.however,.llowed its seìectior
lÒÍ s!.ce-fliehrapllì.rÌiÒnsin lhc 1960s.dÈspiteamuchlowet
eftcieDcy. The PPT is ihus unique in combitìitìg decâdesôf
space-qunllned flightusewith consldefabÌe olloÍlunity for im
Flgure 1 schenâricallydisplaysã PPI in its lladitionâI,
breech-fed.rectangulaÍform, drileD by èn LRC (irductance_
resisÌance caldcitânce) pnlse circuil. In this arrangemen!
(rhich can dso be madecoaxial).a ínìd propeÌlantbar, úu-
âlty Teflon@, Êìls rhe gap betweeDtwo èlecúodesconnectedto
! chàÍgedcapaciïorin vacnnm.A sPa.k ignileÍ !rcvides a
smalÌ anrounlof initiaÌ plasnr. tÍiggeriDgan eleclricaldis
ch,ìrgè âúoss th€ eÌpôsed snúàce of the Tenon. HeaÌ t.múèr
fÌom tÌìis discnaÍgec.usesevaloraliônof propelÌanrmdLenÀI,
whìch is then acceleÍaledby electrcnagnéticârd Pfessurt
forces.As rhe propeÌlantevàIrÒÍàres wìü each dischüge, a
simpìespring mechini\m rdlences tlìe iJropeìiântbd a:iaÌly
inÌo the rhrusichrnÌbeÍ.clÌnnÌatjne rhe needfor a ProlcllanÌ
tanì(and feedregulations)sÌem.
Variantsofihe PPTincludethe so-called"side fèd" stÍeú
(!ig.2). whlch canbe usedin ÍecrâtrgnLar orcoâxìâlgeometry.
but usestwo llopeÌlüt baf, ldvancedfrom oPposilelides. "
'rhe coaaiìÌ ârâtr8ement(Fig. 3) lras oriEinrlly deveÌopednì
' 'I. or. j!o
the foLrÌ ot' mxgnêltìllâsnìâdynarnic {MPD) devices and is
no$ pâr of rhÈ PPf faììily
PalunÌboand cnnÌân'" m.de the svsÌens.rse ntr rhe PPT
folÌo$,ingneafÌy9000h of nighÌ operâlioúswiÌh an eÌny PPT
câlle.tthe LEs'6 thruster.over a l0 year pcÌjod begir!ìingin
1968:
l) zero samnp úìe. zè,o standbyporver.
2) Inert .!d f.il safe no unpÒ*èredL,trques or lìrces.
3) ScaleabÌe to pcrfomarce requirerìenÌs.
4) UsabÌeon sÌrìtìnilgor drrc. aÍis stabilizedsiÌelliÌes.
Fig, 1 Solid propellâní PPT Gche.ntic).
Fig. 2 ScleÌntic ol sidejtd elêclrcde-proielìantconfrguration.
PPT geornet.ies. orìginàllÌ dêÌêlopèd li,r thr
5) Solid propeÌlanladvan(ages: no lanhse. teedÌnìes,lerls,
necha caÌ ral\es. easiÌj mea!rcd p.opelìantconsumlLjon
' í.10 o i-.
.í !..r.ogenc..'.Lrn
long shelf 1ìlì. not alfê.led by râtjd iernperatÌ[ech.nges.ôr
nor affectedby lari.ble high "s'- Ìi)aLìs.
6) DìscfeetimpuisebiÌs compalibleuüh disftal logic.
l) Vârì.ÌbÌethru\i ìeveì
8) PedormalcecompâÌiblewiÌh âLLiLude.ontìrìl aÌd st.ilon
kèèpÌngrequìre)Ìents.
9) Ope..tio! âÌ largevúiariÒnln envi.oDDrerlal ÌempefaÌüÍe.
10) TìItst lcctof co!ÌrcÌ ciprbilìL)
To theseçe m.y .dd tlìai thc PPT is capàbleol p.ovidiDg
iÌn] nÌlulse bic. cftbÌirg ÍÌnc .tÌitude and pôsìrìorconrrolof
\atelliies,$hich is panìcularlyimpôÍÌânÌfôÍ tu.Ìarìon iìiiÌg.
FuÍhernore, Ìhe robnst desìgn hàs petuì(ed ìnnìedidre
dNsler olemljon. evcn aftcf lrany yeâ^ ôf íÒragi, These
advartageseìplanì irhy tire PPT wis nìiÌiaÌìy èmplÕye.ìotr
space.ratt.and why it contìÌrles Ìo be develÒpedind used
II. Bâsic Physics of thê PPT
AlÌhough siÌìple in lts cnìbodnneDÌ. LhePPT unilesrìÂny
.onplèd intèrâcliôns.esrlrins fìon, eÌectfomasncïic atrdclec
trotìÌernìil lio.esses. Pühed operrLìónand the thrce-diÌìen
slonalgeometryof Ìhe úxdiÌionrl PPTrnákÈtheseinteracrions
qìiÌe diil.ulL Ìo rssersqllnLjLiÌìvely.ÂtfeDdìx A rcvl.ws b.
slc dreÒièÌicâl tumllxtìon! úÌÌL cu heÌpnr undeúandingPPT
behavioraDd leÌ]ìÌmaDce. Secljon XÌ dìscnssesrecent ad-
vancesblsed oD nurnericalsÌnìuÌations that aÌÌerìptÌo incìrde
ail lìrocesestosether.The pr.s.nl sectioninÌerd! Ìo provìde
a ri!ìÌcrvork tbr súsequ.nt dìscussionsof PPT eaperiúenÌs
The complexityof PPT benâviorsiansrvlih the igrition of
ilìe discharge.UsìÂlly, an leniter plug p.olides r splk ser-
emtedal . senicÒndrcÌiígplÌrg $úfr.È. The eneÍgl und mlss
àssoci.ÌedwiÌh this spúk .Íe ftuch sìrÌle, dran dìe coüe
spon.llrìev.ÌÌresfof Ìhe maitì.liscììârge, rnd $ Ìhe erxúL.on-
diiiols of thc lenitcr plaeDâshorld noÌ directly .lÈct the pe.-
fb'rnaDceof the PPT. NeveÌtheles. conditiors .Lo .ì.ÌÌer Ìo
sonìcdegfeeas sonÌeshoÌÌo sììotvârlâÌiÒnof PPT thíÌsr ú,ì\
- J r l , o \ o r . , o e' o p l . . . . e i
I
igDitef plaeDa.FuÌhcmÌore, tlìc poslÌlor of Ìlìe igdter plug
.Èlliiye to ihe suúaceof the Ìrroleillnt nìusÌ nccesariÌy be
Òptimizelìempificxllt for er.h Llesigr.
To d.te- ìÌrsuficìcntstldr lìas beeí delored to deLineiÌine
Lhelctral mechanisnsb! yhi.h the ìgnirersraÌtsdre PPTdis
chà.ge.CmdidÀLe troces\esnìclde simpl),pÍ,vidìnc an initial
lhsnìr dilchâÍgeneÌi rhe prôpellânÌsurlÈe. Thi\ nìiLiaÌdi+
..g..-',e..Í.i..\. or,.,' Ír .po!. 1 '
ìieh.r curclls. AÌteÌraÌÌrel), ultravioÌetmdi.tlor lroÌÌ ihe ig
niier sparkcan iiee electronslion lhe prcpelÌaniÌhal inltlate
. dischit8e aÌongic surï.cc. Nr!ìerlc.l sìtNÌatlonsnìcces
flüly !sè lbe forner Ìnechríi-qì in noLlelnìg Lhe PPII l'he
lâÌter!ìechanienpanicipaÌ.slrì the fl.shove.of innú.Ìots nÌb
ject Ìo nÌcÌì lìighercÌectdcnclds ií racunn: lypicaÌ fieldsâre
10 100 lv/cÌn vs -l kv/cÌn in PPTS.
Onçe nìíiìLed. thè PPI' dn.hârse ì.Ìridly bÈconei ü arc,
wìth Lheloluge bclReenlhe eieclrodesd.otping rulidìy ro a
lè$ huDdìedvolts. Farl) in the curÌenrpulse, the dischlree
di\tays nlanrentsand sÌrotllllchrÌent at electrodes,
tlpical ol
Ìow curent. lÒw pressureúcs. -{s Lhe.trÍe.Ì rise\ Lolilôàm
tÈÍcs tç. cn of vidLh howeler. conLlítunsfo. LÌdi||Ne a..
càn exi\!.'rhàÌ ì\. rhÈ.eis suflì.ìenrheârÌ nsfoÍLrÌ Lheìow
rânicÌc Lìensnìe! âlioidedb) Ìlìe dornsÌÍe.m lrcuün rc Òler
cone Ìhe Lendcnúlfor cürenÌ con.Ènt.â(ion!in .egiÕnsÒf
highcr ph\mâ tcmperrÌúe Ìdeill!, Lhediruse ú. cÒre( Lhe
ÈnrneexpÒsedÍrii.È oi dìe ptupeilúl. prôliding unitôm
?Ì8
conditiônsfor heattransferto, ând ablâtìonoÏ. the pÍopelhnr
ó r . E r n e n n e n r .r n J h . ' . er h a r! . r P L o n c r \ r r ]d e \ e ' o p 'J Ì
iüally n.,. Tedof popell"lr .riJ.(\. u g g e ' r i n gÌ l - i l . d
t.ansloÍ frôú the arc coícentrates in the middle of the sur-
face.T€stswith altefrâtinglayersof Telìonând polvelhvlene
, a ! , 1 $c h e db e r k e e h e e l e . , o ' l e . \ j m ' 1 " ) : n d ( d e . n J n i
form ablãtionalongthe Propelìantf.ce The rel.donshil ofthe
widú of ihe dischargeto the width of the exlosedpropelÌut
süÍface remains a subject fof fúhèi íldy ând clearÌv cân
.ffect dttempts to scale the PPT ro lower or hlgher power lev_
Thè PPT plèsúr is composedof eÌecúonsand heavv-p.rti
cles of larious chdge statesin a conditionof electricalquâsi
neu!Íâllty,this i! typical of an ârc dischargeThe eìeclron
temDeraturedepeDdson a bÀlanceof resisLiveheating and
coÌÌisionàlenereylÒss,prnnarily1ôinternals1âtes ofüe heàvy
con.litions exrst rn
D!Íicies úd üdiation. NoneqDllibdum
varying .legreesand kìDdsbecânsethe downsnEamtâcuum
permits Ìow paÍicle densitiesând higlÌ low sFèds IìÌ the
imme.liatevìcinity of the propelldt surface.wheÍe speedsare
lo\r and densities are high. DÌorê oppoÍunity for locaÌ tbeÍ-
moduaúic eouiÌÌbútrmiLTE) exists. althÒlgh üe electrÒn
teDr;erahrre n;y s1ì11dìftèr signincaltly irom lhe heavy_Pâr
iicÌe teúperalure (rwo temterâtüe LTE).
l - ! a ' e r d o s r r r r Ê .n. . n o k . \ ê . p J \ Ì - o n d i r i o n m 3 ) . e
lercÌy tesr âvailable lools fo. modelin8 flow behavìo! in deLÂil
The Dossibilirvtbr noúequilibnuú can exÉnd to üe elecÍon
veÌociiydisfibution,wiÌh microinstâbiÌities P.ovldinehigh-en-
g 1 . i . . " r o ' n . o I e F r o e s r e Fo i o n r / d 0 1 | L e \ P e ( 1 d
"b . F e du n l e ì ' p e a l e . d " ' J . d r d * i l \ l J l n r e l r - n ' o n
I r e r ! e , r r i o n . ' l 5 p e c r r o - o Dnre r ' r ' F m e n o f ' Ì e P P Í e \
hxu.p . l " . r 3 , i e , I o r ' l ' e ! J T p r e \ " ; e ' uìl'
nonequilibriumconditions
C. Plasnr DynâDics
As aÌ uc discharge, Ìhe PPT PÌâsmahas sÌÌmciendv high
_ e . o e r o r u , er \o p r o r r r ei r r e Ì . Ì . n E\ " l u e ' . i p r . r t c i n ' l u ì ' e
wher .Ò npdd s,ri .he.ni-:. rha.rer. I_elâ' c oroce.'-'
ard ndiation, however,linúÍ the elecÌrontemlernrre b á rew
eV (1 çV = 11,600K). Thjs, ir tuin, ÌinÍs the erergv lhâl
heavypâíicìes can xttâin by hea! !Íansferfrom the eÌectrons
and.iheÍefbre,the valueofelhrust speedassociaÌed wlÌhelec
h ô l l e r t u l o p e ' J o n . F o re i , r p l e J ' r n - | r g n ci ' r r e rr o c l
ature oï 2 èV and a specinc heat Íâtio of 5/3 foÌ a frozen.
dissociâtedflow of Tenon. Ìhe linÌÍing exhaustspèedsof
hè.w DâÍicles should not exceedabônt 8 km/s iìr carbon and
? km/À for lÌuÒrine.Mè.súed exhatrsrspeedsin PPTSare
mtrchhÌgheÍ (>15 knts). Th s, lreâtingof h€âvvpaÌrÌcÌesbv
plâsmaeÌectrÒns cannotProvidemoÍe than aboLìt25-l' of üe
kinelic enersy of the healy larticles Loss of mÀssfrom the
proDelÌântsurface wiLhout the oPportunìty for electronìagnetic
i . . i r . . r ' o n . e . d r i e r n e. . . \ ú 8 e r u l ' e o b m a . P a r '
" addidonalsmâll contfibulionstô the irnpuhe
cÌes,cân píovide
bí of thç PPf. The exnence of hìgh- and low-speedconPo-
nents of massto$ is confimed by bÒth expernnell.Ì ÌEa
sxrem€ntsand theorericaleaìyses of PPTS,dnd represents
critical characrerisljc in understânding PPT performance Gee
Secs.X and XI).
ElectÍomagneti.fo,ces !ro! e ilÌe hiSh slecinc inPulse
cÒúporentof the PPT.Figüe'+ di\pl.ys üe cunènrnÔwrnd
mâgrctic neld pattem for a PPT j! an idellizedrepresentatìon
of lts rectangDlârconfiguration.Curenls in fte pìasmadiv
chargeaDdúe retnm or "bâckstruP conductorrepel.causng
electromagnetic âcceìerâtion of the plasmalnd â Íê,.non to.ce
on the Íetrm conducrorAt lhe sâmetime, lhe magneticnèld
lines encirclìngthe plasmâÌend io \queezeúe ptasmamto â
!úow coluftn. The resullinglorces on úe Plâsm. de dç-
süibed !n rems of both electuonragneÌic Íìeld theoryand cÌ.-
cnit theory formulationsin Allendix A
ResisliveheâtitÌgin rhe dischargesustainsúe plasmaa1â
high iemperaturc,Nplltitg ene.gyto tbe Ínid propeìldt bv
l,t
of â rectunsulârPPT confisum'
Fis, 4 tdealücdrep.esentation
tioÍ, shosús Dìssmãcuneít and magfttic liêld lines
hea! conductioíand ndiâLion.Energy depositionìn rhe soÌid
ÉroDelÌantliberalesnrèLèrlal,an unknown ffaction Ôf whlch
parricipatesin the lhsma discìraÍge Heat t.ânqfêr rô Ìh-'
tbnster àúd sp@ecrâftstruciure(ând to sPlÌceby radiatÌonl
accountsfor eDergynÔtusedby massabladon Nole that the
transfer of ènefgy lìom úe dìscharge to th€ \ôlid proPellanÌ
gèneraÌìydependsor the relatÌvePosilionof Lhèdischarge
Thus. unde(tândÌngPI'r behavjorànd peúbrmâncercq!rcs
a self'coNìstentsolurÌonof èquatiols foÍ plasmadynaúics
Íran\poÍ. and electicaÌ circuitry.
Two limitirg úodes ol' discharteoper.tion ca! Ôccxr,de_
Dendinson úe detâils of ihe heât transferând acceleEnon
procesl For sufnciert trearúânsfef, tnÈ propelÌant surlace pro
vides nêw electricÂl]yconductiúgmateriâ],so dÌat the dis_
clrarqelatlì can remaìnadjxcentto the propelÌantsuilâcein.
siali;naÍv "ablâÌionarc" mode." OLhenvise.the discharge
úusl foÌiow the accelenÌednaterial at hish velocitv.so 'Ihe that
illropagatingi' or "shrg" mode
LhèPI'I o!êratesin the
'
àheÍnativetem "deflâgi.tion is sometimesuted for üe fbÈ
-deb-
ner mode, For dischàrgesüiven inÌo a gN. rhe term
nÂtlon Dìght apply 1ô lhe lafier mode. exceptÌhal the PPT
nt n ode rnrJ
p l " , n a p r J p a ! . i e .. n Ì u ' c 1 , , . \ i , n ' b ; l a r r o o
s . h d r gcea l ' e
a ' o , . r r ri _ $ h r h I n ep r J p r r r ' i r r E ' P l . .dn' â
suffioienivoliageúeaflÌre p.oPellanÌsuÍiee to allow â second
discharge(a restdke ) Ìh.t remaìnsstalionaryin ân ablatioÌ-
TÍaditionally. the PPT operÈteswith an oscilÌatory cunent
waveforÌÌ,cbsely reserÌhlingthat of an LRC circun Coupling
ol maqneticflux to lhe pÌasmalìow. therefoÍe.caDresult in
hìghe;magneÌicÍìeldsin the pÌasfla thanlrovided bv the ìn-
stâíÌ.leous curert in LheealemalcÌclif The plisna eiilc-
tivelv experiencesâ.celemiìonby â Ìnagneticliston thâr os-
cilats (rvirhdecreasine anpÌiiude)as cunentsin the upstream
poÍìons ol tlÌe flow ire aÌtemately rele1l€d and attracled by
cuÍents ìn lhe backstrâpconducto.From a fieldpoint of\iew.
r l e n , , ; e r t r n e . r ' r e ! r d J i ' ì l . r r . t e p ' r ' r d c c r e . e F ed l
â e c L i o r ì t . n . l - e - j , . " 'c u n e n r o _ . , e i . c\ -. . f u . c : l ã r iJ ' c
ceÌeralion .dverseìy affects the pedbÌÍÀnce oï lhe PPT. if
abÌarednaleriaì doesnot achievea unifôrmlv high speedThe
o p o o l |1 \ l o . p . r x - u r Fn lodr'le lro 'úec F|:n
r " . . r r e r n , t r ' r i r d l - , , r ' r e t . q r " x r . c rp r ' r ô n o d e P l PT
p - í o í n - n r . ú i r g c r ' . r ' , e o u r . ! n . r n d ' i n P ì ep | l r r J \ n ' m -
; . . . e . g . .r l u - n o o e . \ 4 , n e r o n ) do d ) n J m \ 4 H D t . â l ' u " _
lions. of course.can follow curenr ând lìeid vúiaiions sÈli:
Thè PPT can losenass in severalwÂysnnd o! several!Ìme
scalès.Th.se ìnclüdesìDpteevaporaliotdufnÌg ândfolÌowing
aDderÔ-
the dlschôfgepülse,the exPulsionol macropaÌìrcles,
sbn ofelec!.odesaDdLheigniter pluS TlÌe va.iÒnsrnassescan
periìr
have quite diftèfent leLocities. of
Consideraiion PPT
mnce dd its improvemeú must lttenpt io delineate süch
ditrerencesf1onì pasl ârd fulure datâ that usÌâlly only pro!ìde
totaÌ rnassÌoss and thrust impulse over mâry nrings,
Exposur€ of the prcpeìlant suface to tbe dc dischüge in
creasesthe propelÌant lemperatue ne.r the surface. leading tô
hieher rates of evaporationtoward the downstreamvacnum.
The equilibnumvaporpressürescalesin an exponentiaÌfash
ion with tenperatuÍe
Pq =À exp(_r./",)
where ?. atrd Z. are chaEcteristic pressure and Ìemperature
vaÌues,respectiveÌy,tbr üe Ìnarerial: and Z. is the $üfice teft-
perâture.For Teflo!, p, = 1.8.1x 10ii N/ml aM ?. = 20,815
K.ri! The high !âlue of Z. for Tenôn indlcaresthât modest
cbrngesin snrfacetemperâiure canresultin veÍy largèchanges
in evaporationrate.This suggeslsúat the delaiÌsof he.t tÍaís-
port tô thè surfâce from rhe úc crjticdly atÌect rhe tnÌe scale
for providirÌs nass lo the dischüge. Different behavior, there
fore, might rèsult from snâI1 chrnses in the operatinsand
design parameters of the vdious PIvIs. CurioxsÌy, howefei,
softe generalconsistency exisu in tems ofnass losspèrjoule
of slored erergy ove! broad nnges of conditions. Thì ìnifor-
mily allows speculâÌiorã thai the mâss prodrclion is deteÈ
ì i n e d b y c o . . ú x i , . o f , h e o \ e r . ' ì Ìt o w l e r d . r . ! . . . o n i . . ^ -
ditiors, insreadof detendingclosely on lìne-scaleslructures.
e.8.,ten1Perature-g.adÌent scaÌes,
Such slecuÌaÍon obtains iurrher credence tìom recognilion
úar úe amount of energy neededto evaporatepropeÌlanl rep
.êsenls onÌy ! very smaÌl filclion of the eneryy Deededto
dissociare, ionìzê,and accele.ab!hè resuhjngvapoÍ.The heat
oí vaporization for a poÌymerzr comprises üe phaserransition
,jto a gas,the depolymerizarnrn ôr "unzip!ìng" of th€ poly
ner chain ,r. ând the heÂting of thè gas to dc temperâluie
h" = hj + hd + .t^T
Fo. Teflôn, ,/r equâls about 2 x l0ó J/kg, with three-quâíers
becauseôf l, + hd.AÍ exhaNt speèdof l5 kn/s coresponds
to 4 kineLicenergyler uniL nass of abou! l0'J/kg. Thus.
evaporation requúes otrly âbout 2-4% of t|€ energy needed
to ecelèrâtèpÍopèllart ro speèdschâracterìslic of specìlìcÌm-
pulsevalües(Ì000-1500) for the PPT.
Not all Lhemarenalleavingthe surt&c. howeler strainsthe
high speedsthat provideslch slrecincirnpllse.Inúeasingthe
sutf@etenpeÍâLu.ei1ô süpply elen a súâll ânount of mass
lbÍ electromagnetic .cceler.tion during Ìlìe dischúge pulse,
demandstne depositio! of hoatwithin dÌe propeìlant,Simlle
hearconduciionrelâÌesthe total hèâtdelivèredin the pÍôpel
lanr m the prodnct of sxdace le!ìlerâture and thermal-diifu-
sion depth. (RadiâtiveÌrânsporÌnây úodìff rhe derails,but
the lÈú!èrâtuÍe disdbúriÒn srill !èâks ar úe srfâce.) The suÈ
face,lheÍèfoÍe.çill continÌe to evaporàreIong âfÌeÍ cÒúplè-
tion of the dischargepDhe.providingúas\ lhaLcamot expe-
rience âcceÌenúion 1o high speeds by electÌomagnetic and
gâsdynamic fbrces. The fiaclior of mass laÌ1icÌpating ìn lhls
Ìate-iimeablationis not well understood,Furthemore,high
teúpeÍatxres at the sxrfâce during ihe dischârge pulse iftply
the ôploíunily for snfficiendy high lemleratures beÌow the
surlace for decomposition or phasechange of üe propelldl.
Suchchangesin the prcsenceofa pressurelulse l.om the PPT
can reruìl in additional]ôss of úârend ât low spèedìn the
fom ol droplèts or oúeÍ nâdopârticles. Experinents by
Sp&jers et à1.'"suggest1bâtpeÍhaps40í. ôf úe ftâss loss
fronr the PPI is in the fom of low+pèed nâciopàíìcles tha!
do not contribnte sigtrif,cantly to Ìhe irnlnlse bit.
The lbflster eÌectrodesand sidewalllnsuìâtoBalsoprovide
mai€rial!o thc PPT lìow. Someofthìs mat€rialpàrticìpaies in
the ove.all electrômàgnetic accelèralionof plâsnâ dunng the
dischaÍgepulse.OtheÍúass. however.mây evÕlvelâteÍassüi-
facescool (oÍ empÌ)fôllowing tbe hertptrhe ândpúticle bon-
ba.dment froú Lhedischarge.
Revjeiv of the lêrge number and varieiy of PPT experiÌnents,
and thejÌ inierlrerations. requnes consideÍâbì€cde becauseof
the severalpossiblevelocity comlonenÌsând time scalesas
sÒciâbdwilh mássevohüion,By identifyilg aspecrsof PPT
oFraiion ihat presentÌyÌimit perfomance.we ctu rhen look
foÍwârd ro directìonsfor imt.ovements.
IU. PPT Types
PPTSmiy be classinedir i 2 x 2 !ìatrjx of four types:
(1)
ReLÌangulâÍ CoaKidL
Breech fèd Side fed
A coÌìmon configurâtion is the breech-led PPT wì1hpa.allel
rectangulareìectodes.driv€Dby a Ìong cureni pulse.as tt?-
jfied by the LES 8/9 and EO 1 tlnsters. For thè rectàngulâr
elecrÍôdecônligurdtnh,the .urènt and seÌf-inducednÌagnetic
field are primariÌy fansverse to the flow. The ânode and cath-
ode úc attachnen! regions nÍè then fiee to move downstream
âlong rhè electiodeswith rhe flow.
The codial connenrarionis usDâllyconicâI.lypicalÌy with
cential and downsreâb Íing elecbodes.h aDy PPT iÌre ignilel
plug is üslLâllynornlÈd jn thÈ cathode(we have lound no
exceptionsto rhis Ì!le). whìch in dÌe coaxiaÌversion can be
either the center eÌecrrodeor the downstreamring. Coaxlal
aüaDgemenlsof abÌalìon fed, pÌasnìa thnsters (Flg. 3) were
origjnaÌlydeveÌopedas MPD devices.''The outerring elec
trôdèjs usuâllyràrorv, so LhãlLhécu! e.l ancho.sai a dell.ite
location.Modestvalüesof magletic Reynoldsúuúbèr resull
in â liìÌited dow.st.eamextensìonof ihe curent pattern.
The dischargeÍesÀriviÌyis detèminedby thè elecbôntem-
lerature, and tÌE dischdge resistaDce dependson lhe Íesisti
(2) vìry and úe geomet"y.In the Ìimit of magnetic Reynolds num
b€r basedon a! eì€clrodelúgth muci largeÌ than unit), tbe
sreamwiseexlenti i.e., thickness.of the dischargeis deter
niined by úe flow sleed (lividedby ihe resÌstivìtÍ TlÌe resÌs
tance is dren p.oporrioDal to ihe back eÌectromolive force ( U
x B) divided by üe cuüen| By varying the eÌectodedian
eier,simuthal symmet.yir th€ couiaÌ PPT givesbetterco!
troÌ over resistlnce than does lhe rcctanguÌü geomet),. for
which the curert deÌsity is not as well kDown.
Wheúer the PPI is breech fed, as early veAions weÍe. or
side Íèd, developedlâter (Fig. 2), ì.jìu€nceswhetnerthe PPT
opèràies in Íhe ablatlon ârc or propâgelidg ftode. These lwo
operatingmodescloseÌyresembledeflagratlonandprolagating
modesnr electrÒmÀgnelic pulsedplâsfu dèlices eithèrüsing
gãs injeclion.sÌch as the coaxial "Mâ^haU" gun," thè pàr-
alÌeÌ plate conlìguraLion,'?3the high repelitionrate PPT,:'!the
coaxìalpìasmaaccelçralor,r! and Lhepinçh engire.rror usine
p.elìlls such as the linear pinch.rrThe gas-fedplâsmâaccel-
erators iÚect Drèssi. the !Ìtí.eânr regioD, wbich has th€ effect
of supplyÌngcureni cariers â! the breechof lhe device.The
irÌjectedmas is the! ionized by a conìbimtion of radiation
and electroncollision.3ìrrDevicesd this type alsoinçlúdethe
MPD rhruíer and Ìhe deflaCÍation gun.r5róWith snfncientcui'
Íent carien snppliedupslfeaìn.the curenl distrlbutioncan
bècomestâtiondy. similar lo üe deflâErationnode of com
Lrustio!observedwith flames.
The b.eech-fèdPPT,sxch âs úe LES-6, featu.esa cnrent
distíbutìon Ìhat initiâlly propagatesdowrstreamat a speed
greateì thm the ftâssÀveragelelocity. sxggestingÌhâi the
mâssr?te of âblÍìon rhe Íeâr of the dc is not sÌflìcient to
pÍovidespatiâlstabiliz.tion.ID tlE breechfed PPTthe pfimary
j x R foÍce vecior poinÌs away ffom the abÌating srrfâce. so
that when tne a.c strikes ir noves Òrthe súrface.rèducing rhe
abìationrate.On tbe ôtheÍ haúd.for side'feddevices,thej x
A vecloÍis tâÍrllel tô the âblâiingstfâce..nd the, neld ünes
a.e nomÀl tô it, provldingâ conduilfor eÌectronslo reachÌhe
Tènor ard mxintàinthe abiâtionrâÌe.Thus.a do\rnslreammo
 Talrle 1 Thrusí and mâss ablâíion ch.Ìacteristics of yt.ious PPTS

LES 6 l.3s 300 26 3.3

sMs 3.4 450 133 l5 3..1 3.9
LES 8/9 2A 1000 291 t5 l5
TIPI(NOVA) 2A 850 3?5 t9 2.3
MIT Lab 2A ll 2.8
MIPD 3 ]OO rr30 2230 23
i2t0 22.300 30 2.5 21.7
1136 'Ì31 t7 1.5 2.6
ó00 450 60 10.0 36.0
JapânLâb 30.4 Ì5 3.7
China Lab 23.9 Ì9 1.9 5.3

Ìion of the side{èd PPT. to lìÍst ôrdeÍ, does not charge dÌe

lú addiüon to the four bâsic gèoneric and propeilânl feed

variaüons, PPIS âre àho disÌinelished b] variations that in
clude shoÍ pulse vs qua\isteadytablâtiÒnúeâ: the locatio!
aúd type of the igüir€r plúgi âlÌematepropeÌÌantsother than
TeflonipdaÌlel !s ilâredrectanguÌüeÌectrodes; abÌatÌDg. non
abÌating,md corducÌiveíozzlesrosciltatoryvs noloscÌÌÌaïorf
cu[enq ând âppliedúâgneric field. Thesedistincrionscrclte
ditrerenr op€raling úÒdes for the PPt atrecting ihe imluÌse
bÌt and specificimpulse.and aÌÌ mlst be coDside.ed in a PPT
design.A brief dìscusslonof eachis give! here.
Shott pulse $ í.tudsìsteõd!:In nÌosr PPTSthe puhe iength
is genèrallylong. in thar the puÌseleDgthtpis gÍèÀterLhú the
stÍeâmwiseacoustictime a/a in rhe thrusler,âlÌowingthe pres
sureto lolÌow the instartaneolspower jnpur.Typicaìlyt i$ 2
cn and a is 5000 m/s, givirg ,/4 = 4 /^, comtded with rp= Fis. 5 Sid€-fêedihrns.er with íar€d ëlecÍldes,
20 irs. ln the limit te >> t/2. the flowneÌdpfolertjes vary in
quasisteadyfalhion âÌôrg with the lhnster cunent.The time
scale foÍ ejection of the thennal !Ìasma from the th.usler is
úerefore govèmed more by üe pxÌse length than the sonio
velocity. ln lhe shoí pDlseìimit te << Z/a. üe eÌectronagnetic
componenrof thruí is applied in time ,e. folÌowed by the gas
dynamicconìponenlon à rifte scalèa/d.
Ablatian areat PPTScan be râÌed by üe slecilìc nas ab-
Ìarion (ablated mâss peÍ jôule), wìlh a lower vaÌue of this pa
iamete.g€ne.d1lyâssôciated wiú higherspecificitnpuÌse.This
qüâúrityis shownin TabÌe I nì u.its óf pglJ. The tâble .lso
displayslhe pg Õf ablatedlropelÌant per exposedafeaof Tçr:
ìon fÒÍ vdious PPT tyles.
.rgrlrer plls: The brèàkdown is nìirlated wiú a !Ìue. usually
of tbe semicolducroÍtr?e. locaÌedin the cathode.The plug 0102030
dischdgeenergyìí a frâctionof â joule, and is $tppliedby .ì Tinc tgsed
siÌiconcontlolÌed recdnÈÍ{witched_1 kV capacÌtorcìrcuit.
'lhe Fig. 6 TypicâlPPI cnrrentp!ls€.The oscilhtionsredrcethrNl
p h g r . r . L a . l ), ^ . ' \ . ' 1 r. n d r ' r eb e d d o $ n s a \ N ( e - r
m uimuLhàl ]Òcxtionthat vdies from shot-to-shot, which. in
tum, can pÍôduceshotto slìotvüìations in Lhèúâin dischúge
devicesuse a TelìonnozzÌe.which the! contÌnuouslyabÌates.
Propellart AIleÍ lÈstingof severaldozenaltenìatÌles,úe and çhich Ìnay or may noLachieveân equilibriumcontour.A
propellúl pÍôdüciry úe besi pedomanoeìn r PPT is Tèllon. üiJd ve6ion usesa nonabi.tingceramicnozzle,with the Tei:
Teflon provides auributes ôf high /.e, high impuÌse bÍ. and zero ìon prôpellanÌintoduced upstreaDr ofthè LhrÒâÌ. Ìr'iÌh a Teflon
surface char The sèdch cÒntinuesfor alternatives wiih beitef ôr cermic nozzÌe tlÌe cathode is e thin .nnular rinS at lhe
characteristicsi seeSec.VIi. nôzzleexí plale.
ParuUelrsfldftl electtu.ler:Inthe rectangular sèÒtuetry Ìhe Palserlapei Becânsethe extemal(LRC) cücuit impedânce
planeelectrodes afe usuâllypdÀllel, but for somethnNte6 ihe can eÌceed the dischdge imledlnce. the PPT cxÍenl pnlse
performanceis imp.ovedby algling the electrodes awayfton generèllyoscilìâtesin the manler oi a daúped sine wave.
lhe thrusraxis.pÌoaìdinga nozzleeffecr(Fig.5). The resuhing achìeving2-4 h.lf cycÌesbeforeüe remainingvoltageú in'
r e J u f e Jp l . , n - d e n 5 i Dì , i ) J l , o o e n e l iet l e r u , " s n ei 1 c suftcientro breâkdown the electrodegap (Fìe.6). Thú tuodè.
celèrationof the plasnÌa. somenmescalledbipolar,can lroduce reeionso1 reve6el x
Nozl?: Use of a high arearaúo Dozzle'electÍode combina- A iD llÌe plâsD]a,and the oscllÌatiÌrgvoli.ge forcesa !Íadeoff
tion in a coaxiàl PPT can incre.se both elec[omaenetìcand berweenlifetìme aDdcataciÌor nìass.CuÍent rele6aÌ aÌsoin-
gasdyDanicthrus! cÒúponenu.Coaxial le$iols of the PPT cÍeâseselectrodesheathìossesrnd heiÌ ÌÍansferA betlerluÌse
e \ i . r ' n ! F \ r , d ,v e , . , o n x. .l l e m p l o ) . nap h , s h: , e d , J i ô J / - shâpeis the Ìon.elersing uúilolú pulse,çhìch is achièved
zie, úsuallyconicaÌ.The nozzlecan bè úetâllic. in which case Íhroughône of severalÌechniquesenrployinga pasile (Pn1se
ir is artachedto oÌ comp.ìsesthç câúode.A nnnber of coaxial formnrs) or àcÌllely switchedextenìâlcncuiL(seeSec.XII).

--t

FoÍ.oaxill geoDretriesthe PPl i tedân.e c.n be lìlgh enough
r) .edúce or eÌiÌninat. curenr oscillatioì.
AppLed ,rdsreti. ,eld: Fo. ÍccLàngtrìà. PPli. in xtplied
ield lafallel to the field úâr is self-induced b, dìe.uÍenÌ \rÌlL
enhâì.e Ìhe./ x B rc.eÌenrior. The neld can be suÌrflied br
ere.LÍÒ of pematrenÌ ÌìreneÌ\.
l\. Eârl) L\p(rimrnlal Hnr0r\
_fhc
e.rliest klÌoçn p!Ìsed thmsler came liom Rus\ia Ìn
l9l.r'ì Tlìis tlÌusteÌ de\eÌoÌred sas p.cs\ue by dischi€ìng
.ipaciÌi!.iy stored eneÌg) inLo ! plemn lined qiÌh pliÍlc.
úsnìg a conlerenre dirersìng metÌ|li. rozzLe to e1pând .rd
x.ceÌqaÌe the Ì€5nhÌng gNes. lÌ i! nôt knoçr if dìrust Ìnea
sürerÌenrs serè ÒbrÌinÈd. bnr becanseofth. coDlìguraÌioD,rhe
...eÌerarion ÍÌÈchÌnisÍì was prrel,! ele.tfoth.rìal. A numbel
ol eâ,ìr delices lvere gas fed" or lìd çith i ÍÍÌ \vâ\. "
Artmpov aDd Kh.abrov in the USSR. begn!ìitÌg in 1962,
d.veloÌred L$Ò PPT designs. one wiÌlì .n .ÌcctfoÌnagreÌic aDd
one yíh i Llìeúnal rcceÌ.riÌloD mecìaDìrÌ (Fig 7). The latter
\È^bn w.s lÌìlcgmr.d on the Zord'2 \fa.e.fult xnd *xs
lâlnchediD 19ó1 h nÌe U.S.,PPI ile\el.püènt qxs ìed by
rhe tionc.rine $ork of CurÌln rrd Pahnibo. it the FairchìÌd
Rcpublic oÌìpur". and of Solbes. TÌìonìa$cn iÌÌd \bDdm. at
{he \lassuchu\cus InsrìLúe Òl Te.hnology LincoÌÌì Labofato!:
ThÒe eÌìirs coÍsisÌed of cxpcrimentdl fesearchto ondcr\tând
rrsi. PPT physlcs. as welÌ a\ dèreÌ{rFhem aid nlghr qurlin
úition of PP_rs Oi, sepl. 2tj. 1968 the nsÌ L.S. PPT spacc
night wâ! x.hieled on Ìhe LIS 6 satellile. iq *hìch rhe
du,ste. ÌrèifÒÌììed .ÌÌiÌude co!Ìrol. Ii Ìhe U.S., lÌre ïiìÌulu!
lo. úie LES ó PPT \1irh soli!ì'feil{rn p.opellànt..tìe tÍorn
cârLyctïbÍs ( I 96ì ) r) in reg.rre onto a saÌeÌliÌe a 360 pN dìrust
lrs lèd PPT Ìh.rr rìiÌed b€canse of lhe úe.h.nic.l !ìeÌernìg
r.lve The PPT s,!sÌe!Ìs ln üs. toda) are siìÌììd. to Lhoseem-
fìl)yeLl nì rhe Zô d 2 ind I-]1S 6.
Dulng the 1970s dnd 1980\, Íhèn tN.h of space teclìnol
osv in the U.S. lrnguislÌed ln . posl ApolÌo n\iljght. stlLdre!
o,Liiued on Ìlìe PPT lnd feÌ!Ìed th.uste,\. OnÈ erâutle *rs
úe ati.!ÌDi ro exÌend the {(úe!slül los energy PPT Ìo Ìhe
nìillipound .aìse,'' tì Ínb = ,1.150ANl b,! oiìcfatilg ai a
r,ighef energy |er Ìruìre, rnd.eqriied conqueing selef.l lfob
lcrÌ\ *ìLÌì ignnef p1Ìrg .n.l clc.rrode deeradation. By tììc Èrd
of lh. ÌnilliÌroufll fì.stuh. .ìlaciÌoÍ ÌlleÌime renìained the
f.ircipJ Le.hrÒlogi.âl hurdle. and roltaee reversll and clpdc-
Ìrô. oÌeÌìreatins aÌrFÈaredi! úe üì.jor.arse for iiiÌÌü! at llfc
iiÌne\ 1ìr ÍrorÌ ol the deslen CoaL.^ìso, dtr.ing the idse!-
cnÌies. adrânced PP'r ..n.epLs à.hìeted nìc.eised ÌeveÌs of
püÍì.Ìance. ìn!1ÌÌLlingI side led arr.trgeneDts th{t achieled
1ì l|N yJ ai n sfeciÍic inpnÌse of Ì50{l s, Ànd end fed s)sÌe!tr
rhrt rchiered 2Ì /'.N+/J âr 5160 s. Nevertheless.rÌ dre end of
rire ilcc.de tJ S. Ai. Fo,.e fmding shifÌed Ìo oÌhef lecds. òe
lrrre LÌrÈmiìlipound engiie .rd .dv^trc.d PPTj de\eloped ìÌrto
fighl iìâd!r.r.. O! lh. otheÌ \idi ol tle Pnciiìc. the Chire.eal
.erfoDìcd d {òoiniLâì Le!Ì Òl â PPU
fig, ? !i.sl PPl desigrs (LSSR). Dle.tronÌâsnctn ú-isht) and
72Ì
-
Dnring 1ÌìisÌìÌne. rork coDriDuedüì ltaÌ1" on ablation lèd
'r
coÌriài N1PD Ìlúustes ând also h Jap.nr' atrd Chi!a.'* Tlìe
loíner icÌiÌitìes us.d ablatio! to avoid the difficuÌtÌes of de
veloling a gas !.lve foÌ repetìtive ope.ation lof nrjìliors ol
shoÌs. The Jrprnèse sturlies.by severnl aulhors, included nass
spÈcl.Òs.opic ina\ses,tr and c.tensjon of ttudjtionaÌ PPT .r
raneenÌentsto ìÌrclude lppÌied m.Ìgnetìc Jìeìds," " .eÌJ ling ir
l 7 4 N \ / J a L â \ p e c i l ì c; D p u l s e o I , 1 0 0 0 s .
By the eârly 1980s,eÌeclriclropulsio!lì..1faiÌedto de\eÌo!
as i !Ìerns of pfim.ry sprce propulsjon. even tlìou8Ìr labora
Ìory Èse.rch.nd delelopDrerl had contirued toi tour dÈcades,
TÌìus. Ìlìe PPT renìaiDed thè onlr eÌecL.Ìcth.usre, wL!, ì uo,F
Ìnru.d ãlflìcation as orbo,trLlrroptrlsnlr ftr àn ope.rÌioml vs
scieflitjc le\L tui\sion A str.tegy for elecific protülsion de
reÌopmenL sa\ lhen ptutôsed. usnrg the PPT .s dìe sÌ.fÌiÌrg
point tuf r lÌdill Òl robusÌ. siÌnple elecfic ÌhntrteN niih ltr
creasìÌÌeÌI arìbitìous so!Ì\,"r4 The PPT *Ònld p.olrde â côn-
ndled. ierretiLive sourcè of pi.Ína ÌlìrÌ $ould acÌuao Ìatcf
'', Í'...o1
in \rhich dìe $rilchirg occuned ÍÌìen Íhe plarnra !Íi\ed. A
'
l*Ò'\Ìrge PPT demonÍraÌed dre bâsic concett, usins ! con
slanLcuncnL fulsè foinìing retlvofk lo drivc an alrlati.xì tèd,
.eúLargtrlârthnìÍer rs Ìhe sccoÌd sÌaec. This secoDdstage ig-
nired âftèrieceilnrg pl.sma lionì a nìeht quaÌincd tnodel fìorn
úÈ lr60s LES 8/9 serles. The design enere! of ihe second
_fhè
{âgè couL.l irìcfeasecs neededtufììeher e.erg missior\.
1àüriLt ol ÌlÌustcs as ô wh.ìe, horevei sonÌd sha.e Íight
'pí e,.cô:!' o.l'c Ll . (..r '' r' : le,;'-
nrenr úiÌ re{ electrl. profulìioì s!sterìs lâclied llighr èxpe-
Ai Ìhc Ìì.ìe tììjs \tntcgy \!as lrÒpÒsed, dre posiblllÌy of
ícaLlt power levels in slacc of upÍafd of 100 kw {Ììl c.Ìr-
Ìrìred rììe .ttcntìon of nruch ol Lhe ele.úi. potDlsioí co!ì
nìunity.r: DesÌtite çaiÌing\ ol NoLher "LLse dnwr" tlìat
$ould ìelre elÈct.i. rìÒpulsiô! sÌill çithont pfiÌnârl pfopul
rLon exterien.e. úe !tunìise of sÌeidy el.clficaÌ posef nì
sÌrace oìeicuìe úe âcÌliÌÍy of success nith sìrller ÌruÌsed
elecL.icals)íeú\. \!nh the íteÌ4ìo...y) denìjse ofspace Lrased
ruclear ÌroreÍ. nnd the inüeise in úlsslors Fith modcsl. sollr
clccÌfical fo$er Ìerèls. jnteresÌ has rekindÌed nÌ tlÌe PPT.ii'
The er\lred perlbr!Ìancc of a rurnb.r ol PPT5 ìs gjler nr
'Ììble
l, qlÌh pnÌse etrcrer_raneiDg iìon, 1.85 tÒ ?50 J. fôr
bree.h fed and side rìd rhrusLers.The rhrlsÌ. me.nÌred rn
Ìerì\ of iÌìp!ì\c bjÌ per jonÌe, is plotÌed !s I in Fis. 6. wirh
rhe e{.ettìor ofth. PPT -1.çhich \rill be discus\ed sepi..tely,
(he th ìÍeN !ÌairÌ) tìlÌ eiüe. ìrL,) ! high /-, gtuup iÌ iÌ00 1
Ì00 s rÌ l5 l0 4N'\/I, or r loqèr /,, grolp aÌ 450 a 150 s
dÌ 1.1 2l rN-íJ. Ìno ÌhrsÌ.fs op.mtitÌS !Ì l, >.+000 r aÍe
.lso retoÍed (Fìg. E). MosÌ ÌhtrìsÌeA (T.bÌe lt ablaÌe ìn the
ratrec 1..+ -i.3 4g/.J. rnil the rìas ablated is 1.5 - Lt) pgl
.rÌr. !Ìsse\tins reiâÌi\eÌy sinÌil abÌaÌìon Drcchlnìsms iar rìl
qpes. These dârà bâsìcrll! deúe from nìclsufemerts of
steady Ìlnusr d!úng r.peiìtlle tulrìg of tirc PPT dnd subsequent
measurencnrs Òf nrss Ìost by tlìc propelÌaDtslab. Àt]I]endir B
z
i
.2:
\ 1.- r :rr:
F , , . r ,d L
. \ .F:ìl'. '
\r1, rrb \-1!4! r3ÍinL$
E
201r .rú 600 3001000 1000 .10{0 6000
Slecúìc Impul'e, s
Fig. 8 Idpühe bit peÌ.jotrir r! lpecilic impuhe tb.larions lliglÍ
discússes the .lesì8n ard operaÌìon of thrust siands iìr PPT
evahation.The subiçcrof Da\s loss dirccLsâÌtentionto the
r \ e m r l e , : , o n m e r .orl r \ c P f l q l - c h d p e n d \o r rr \ e r e Ó e
tition rãÌe and eneÍgt Per shoÌ. TlÌe dala summaized in Table
I .lo nÒÌaccoun!for vdiatiors becauseof repetilionrate
V Flight Thrusters
etersof the exlemalcìrcuitrelectrodegâp d = 3 0 cú, çidd\
l] = 1.0 cú. leDerh0.6 cni câpaciÌance lìom 0 66 !o Ó.1ì/JF;
voÌlagefrom 500 ro 2000v: extemaìrcsjttancetìom 0 to 0.80
lì: exlemalindu.ranceiìon 50 io ó50 nH Under thesecon
ditionsthe abìabd mlst vdied from I to 17 Églpulse Ii eas
thenp.oposedj5 ihrÌ the imprlse bit be rePreseltedin Ìhe foÌm
(adoplingdllúI = t'):

The first lììeht PPT. usedfor àttiÌudecontol on üe 196'l
Zo!d-2 nissi;. w.s a breechfed. coaxiàl "erosbn tv!e" de_
siEn.wìth six th.usie6 on the s!.cecràiì The PPI Dsedtwrn
ba;s of ?0 rmìons cylildricâl TetlonlÌrbcs(0.'r kg). eachoI
which ças contâinedin a 60 mr-id thin-wâll tube of àlu_
minurn auor Ìhal fotued the arÒde Total system nìass !!.s 5
ks. The ceítÍaÌ cathôdewa\ à 20 mm_diamcoPPerÍÒd The
thnst ftechanismçâs prjmLúly electroÌhemÌaÌ, and Ìhe sÌrace
ouaÌi1ìcation tes! wâs 10ópúhes Perfomince PaÍâmeÌe$aÌ!
p r r e l n e \ , .P ! r t r e r e r .r r P o T f o r / o n l 2 : r , 1 . d e n e r y r- _ n
j, 'o .'e" ,.0.\.rtsr;er')'€r 'o rFe Inkv
PPU" . pefficieDcy
. ' " | | o , = 0.E, pdse flte = 1 0 Hz' specincimpuhe
= 410 s. thÍust at 1.0 Hz = 2 nN. and impulsebìt/J =:10
/d's/.J.
F. LES 6
The LES-6 PPT was launc|ed in 1968, ând achievedl0
yeds of operaÌìonin oÍbit In the e.rll' developmentof PPTS
ìt w.s rcc;Anizedthal gasdynânicpressurepl.ved an iúpoF
tâít rcÌe iÍ lroducing Ìhnst. MeâsnrcDren! of rhe magnúude
of the sasdvnamicconflbutioÌ ón Ìhe LES_6thnsref $ìs P.o
vided úy s;bes and Vondra," who mea{Ìredrhnst impnlse
rnd m'.. ron.rrprron \.l c\?er'r. r''l) \a\r''t p' n
rr (3)
I'"= \ìnUí + . L' I r' ú
/J
wherethe veÌocityând the inductancegÌadienraredçreúìined
by a cuÍve lìt 1{,rhe data.The resultspere Uil - 1225 ìÌ^
and t' = 0.253 pílld) = 0 95 t(H/n
The impulsebit and àblatedmâssof tlE LES_6ar 540 s arè
shown vs eneret jn Fig. 9. DependiÌì8or úe cìrcuir Pàr.m
eters, the úeasured specìiic iftpuÌse wâs it the ünge of
200 590 s. of which 125 s wãs the gaílvnâmic conribulion
At 500 s the elecúoDragnetlc coDÍìbürionwas 175 s. and the
gasdynâmicconkibuÌionwas tlìe.efore259.
c, sMs
The PPT deli8nedfôr the SMS Fovided morê ÌhnNr thdn
wls rv.llable trcú LES'6. Tlis PPT had Ydiable tlmst ca-
pabiliÌy and w.s usedfor spin axis precesston
cotÌro1
D. LES-8/9
Tlìe LES 8/9 PPT was flight quali'ìedfor Ìaunchil 1975
bni ultimatelywas not on the mission.óAll Prclulsion otr the
,+54kg sâÌelliteswas to be deliveredby \ii PPTS'\'hich were
. o n " . o , " r " ' . , " e . o n ' . 1..l r i o n t e í D n g . d { ' o n' l r J n g
P " r n l r - . o l , l r I L S 8 . o P P I 1 r ep r o . d e l n T " t . -
!.
ln labo.alô4 teÍs lhe imp!Ìse bit was louíd to vary frÒn
267 ro 152 aN s. averaginez9r |.N s oreÍ 2 x 10' pulses
This va.iâÌionças caÌsedby intenÌìonallvvaryiÌÌerhè locâÌion
of tlìe spârk in ihe annuld l]trg gap, iìoú 2 io 11 mm fionì
the ÌrrorJellant 1ace.cansinea coÍesPondinglvÌa.ge vÂÍiation
6
nÌ aÈh;ed massfÍonì 36 to 26 Á"g/PulseIÌìPrlse bii varied
r , n l \, t e . . . ,- ^ r l r . o r ' p o . ' o , I o n r 2 5r \ ' ' r ' 2 m r
"
r . u 5 , . i r r n .L . ' . p c - n r p u ' e r o * + r o l ) ìq.z'
s âr 2 úm to a maximnmof I150 s ai 7 ftm. faÌling lôr larger
distances.Shoflo-shot variatìonin tbe iúpulse bjt Nâs im
prcve.i by  ph,g designthàr sÌabilìzedthe sparl'ìlì'iÌjÔn
The LES E/9 wâs al$ tèstedat lour tnnesdre eúergv(E0 I.
1000 V) and one lbúLh Ìhe Pulse r.te (0 25 ppr' keèPing
p o v . ' . J . x n . I r t - . ' r ' . Í p ú . c . F 4 5 0' ã n n c < . ^ e
;f l5%. and the imptrì\ebit ilcreàseda facior of 5 1 to 1500
! - \ - . i n d r . dnr " _ r ' . r ê ' e i l í l l . e n c ) C 1 p J .o i ì l J
i r e r I . a ' t r .g e d i m r r f e J r o l 0 ó r r' e ' \ ' l 0 p u l ' e d
r 5 0 0Y

E. TiP-II (NOVÂ)
o-ì-23 Two TIP ll PPTSwe.e usedto pÍôlide d.èg coDìPensauon
É N É R G Y( J ) on lhe NOVA seÍieaof satellites,whiciÌ lìo\Ysin a Phased
Fig. 9 lmpul.€ bil ãÍd tblâred mr\\ ot rh( Lfs-6 \' entrg\' consLelhtionrvirllin a 2'nm deadbríd in a 640'n mile orbir'

Tlbl€ 2 specifrcationsof the LEs 8/9 PPa

Rcclan8ular, FârauclPlatê.
brcèch fed. rwi. tuel bars
lhn$ x\È ClntÈd lo-des .o ÌnnNreraxìs SPcìn' ìmpuÌsc Ì000 !
Ii:l RêcÌângultrTeflonbds Ìgniler PLug CoaxiâlseÌmconducÌol
!,.,.: l"-e' _ 20 r lerirer voÌlxsc 6-21y
i...i- M y Ì t u - p â P e ôÍ ì 1 .Ì l r 1 F ! 1 1 5 3 3 v l a n i e rê ' e r Ê v 0'1t
p.,:: Cr.a:r;on* 20 LHz dyb.ck Ì\Iis/tuÌse 30 3 r'glpnhe
PPL .nì.i:nr\ 80t! Thru(er 1(Írl nÌìss 6 60 kg
iu, po,.-"t l ppt 255W r : l l e ' ! Í Ò n im
' sl s s O9lke
P.?-\ !uÍ.d! l!.000 A FtrèÌmass 075 kg
roril imFuÌ!. rl2o N s cârr'iÌor nlss I :l .ks
l"'pur*ilr 297 ANa sÌnÌcturènNs 3 01 rg
Performanceof t|ìs 20-J sysieú. with 0.,15kg of Teflon per
is givenin Tâblel.
Íhrusrer,

VI" SeÌectedLâboratory Thrustcrs

A. RüssiânNÍIPD-3 PPT
The wôrk of Alt.opov et aÌ.'a'7 includes peifomúce ìÌea-
surcments on rhe MIPD 3 útusler plus detaiìeddìagnostìcs of
ÈÈ arc ând pìunre.The tÌNíer is a side fed devicewìü an
/.j, of 1130 s dd impulsebit of 2250 /..Ni at 100 J. DunDs
the tiNt hâli:cycìç,magneticprobesshowednÕcrrent d€nsiB
âÌ the bâck insulatoÍ. dd aj x R cuÌÌent froDt moving in the
flow dtection at 20 25 kn/s. fÍoú which it was coNluded
lhat dÌe A field lìneswee frozeniúLÒthe pla$a. AcompleteÌy
diüèrentbelÌaviorwas displ.yeddúng the secoDdhaÌf cycÌe.
for which rhe curent dìstribütionwâs stationary,wrth a mrx-
imum along úe back insulatôrThis \uggeststlÌat tlÌe arc wns
operatingin a prop.gâÌingnode for the firsi hdlfcycÌe ând a
deflagÌation mode for thè secÒnd.
The nragnelic aDd gasdynamicpressnÍeslveÍè esiimated
t r u mJ r I e n r . J e h ' ) . J ì d D e . { r e d . f 1 . ì h ( ì - r : m u n n r g
neiicpressurewas on üe oider of 10 atú, and ú€ gàsdynamic
pressure on rhe o.der of 0.2 ann, suSgesrirg rhat Ìhe thrust
mechaDism of tle MÌPD'3 is predominaleìyelectromagnetic.

Kimum et aÌ."'" demonsfaiedconlrol ôveÍ thç relativeelec
ÌÌoDragnelicaDd eleciroüemai conflbntion in a rectangular
PPT by a!!lyi!g a ìnagneticneld parnlìelto lhe self ilduccd
field, to increaseor decreasethe teld sÌìengrh,Both elecÌro
magnetsaDdpernìanentmagnels!!ere usçdjtrp to 0.57 T. An
.pplied magnericÍìeld of olposite lolarity Íèducèdüej x ,
1ôrce,incieasinghasvpul\e and iÌDpulsebii. the l.uer by as
much as 66,/c.It was concÌudedtlÌar lhìs retardingnelLlìn-
cÍeasedthe eÌechothetual.ÒnhibutioDbecalseüe impnlsebiL
increasedwith reducedj x ,.
ln Chinâ, An er al.r: desigred, built, flighÈquali6ed,and
launcheddìe MDT'24 PPTon â souDdìng rocket,the nrsÌ Chi-
neselaunchof â pulsedpiasnrathrusterYuanZhu." working
with a paralÌeÌplâte.bÍeech-feddesigD,ped-ormed paranerer
studiesio show the effect of eÌectrodeCeometryând energy
Òí perfoÍmâNe.A saúple of lhe data Ìs shoçn in Table i.
The eÌectrodespacing'lo,widúratio ,^r was shownro affect
perfomancesignincxnily.For23.9 J. irìcrcasing À/r,fron 1.38
Ìo 4.50 inc.eased16,by,+7% Ìo 4.18/,N-s, ând ./.!by 357' to
990 s. This resulLis consislentwith dre incieâsein l-' by 656/ó
foÍ Ìhis vúialioú in À^r.
Guman-:sworkjng wiih a bfeechfed PPT,develope.lm an
alytìc Íômuìation that trcatedthe inìpulsebit.s úe $n of
elect.omagneticand eÌectfotlÌenÌalcontributionsl
,,,,=)', q ^,,4]"'
Ita,* [,1,_ Dlq
\!here. for Teflon (7 = 1.3),the y function = 0.79. TlÌis ex
pressioÌjs oDÌy apprcxìmaiebecaüseit âssÌmesÌhâr the Jìow
expdnsionoccur\ at consrantdca. and thar all of Ìhe energy
ti is âddedro ihe èrc befo.eany mass^r, abÌates.a conditnrn
thar doesnoÌ hôìd unìessth€ dischdeepuÌseÌengilìis on rhe
oÍderof I /^. This nÍìd€l ìçd directìyto rhe prcdictionrirhâr
the inrpüÌsebit will be iftpÍôved by th€ additionof a nozzle.
Uslng the saoe PI/I, early work on igDiler ciÌcuits begâr
wiú úe Kryton túbe, but was droppedbecauseof hniÌed
Krytror life (1.3 x l0r discharget aìd its,+'kV voÌragere
'clrx10-
(kA'-sec)
A. J'
Fjg,10 Ablatednds per dischârg€as â lunctionof ú4,/Á").f i' dt,
modemjel ajÌcmfi. the favored syÍerì .oiv usesa siÌicon
cÒrL.olle.lredìfier lof switchirÌg,coupledto a seniconductoÌ-
type plÌrg, enibllng loìtage! of Ì kV or less.Life cycle lests
ivere peifÒmed on Lhisty['e of syslemfor 1.5 x 10! pulses
o! üe igniter circuit.nd 7 x 106djlchafgeso! the 17 J/kg
çapacìtoN,ivitlÌ 2160 N s of irnlulsè .lelivere.lolrr 3800 h
oú r singÌesèt of cÌecÍodes.
vondÍâ ând'thondssen''testeda 20 J side fed PPTby vâry-
ing dìe sprcing belwèenthe Ls'oprolelldt Lra6.resulÌirg in
a variatior in the massper puÌse.For 9 /aglpulse.lhe ìmluÌse
bit was 227 /lN s al2580 s, and foÍ 56 ,Éslpuì\.. the nnlulse
bit wÂs.154/N-s ai 600 s. ft was concludedthât thç doublÍìg
' n m t , ì * b r - r - 0 Ì u - r ( c - u e o f . . eg . ,d ) r 1 . p , - . e
thrusl *àìch js approxìmateìyequal to ihej x À rhtusLà1
600 s specincirìpulse.
In rìüther sìdejed PPT wofk at the 300 J lelel, Palrnbo
and Cuhân5' elaluaredgeometuies for whlch lhe fecing !ro'
pellànt ba.\ were angledto fom a "V" slìapedcâviÌy (Fig.
2). A iypical 1,r çàs 700 s. FÒrincludedV anelesbetiaeetr0
deg (laralleÌ waÌls) and E0 deg, lhe th.usi/porvefratio s,as
highesttbf 0 deg, ard was 11% lìighe. âÌ 0 deg than a!,+0
deg. ln a lfopeliant âbÌâÌionstudy.il wâs denonsüried tlìal
the ablatedmasscoreÌâted wÍh the pa.$r€rer (4,/Á.) .la t' dr.
rvìrere,,l/is Ìhe ablatiDgâreaof the prÒpell1út exposedto dìs
chargeÌldiation, andÁ.,Ìs lhe openareaâÌ the plâsúa bôúd-
aíes lhroughshìch radiationescapes(Fig. l0). The coúela-
iìoD lÌolds ovef a range of two orders Òf mâgnitudein th€
pxrâúereÍ,lòÍ $lated nasse\ lÌoDr 7 to 600 /,g/pulse.The
qnantily.l; & ìs observedLo equaÌthe storedenereydìvided
by clicuit Íesistâncefor a lìxed LRC circuìt
f'r
| , ,1 -^ !:r,
J!^
Althoügh the toÌ.1 resistance ,4 is not known a prìoÌi. ji ivas
found th.t tlÌe curent lntegralcould be rep.esènted!s

l,-''^,=,,"1e
quirenent.in favor of â 3-kV seâledspark-gapsyÍem, wlìÌch
e{ceededI x Ì03 pÌhes ir lìfe t€\ts.5 AÌflroughrlìc sealed
jtark gap systenìis still ìn !\e Lodayfoi tuhire igDilioDon
 Table 3 Srmiempiúcal PPT PeÍfomance data e reported by Arington et aÌ " for a
dsign eqüttioN PÍimex Aelospace Co. breadbodd PPT with flar oi V+hâped
prcpellantand PdaÌÌeÌ or flded elecaodes,for whi.h rhê in-
.t," / x.I,Ì. |.N4?
pulse bit is generaÌÌy 17 /..N+/J up to 54 J. Best performance
Breechfcd 320(E;lA)"" 2500Ê'" in tems of thtust to power rario was @hieved wlth a nolched
V-sh@e.t 320 (ËilA)r6 16608 " fuel face in the Teflon proPeÌlant, bxi üis apProâchinlrodnced
si.re ied 32tJIEJA)n' I 120816 difflcuÌties wiú the fuel feed system design

whèÍe \4"rc is called the iniLirl impedance.dd to is found
at í - O ttot\ La(.di/dí) = VL,tyPicàily it the ratge of lO0 200
úH.
semiempirical equations for a plrticuld PPT design weÍe
provided by Guman.óobased on Ìhe expeÍimertaì results for
bÍeech fed, V*haped. and side fed conlìgÌÍations (TabÌe 3)
corÌelations were lbund bôth for the speclnc impuÌse ând ior
ú e D r o J u ( | o/ . a n J , ô p u l . e b :i n l r(m.ot he'rored(aerg)
t " r r J a n dr h ee i p o ' e dp , o p e ' l d rd r e l a e' c r : , . T h F P r i n c i p r l
resuÌt is that the 1,, is independentof rhe geometry.The PrÔtucl
of impulse bit and /." is geom€try depeDdent,with less ttrsst
being deveÌopedfor side-fed than breech-fed dences
È Oíe MitlipoundThrEter
PeÍfomance studiès were made by PaÌumbo a Guman"'
ôn a high-energy (450-750 J) rectangulâr PPT driven by d
108 t Fd pulse-foming ner\toÍk with extemâlcircuit paraÈ
ete6 of ìR.,.=2.6 mO and ,-, = 60 nH- Boü breech and side_
fed modes weÍe examined,and inÌereÌemode spaclngmd eÌec-
tÍode incÌuded-ângle weF vâned, aÌÌ at 450 J For aÌl of tbe
slde fed tests,úe trmsveNe spÂcingbetweenthe ÍecianguÌlr
plopellântba$ wâs heìdconstantat 9.3 mm. the àxiaìpropel
Ìanl lengthwls 3l úm. and rhe el€cÍôdespacingwâs 76 mm
AblârednÌasswas foundto inc.eàsenonotonicallywith a pa
ramèier conelating the exPosedpÍopeÌlant !Ìea ànd .f ir dt A
naximum ìúpulse bit of 16.7nN s (37 r!N+/J) was found ài
a 20'deg incÌud€dèlectrodeangle,at 1210_ssPecificinpuÌse.
wiü d ablaLedmss of ì .4 mg/puÌse. Opeiâting in üe breech-
lèd node al tÌìe same ènergy reduced the abÌaredmâss 90%
úd raised thè specilìc impulse ôver 5000 s. at aboui haÌr lhe
iÌìe iúpüÌse bit" wâs separatedinto an eÌectrcthermàl and
an elecÌronagneúc componen! but Ìhe indnctance gradient
L' was considenbly overestimated. A! à reasonabÌe, =
0.7 pHlm aúd a Ìylical curent integraì0120,000A' s, lEMis
14 mN-s, accountingfôr nearly all of lhe impulsebit The
eÌecfôthermaÌcomponèntof the ìúpuÌse bit. lredjcted as
-O.AQLnE*)"', accountsfo. the remaining ìmpulsebit if
^fr = 80"/, of the toiaì abl.ted nÌass (side-fed node) and Eu
= 5 J- The low enersymay indicúe â lüee heatloss ro the
wâlls in Ìhis Ìhnsler.
ln â elated effon."' the impulsebit was aÌalyzediú terms
of the gasdynãftic ard el@tÌÒúâSnetic contriburions The im-
pulse bit was found to vâÍy lineüÌy with ì, where
Separatelines of study ãnd experiment hãve prcceededfo.
mâny yem in which abÌationof solid propeÌìàntprovidesâ
cÕnvenientway to avoid gas valves for pulsed oÍ qnasisteady
Dlasma devices. using coaxial geometry. WoÌk is ongoing at
ihe UniversiB, of Roìne on a coâxial MPD Thrusrer,* and a
gÍoup at the Russia! Research Center. Kurchalov InstituÌe,
\ 4 o , c o r . L . e \ . ô d : c l P F l i r Õ . . u d j e ' o l p l a . m áó r c c e . . i n g
EarÌier work on the puhed electroúemâl rhruster (PET)*
and lhe ptrlsed arcjet"' úow exrendsto ân âÍmgement in which
two, side-fed Tellon bam fom the boundary of a dischârge
chànnel, pfoviding mass now to a coaxiaÌ PI'I accelerâtor lts
present embodiment uses a solid state diode in paralleì çith
rhe e"ersy sloragecâpâcitor(Fig. I Ì).ó(ó7Early versjonsof
rbÀ thnster (Fig. Ì2) e distilguished by higì iftpulse bit per
joule (Fig. 8) and an acceÌeÌationprccessdominatedby gas
OperaiionofquisisteadyMPD thrusterswith màssnowpro_
vided by azimuthâllydiscreiebaÍs of abÌaringsolid-PÍopellant
\ l r . I ' d e m o n r ' r r e 'r h - r r e f ' p e ì Ì d nt e e d . ) r e Ê r e r d ' o l
d e n a n d .r,e c r a l g u .e, e c r r o d8ee ô n e , q".* u h r l e i * , e . . e Ê
tainly will remain Íegüding the de!èlopmenrof azimuthaÌ
syFmetry within t|e thflsr chamb€r,úese do Dot difièr gÍèâtly
tìorn equivaÌent cÕncernsin g4çfed MPD tbrusle(. Tbe op-
portnniryfor srbstârtial improvementof conndencetn lheo
reticâl modeLingol codiaì devices(vs rectangulãrrÍânge-
meDts) enooüragesa locus foi fulure develoPnent of PPTSin
the directionof coaxiàldeüces.Maintènúce ofconnectiôúto
the Êigh!experience of tiâditionalsystensrepresents úe mêjot
chailengèm snilÌ dele1Õpmert.
A Mlúo PPT d€velopedby Spanje^ Íepresenrs a paÍticüld
fomr Õf coaxialPPÌ. BasicaÌly.a high voltagePuìsèdelivered
to the exposedend of a codiaÌ cable provides tbe âblâtion arc
$'ithout r€quÌing a separateigniter and cncultry The relativelv
low energy of operâdon perÌnits this sim!Ìification, ând cor'
relates lvell wirh ÍippÌication to \tlicio Sals (S/C mals <20 kg)
The lesent MicÍo PPT packagèhas a massôf less úan 0 5

t.
&o I t"d/ Fig. 1r PPT circtrit with diod€ to preventcurÊút rcverrâl in Íhè
J
'-
\'tr' t^
is prol)oniôn.l to rlÌe r:Ìtio of eÌcclromÀgúeiic lo Sasdvnãúic
impú1sebit, md nr is the mas\ úiâted pef PuÌseThe elergy
requied to ablateTeflon wâs give! as 4070 J/gm, and is tvP-
icálly 3 iew percentof rhc Llnchrge eneÍgy
A P P t c l l l e , l r l ê M l l r N u n d T m s l e r . " "d e \ e l o ó e dl o r r h ê
| .5. Air F'",e. wr. I /.n J. \rdeled PPI The ir.luì'e hil
s d ' 2 2J u o p \ ' . s y { e n d e \ e l o l m e nc a j l e d o r I 4 l0'
puÌses,but <10' dischdgoswere achìevedâr capacitofiãjìuÍè.
possibÌybeoauseof a negalivecuüent rèverealof 30 li4. ex'
perienced in rhe extemaì circuit. Wiú thè higher enetgv or
operationoveÍ the mlicipâÌed nÌssìor. propellanlhèndliúg
rceded to advancebeyond relâdveÌy shoit, staight bars of Fis. 1? Coaxitl side-fêdPPT \tith power cahl€lnd siíìê-nnnì1ed
TelloÌ. leàdingto the useof sliraÌ Propèll.ntba$

kg, and üsesa dischargeeneÍgyof 0.8 J to geneÌateimpulse,
bits of àbÕút2 ltN-s.
GDmú and Peko" inv€sligaleda breechfed codial PPT
(Fig. l3) wlÌh â cenrâl ànodehavnrga rerririrg slÌonldeirnd
ú dial slring. The 1,pwas found !o vary with lhe stored en
ergyand abÌaiedmass.s 1.,,- (Eor,lr3, ard n wasconcÌuded
úat úe únster mechânisú wÀs pâÍly electromagnetic [.f.. -
(E!/u)LDland pâíìy sasdynamic11.,- (t/ft)"'1. Increa;ing
the rozzÌe size aDd decreasingthe stored en€rgyieDdedto
The UnivÈrsityof lÌìinois coaxiaÌ ihnslei design (PPI-3,
PPI-4),'"" like the Zond-2, is characterized by a relalìvely
high vaÌueoï impuÌsebir perjouÌe. low specificimtulse. dÌd
a predomÌnotly eÌecfoihermal âcceÌeraüonúe.hânìsm (Fig.
12). TÌÌe dmster is side fed, ald enploys a high dea ratio
ceraìnicmzzle to extract as much gasdynrnìc ând eÌectro
rnagNtic thnsl as lossibÌe.The singleigniieÍ phÌg is iocared
ir lhe nozzle, berwecn the exii and the ihJo.t. The bulk of the
sÌoredenergyis deliveredto â smâli-diàtuèter p.Òpçìlan1lined
caviry. closed at one end by ihe anode. wiÌh a lúgè râÌio ol'
lelgdr to diaÌletef,minimizinelrÌa$naheatÌossto èlectrôdès
and irs aLors,ànd prcduciDgp.essures on tlÌe oder of 50 àÌh
from -10 J. The cnÍenÌ pühe is nonreversing becauseof the
Fig. 13 CoàxiÈlsoÌìd-púpeìllnt thruster schematic,
Fis. 14 Fixed LRC circüit model or PPT-4 thrNt€í
-----cürúFi' (Pspne)
1 fice chaÍ.'rhe ôÌhe. ptupeurnlssboled varìationsìn /.,,lìom
F ESR 7 . 5 m O
: h a breech'fedcÒnngüation.
0.94
Tim llssl
Fig. 15 CoÌnpârison of m€asür€d cüreni ând lir€d LRC .ircuit
modcl cur.ont for PPT 4lhruster.
725
12
PlasnaTenpentuE{eV)
Fis. 16 EquilibriunìplasDâsoundspeedys tenÌperatur€pre-
dtutedby the Sesanìe
code.
use of a dìode acrossthe capâcìlor.and rhe pulse Ìength ls
shofi compúed lo the chitrâcÌenslic acoustic tiÌne I/., (lenglh/
soundspeed),slch thal the storedenergyis deliveredand the
eiectomagnèdcÌh.trsLìs lroduced prior to most of rhe gas-
dyDamictlÌrlst. The PPT4 cxÍenÌ puhe is nrodeÌedaccurateiy
wÌth a lìxed LRC circult (Pìes.1:1ànd l5).
'fhe
€iectromagnctÌc tlnsÌ componenÌof LhèPPÌ-3/PPI4
coaxialthtusre.sis +a' .f 1: dr, wherEr' is 0.66 /.H/n, âbouL
727.lhalôflhe LES,6 r€ctànguldüruster (AppendlxA). The
gasdynamicconponenrçân be aplroximatedby asumirg thât
Ìhe sÌoÍedenergyE is dèliveredto dÌe subsoDiccavlty.of vol
xme L x Á. in an âdixbaric,cônstân!-volume process.givirg
a pressurer, = (-) - l)t/LA. The imluÌse bit perjouÌe Ìs then
r
A
Jrat =r i (.7)
E
The t€mperature, 7, and soundsfeed. d. de rypicâlly 1.5 eY
1.3. rnd:l kn^ iìoú rhe thrusterrcsistanceand the Sesâne
code (Fig. Ì6), giling 75 /aN-s/J.The measuredaalÌreis 60
/,N-s/J {Flg. 8). corestor,ling !o a heat los of 20% in thè
calacitorând cavlÌy.The speciiìcimtulse is ó00 s, corcslold
ing Ìo â lelÒcity 50% hìgherlhàn dÌe sould spced.Tlìe gas
dynâúic thrusl.on!Íibutioncàn be decreased and the electo
magnetic corÌponeDt incrcased by operating al highe.
VÌI. AlternativePropettants
A Ìarge,u!úer of propelì.ntshave been e!àluãledin the
holes of nndirg inproverDeúÌsorer Tellon. The evatuatrons
are u$'ally perfomed by nìeasrringthrusrstandpeÍiomânce.
and by exanÌinÌDg the postlestconditìo. ofthe abl.Ìtedsurfâce.
Cumln" neasuredperformanceon . breech-fedPPT for
Teflon ând ornerplastics,incìudìngKyDalô,Viion@.Flxorel@.
KetF@. ceneron@.Halonú. Dehn@.CTFE,2]006. polypfo
lylenÈ, and polleÌhylene.AddiLiverfor Telìon suchas Ìithium
hydÍìdeto redücèúe ionizaÌionpoteDtillwereprolosed.Pre
ìimina.y I'eúbmance testsshowedth.t thrce of the pl.stics
resred.pôìypropylene,Delín-AF@.and Kynap. formed sul
947 s (Kèl F) to 2410 s (folyeÌhytene){ith Teflonat 1085 s
P.lumboaDdGnnÌan''eyaluaEdsever.lconìmercialllastics
(CelcoD6.Hald@,TefzelÒ,and Halon)aswell asTeflondoped
with l0 aDd107. ÌDBr,. ar.100J. Although ìl wâs concluded
that the lerformanceof ÌlÌeseplastÌcswas lower than that of
Teflon. the Ìests were oDly Ì!n in lhe breech fed mode. pre-
vçntjn8 diÌecr conparisonwith the sÌde-fednode. PaÌuìnlro
aDd Gunìan5'! aÌso anempredto evalÌrateTelton seededwith
alkaÌi metals,bul the sinteriDgteÌnperaftrre of the Teflor was
abovethe rnetalmel eDueruture. AD attenÌplw.s madeto nse
a popelìant composedof 80% LjIJ,20õ, polyeihyÌene, bur llÌe
liLbìum elÌed Òut Õn the surtu.e and very bw values of
abl.ted mâsswere .chieved.lÌ wâs .Òn.hded thàt.10bè suc-
 deslstrof the PPT.The incÍeaseof operatngle!ìlerãtúÍè çÌLi
-"i, . ' s : - ' ' . l , a rP P T d e . , s n f d p ' n o n a n . e . i n Ì e r
o r c . r o r - : r ' r rer r l n e .r l o ' - b l e . n , S r n 3 ' o r t a À eÚ. d F '
ú , ó 1 . ' . ; n$ i l l d e n e n d orn\ e n . : u - p f l r d ' o . e c { i o n '
keeling vs ofbir raisjng.

Ix. Additional System Issues

With a long history of Right apllication, the PPI sho!Ìd
h.ve bright p;ospectsfoi turther use i! slace FÔÍ êâ'h neq
/ PPTúis;ion. hoeeveaquestiônspersìsrÍegardìngeÌectroDâg_
n e Ìc n . e r l e rcee r r \ 4 f ) J n Í j . o r c r n - r i o r o r ' e ' P L ' J ' i
fr ---'-l bv ihe PP'f exhauí. EMI ftusr ahïâvs be addiessed
,o,, n"""r.. . . r \ e Êe'"r-' I e n d o s . d r o r e
rn â nes
a n' b e
h u L"J" .. .er n, . o t t e r ' 'e e c | | o -. . u h . ' . , r n . C . 1 , . r r i r - l h n b \
Fig. rt Fúel geometrÍ sho*ing T€floÍ/poÌvethvlenêlâminâiiotrs the PPTth.ustermusÍbe considered eventhoughPPTthru\te'r
eject less mas thdn cbemic.l thruíes bocâuseof the posi
cessfuÌ. anv additive wonld have to deçÕmpose at 'bout lhe bilih of ccrbor JrlosrÌiun
.lerolvmeri;adoí tenperarure of Tenon (330'C)' I n r e r e ' r , e u l , r ' Ò r I o . h c ' a d Ô t P P ' o e ' ' g nr l í
i{asA Lewis Rèsearch Cerier Ànd Oiio State UniversitÍ"' bÀsiccuíeni Ìo;p ofihç plasmadischargeacÌsas ân e:cellenÌ
u,:ne dn LLs 8'o \erresr\nrer. penuncd er|e :n enÌ' Io ânÌema.h Ddncille, exreÍnaÌcoils nìav cânceÌtlis broadcâs!
,lre'"-he Jbh.-nc \uí !e o lhe p opel,d r brr h\ "r'ern lrng dl leastpàrtiaÌlÍ but moí designspay Ìi1!ieattenliÔnto such
lave* of Telìôn ;Íh new lJrol,èllant mrÌeriaÌs This lechrique. mâtters._PÌasm; disch4ÍgesaÌso cân Prolide eÌeclionagnetic
r'q"' honrô. u ot l,l p o\ it e impru\
'o p(i||' imp l< trirh emissìonsby subtÌerprocesse\'Thomassen"measuredrâdia_
' o $ n ! ú e o ' e , , 1 d r e l < . r i c . . , ( n e h ot ' órie Tel o r'_ r i o n. n r h ci . ) 1 8 C _ l / b a ì J r o r J l l S 8 - h r u J e ur ' r n C a
un
Radiatior was orlv observed du'ing the
làce. Fiõre 17 depicls üe arangeftent of ]Àmim of different bFadb.nd alLenna.
maleÍìâis in the m;dined propellani bar' Elrlìer attenlts to use fiNt 0.5 1 r^ of the 8 /ls dischargepulse. dunng the high_
p l x . Ì . . . 5 J c h d . p o ) ( l n ) l ' r ' ed i n e d : l ' r c n g h P r ' a ' r r t u voltasebr;kdown phase,and was characÉrlzed bv a fla! fre
uelsnÌ ôl eúaJ. proJrn' b) el:nrr ' I nF nJ' 'e lt
led ou"niv .r,e"r-n' *iìl u toÌâl radiâtedpower ôf a few hundred
wtrir serere carbonization ("chaÍins ) occurcd."'In the Íè- milli;a$s over tne ftequencymngè.con!ìrèd to a discharg'
l3n,Ère.o iíf'n 'lC F Ir -nd ooì)erh_ loser dissiPâtionof 10 MW
y l e n er l i _ - t 1 1 . ' . e . e d | . l n e e r | ' n i c . 1 " c ' - $ r ' í r P {'c" eo A l FlxtensiveEMI tests .nd corechve úe.surcs wetc Per_
; a ' e . d i ' D l 3 \ c d ü e r r n d e r lJ r o r ' h r p o ì ) e h ) ì e n c
'L ro , ^ - , e d b ) | b e n e r - l . n | ' e \ O \ A c _ e cJ l r A l ' 8 \ '
carbonizÉ.çhile the intervening Teflon teceded at â fâster râte ..d. led ic.o,n, o re{ nd 'f -'Ji c rr'lod' Fed dln iÈ
Slch modiÊcâlion of rhe su.f&e occrÍed oveÍ severâl thou- flieht qualjficâtionis described 'o
sand firjngs and did not affect the alriìiLv of the coiüìned i o " i , , t , " o . . \ p r o \ , , l e 'J J Ì p l e . p p r o x c \ e d r ' n t s
D " L e l U Idúr l . " r i o n . n P P f . .S ! : , e c r J ' \ i o € r )r r r ' l
$ÌÍface lÔ hold off the initiaÌ charging_vÕllage,b*ause FeÍg "
ditiìcultv ot' acceptirg â delice tÌÌat looks
inE of cúbonized Ìayers across úe inleÍvenine lèflon did nor ihen confrort the
oc;ur. Comparisôn of üe PropeÍiès of Teflon and polvelhyìene dlffercll than the ône lreviousÌy selectedby otberdestgners
{,e8e{. rlxrInr.tLe'r r.trô edPPTPolell'ìr' mar Le CerÌainÌ!.rlÌe buÍde! restswiú the dnsÌer engireersto dem-
penã .uu.te .a',r..
" r. r c h
d' rìe 'h€m 'l o í '\;D 1r"l le ònslr,t€ the leìformancè .nd li1ètlmeof a coari PPT in_
"n
iemperÀhúe t'or polymeÍ decomposition.'" clüding lubtl; dìffercncesin proFllint hÂndlingxnd ignilion'
Hlstoricallv.PPTeflluenÌshavenot conl)romsedspacec'aÌt
VIIL PPI System Heating . o e c r i o - . . r . . t . . . r . ' r n - , r . e ol r.l o n . r n e P r n D e l r nn Í l l '
remloràÌureoD Pt'l
Concemfor the eftèctsof PropellanL . , ne r t r u . . ' . n . r . r i r . lo . " ' ' o t m o c r o ^ n ' l d Ì ' r o í n e
petfomance ted to 1wo experimental effotts âimed â1 moni moslly ions of LrothspeciesPÍoducLionof racrolaíicìes and
rr im. er:p ioi oopet r or' r..' | -n " lJ
- . " s e - o e n t u , _ J l u e . w h i n ' h c ! r o D el . ' n b I J r o l ì F r ! r h r i o u o l F h e ' p ' c e c r-l
.o_\l.rr c r
. . " r , , 1 " ,, n r " . p t T . A . p d Ì , r r , h o , ,. , f l e r a ,n , r e n r ' e t r o n
ro ânalvzePPT behâvior,Spânierset al "' Placeda senesoi €nvironmènt,and elecÍôde.sidew.ll. and igniler maleral mây
ú e , n o ; o u p l e1' r . r ' e J l l '.nJ€ o 1 ' L r r h i r r 1 ' l e f ' r r o Ô e l 'J"n nho aplear in úê exhôu\t Erosionof thrusrercomponent\mâv
rls. conÌÍibute1Òcontâmitration (but at ftuctì lower m$s now
o" . H.'.ei n-* lor J'r P P I o o e rr: i o r c u a í l ' e d \
hlÈherGmleratuÍesat hicher aleiage porverleveÌs Masslos
at;en lo; sDeeds by evâlorationbetwèèndischÀrges, jn àd For fli€ht aurlified PPTS,elecrrcdeandinsulârorerosronhas
-Ì ', ';" '; :"u( ó i - l) be l r'e ol
ditio; to macroraÍticle gencration, can sigDilìcantÌv reduce
P P I n e í l o r m d n . ; . s i m i l , f e \ ,l .ee n r "" o r l
q \ | \ " rJ â $ ' n J I n c ; e t .t . ' ( l ) h r g e ' D l - r - ô , , ' I r o . . u nc r n D e . on e - p ^ '
rur i nco D n p € a l - ) M A C H 2 . d l 'rbrron "hi'll tant if the specilìçinìpulse is loÒ hi8h. in which case úe
".e,
conectLypre.li.ted lhe imlulse bÍ becauseÒf discharge.but âblâtedm.s cu be in$ffcient ro providecurenÌ caüi€Ís Ìo
the discharge. In rhis s;!üitio!. whlch cân haPpenif â PPr for
requìÍedlaÌ€ìlme múedaÌ loss to accoun!Ior rhe ftâss ross
n " Li n L E s - b .I n | ' ' e c n . n e r r r ' ' r t e m o c o r P l c ' k e Ì I ' r 0 L r 0 ,l ' e J.cl'Jr!e sill <.\ 'n" ÊeLJmêÊ ron l'e
"ê. i n ' ' . " t e í ] . n p r o \ r l ' n . a , ô i b . , r ì e l e c, Õ d e .o r " .ie. reo. -nCrr*'..-o r l e ja Re rlr' rorPPr'operdn; I
o'. l e í e r r _ó e \ : e " e d u r r \ c " r i n _
" a \eD l'3h/!ru.
È Í e e c h - l È. e d c l a n s u LP i rP T '
IÌÌ bÒthexperimentâleilbís. lhe size of Èe thennÔcouples I e : \ , r eo l \ f , ' c c ( r d . o r ' : n r ' r ' n n b ) e _ l ' I n r ' r '
linììted the s!âti.Ì ônd temPor.Ì resolutionof rne úeasurc exharst càn be e{amined experìmentallyand bv Nmeúc'l
'v pÌume mo.leling. E\periftennl mersureftents are pelfomed
menrs.Thns.ìhè ÌemleÍatnrevaln.s obÌainedÍepresenled
onger
' l ' J t 1 1 í r | | ! ' L r J Êr i ì e ir cryogenicaUy cooledor targe-di.metermcuuú faciÌiíiesro
dd. {'. e., 'Í . n.. {\l-
.r'r.,nce, m t ' r e ' c r . d n o e r r o Ì | ' ó - ' | e l r ' rf " c - nini;i;è iank wail effecls. and nunerical rÌethods eúPlov
tech
"Over
. " ' r of lhe firsi thonsaDds
úe coutsè of shoÌs,temPerânÌres collisioDlÈss Parliclein-cell aDd Monte Cado coÌlìsion
Íose ir âlÌ cÀ\es..PPÍÒ.cÌÌitÌgplâteauvaÌuesLhrÌ dePendoD , , , q e ' A l ' r o r Ë hP P I t h ' - J ' r i Ì l
.;;.".,,, r o , ' . ' , , 1 ( , ^ n , o "l o p ^ ! Ì . D'r- ol
heatimnsferlrom the PPTto the re\t ol thc e{perjmèntâlaP- contaúinltion cnn be â conceú for
.iâÍ,1 fiÒw"and , . " ,backnow
;"
DarstÌ6.TlÌe ânodeis llìe highesttèinperatuÍeeleüent Eìe_
vatèd teoreÍaturesof úe èieciFdès ÌeadsÌo con'eÍns wiLh hjgh power PPTSor 1ìr appìicationsìnvoÌvins sensitiledìag_
heÂttfan\aerro the capacitofas pait of the over'Ìll tÌìenal nostics,e.3.,oPÌics.

Bdckllor coútânìiirÌlon was me.sufed lbf 1lìe }ÍÌllipound
L
Ì'I,f usìns ootl r Fúrdày cut ând â li.lÌri.L riÌrogen cooled
quaÌ12cr) íât n\l.robalânce (QCM) nearthc cxit plane ai mdiaì
.lislancec up to I m lrom the ÌlÌusl .ais. These rÌein'rernerÌs
\rÈre slppôrÌed Lry photoeraplìl of the ÌuDrìnouspÌlLme,$hich
nÒ*ed . pÌ!ÌÌe expansjof hrlf:angìe ol .]0 deg. asírcrrted
-l- -'-..d:\.up 'i8ro
.i', 11 ....- p.,rr-. cco'
tì.Ìed Ìh.t the bâckfloi! {as predoDrinantly eìectìicaìly reu-
!tuÌ, .Ì !ìoÍ 5tn jonÌzed. TÌre QC\J sas lsed Lomea{Lre back-
Ílos rì.s flux. wlìich dccreared wÌiì râdirs.trL LÕ70 c l.Ònr
rhe axis. A DrodjÍied nozTìe $iLh tr shield plrÌe re.luced Ìhe
rxckflow b) âbont a tìclor oì 2.
ExÌensive coDÌ.nnriÌion neasurclreDls for boú ftnlrd
and bàckflo{ mas lìnx s.erc made oD aD Lì:S'8/9 PPT. u\nìg
' hr Ìhe nr-
Ìxngnìli. eLeclfosralic!rcbc\ ard qunz vrieA.
*ard djfectjon. a bâ\È Jìlnì srs de!ÒsiÌed ÍiÌh inbedded I
a.d 5'r!m paíicle\. Ihe delositio! maicfiaì was conìfosed of
câ.bor. iluorine, !úd . f.w 5-|!Dr pr,licÌes of elecrtude nrntÈ'
úaÌ, and *$ r'oun!ì to de.Íease r.!i.lly beyond 50 deg off
uxis. Ìn Ìhe tìack diIection. no measu,abìedeÌrosiÌtun\!as úea-
sufed ulLe.2 x l0'trÌses. Il Ras concÌÌrded tlÌit . .. ro first
ordel \prcecrrfr súf.ces behin.l the PPT should noi bc sie
niJìcìntl! .oriâmln.ted b) thNsref e\hdusÌ p.drcLs.'
trÌccLrodesÌtrdìesqère perforned Lry $ci-ehi'ìg the elecüode
rnnss toss rlìer 9000 !ìischarges." Iso di\Ìlnctìve conctuions
scre rcâ.hed. Usnrg dìe sanÌe Ìn.teriaÌ lor the cldrode aDd
inodc, the anode ÈÍr\iÒn wis llpi.âlÌy 10 linì.s 1Ììai of the
.!írde. Secondly. a copper arode wls obse.led tÒ erude one'
renrh a rmch Âs sÌiiÌÌless sleel uDdef similuÌ condirìlrns.
X. Velocity âDd Relâted Plume lleasurements
Nlofe than âny orher nt.surement. lelocity disphts ihe
conìplexjl) of rne PP'r a.celefuÌnr. prôcess.Il was .ilscolered
.Ì .n c.Ì1_ysÌage drai  Ìri1)ndrel{rcÌL) disÌnbúÌÌotr q.s PresenÌ
in the PPT c raust. Íjth duta Jrom oldèr ertenrnerrs repeaÌ
edlr indì.àÌing Ì.ÒÍehÌior of hieher sp..ds Ìlith Ìrigher ion
iz.tion slaÌes. The nôrion Òl rcceleriÌing ions ol dìiïcr.Di
cl\úge sÌâÌ.s in the sanìe elec.ic rìeÌd Lhrs ÍerdilJ súggesls
Tnis inleryièÌiÌion, lìolrere., canDoi apply ifthe cuftnidÈ,-
sii,v djst.ihrLi(m (nr Ìvhicb Ìhe Ìlall elecÌrlc fìcld rcsidet er
Ìends ore. a st.eannli\è !ìisÌince lmclì l.fgef ÌlÌan thc ÌÌean
free F hs 1ÒrnÌotuenÌrn Ì nsfef coÌlisions anoDg ihe vârbns
\pe.ies. Furlhcfmore, up n) tuu. chnÌge-sÌates.e.e., Cro C
\!oul.l have Ìo coe\i\t n, .ômpd.âble liopoflnrÂs ar Ìhe same
rinìe aDdlosiliÒn fÒr súbseque!Ì accclerationb) rhe HaÌl neìd
Ildrelc.. n'ìized g.ses lypicaÌÌ,Ì ottèr ore charge-\tale thll
do,r rc \ | , \í ,. lp-p,l.rion . ìc e. ,!Ì,.j
,nd LoÍef Ìcv.Ìs This Íould seern 1o ìÈâd LÒâlÌemetÌrè ex
planaÌÌons tbr the .bseìled ringÈ Òl lelÒciÌies. snch as ihe
Lcndency Ìo c1latc higher clìarge-st!1e\ ìr Lhe lower de.sity.
hieheFspeed loíiÒns of iììe PPT e{lìaust.
Al ihis lirne. ìÌrtcrr'ÌeLlljon .i the velocny dara in PPT ex
peimenÌs .enanx .n olen issrc. TÌÌc dìiÏculÌr' oi such inteÈ
pretlltun iture.ses ivhcn ÈrFriÌìeDial con.lnsnms p.esenLèd
I. ror...'r\o rec,:,..rir..ìF 'r n, in. T í1. 'Dí
spectFscopic obseìrâLioì Òf úe usleâdy and mnlnllìin
plasm. flo\r in PPTSlan i'ìtroduce eror\ lecau\e 01 samtlÌng
qüiÌe dìftircnt LìÌdsmasal.ng dre optical path. lhese erors
nrcltrde erÒreous l,xlues of cÌectron tenìI,ÈrâLuÍe\l.Òm Írer
cci\ed lìne-inÌensìlr Ìnrs. ind olefestin.lcs ofhe!r) paÍicìe
ÌempemtLuc when lÌne brca!ìÈnìng meesure!ìenÌs capiÌ!e r!
sLe:úy .onìponcrÌs ol dirccÌed yelocìty, !uìhuÌÈnce, ard colli
sn)nal effecÌs. FuÌlì.rDore. tirÌe+a.iarnrns of pliÍDÀ cheiì
lsÌry rnd lumino\ìty nxy ìnconecdy suee.sr conlecÌÌon. Lrre
.f p.obes Íìclì .s Frrad!! cur\ in Ìlìe ÌÍÂrsì.nÌ. htleNonic
Jl,N of i l'fT aLsoiÌÌ!ircs di1Ículties ol inLeÍrieÌiÌloa,le.dirìg
pen,aps to .n,ions cor.Ìusìons, {Ì.ì r\ a ILN deg.ee of iÒri
zatl.n combnreLlwilli r hielì chargc sÌ!Ìe. \\ith rhe\È ca\eÍ'.
rre ìcviè* Úie e{pednìcnÌ.1 veìo.itl ie.nÌr: lÒf l'l'fs
121
\bndfa er dl.'' Dnsured !lêsm! veìocjt) nì tìrc lrlLrmc of
the LES 6 bncch fed thrusÌer by Ìwo Ìcchniqucs. Tlìe tna$
areiaged velocily fronì the specilìc iÌìpulsc Ías 3 2 knr/s. Im
â!rècorverler inalles of LhèlÌrminous ]r.nÌ shotred a lumiÌrous
plasnâ Òn the lèflon -\Ífice düdrìg Ìhe pnLse.ând a high !e
ô. rp '. s l-.,' .,,, e|o.,) o L..d l.
n6Ì cuÍenr h.lf cycle, folÌorved b,v ar lncreasc to 3l krn (Ì0
times the nars-ayerâged velÒcn!) iìr the Íemânrdei oi dre
!üÌse. The velocjl) ìncreasç occurcd shoílr" alìer the peak in
elecronìignetlc forcc. irhen 75', of lhe capacilor ereÌgy lì.d
been disch.rged. Pl.smâ Ìclocily mearued slth a FÂfadiy cup
.'
Í!s ;12.5km/s, aDd was t,csnmed to be C lnd F- ions.
The ÌoÌeÌ cÌiarye collccÌed Lry Ìhe cuLr nnÌrÌied a l0',â ioniz.d
jn dìe dì\charge Èon l$eÍ interÌèr-
lhina. Eleclron densirr ' '
omeÌÍy 11.s -2 x l0 nì aìd nre eìecÌron tenueraÌNe lionì
emissior spectfoscotl ol C ìines rva\ 3 lJ e\'. lnte.e\iÌngly,
dle infered ion ÌeDperatuÌe lìom ljn. brcadeni'ìg q,as 10 15
eY double Ìhe electron tenÌpcmtÌrrc.
Dopllcr Ììeasurenrentsof indi\'ìdlral specìes showed highe.
veÌociÌy fof moie lìignÌy ioDized specìes.as gilen iìr Tabìe.1.
Il rvas concìudçd thâÌ Lhèhigh velÒ.iÌy species.cÒnprlslngltt
oi rhe nra\s. cÒnLrìnedÌ5% of Ìhe stored eNrgy.
Simìlaf Ìelocities. 10-15 km/s. \erc nrea{ftd bv Gnúuìì
.n rhe LES-6 thntsÌer for doubl) .nd lfipl,v iLrnizedC atrd F.
hy Òbsèrvlng Ìhe inne of rìüi\'!Ì ol +ìeclrll lirÌcs. SjngÌ) ioD
ized C and F mo\ed ÌÌ xbout two Íìlrds Ìlìe !elociÌ\' ol the
rtrÌÌtifl! ionizcd spcci.s. NeutkÌs rïere oLrsenedaÌ 5 15 krn/s,
signincanllr_iì\Ì.f Ìlìln the m$s rÌetuse \elocìry of I rm/s
It s.s concluded lhnt i! is inâIrtìopiìLè Lô spcú ol r singlè
exhâ.Í leÌocir) for the PPT.
!ìrorì Ì1ì. l-lls 6 relocitj dairri (_fable .:1)tlìe bnìk of rhe
exhau\t Ìinrctic Èncrg! nnn ÌnÒhenluú $.\ l.lnd Ìo rende in
Ì h c c h a r s e d| r Ì 1 i . Ì È s ( n t o u r 1 ( l t o f r h e r b l ì G L l n r s ! . b â s e d
on Fúidrt .up m.as,rcn,.nÌs) Thc arrhoÌ\ pfopose tÌrdi the
rì$esÌ pinicÌ.s .re a...lcraìcü eul) iÌÌ dre Lrllse. ud the
slo\.f p.Ì1icÌc: llrer. ufd:...ndiLions ol lìi.!heÌ frc\\!rÈ hLì
TÌìe pl.rn! \cÌocny if the Rú'sran \ltPD -1,dL\cn.\Èd ea.-
ÌieÍ.r_ *xs meiiured lbuf s.Isr berrrsìig sprÌi.Ìl) in thc
!ÌÌÌDe {iÌÌr €Drnrof spe.úo\cÒfti llseÍ ifLc.fc.ometi): lang-
nuÌ probc: üìd nìrsreiic Ìrrcbe\ The velociry ot C and F-
n)n. wâ\ fouíd Lo be.l5 km^ by specüomeüt. WiÌh interfèl
oÌìÈLry r frsl jon blob âÌ 25 35 km/s Ías obse,aed, foÌlo\r.d
by a íoweÍ blob .t 1.1 15 Ìnús, both 1ìster than Ìhe eaD
\elocitr. Òi 1l hrÍs VclociÌ] oí Ìlìe ncuÌraì\ rïas Dredsuredas
l5 kú/s by slecÌroscopl \\ìtÌ an elect.o{âtic F.obe Lhe la\t
ì o n ! Í e r e 3 0 3 5 k r n ^ , f o l l o s e d b y s l o Í e . n ) n sa t l . Ì - 1 6 Ì n t
| ..' f h. lc d : 0 ..,ro .r. r.le
úc, âÌ . ÌemperaÌÌue of l il :.Ó e\: inyarjaÌ! du.j.s the frÌse.
Dufnrg the lì.sl hnll .)cle Ìhe !Ì.gretic probes sÌiowcd ro cu
relt !t lbe back in\tr|àor of this slde 1èd thnrsler rDd aj x l}
.rÌÌenr lront moline ìÌì 1Ììc 1ìor! difcctior ar 20 ?5 kÌÌ/s.
The velocily oi üe e\h0usÌ gns in xJâprnese PP']!_ qâs
rlso anaìlred $ìúì elecroÍatic Ìiìne ofnìeht pÌob.s. loclúed
107 and 2i)2 .m fron rhe dìn6Ìer Tlìe measured iotr flor
velocii) qas 3.1 ÌÌÌ/\ *iLh úis ÍEúrod From a Ìolrl enerB)
thbl€ ,l LES 6 spedes 1cìocilic\
f.onÌ Dopplcr me!su.enedls
c
a
c-
 úgnnenÌ it was concludedthâ! üe bulk of the flow cons$eo
of neulraìsnÌovirg âÌ a much iower speed.
Thonâssenand Tong} xsed a nrultipÌepâssHe Ne lâsèr
interferometer ând Fdâday cup to meâsurerlre spati.t and rime
dependeNeol lhe electrondènsíy in tlÌe Teflo! dìschârge
!Ìasna. 1 26 mnr iD fionr of tbe :Ìblating süface. The toÌal
charso Ìreasured by úe Fa.aday cup indicâted rhat úe pÌâsDa
was 40./onhi?ed 3.5 Drmfrô'n the abÌaÌing eúface, decreasirg
to 187. ionized ar 1ó Ìm. Assunins the exlatrsrgâs !o be n
drifìnA, expandingNlaxweÌlianwith Ìh€mal velocily rr and
dnii velocity ro. curle fits to dìe irteÍferômerer deDsiiy .lata
gâve rr = 9.3 k^ and ro = 27.9 kÌn/s. This themal velocÍy
cin be compded to Ìhe Telìon equilibrinmsoundspeedgiven
in Sec.Xl (Fig. 16). Using the resuÌiingdensìlyatrdìo! tem-
peranÌÍe(7.ó eV) ro predicrúe p.esure. Ìhèy concludedúât
the Sasdynâúicf.o.cesconrribure4E7oof rhe rh.u!r, and Ìhe
nÌàgtretic forces comribute 52í..
Hirâlâ àDdMurakamiarpè.foned massspectromerer {MS)
measuremenÌs rn a vacuumch.mbd on iìe residüâlerlÌ.lsr
gas ll.om llÈ JapanesePPT flown on Ìhei' EngÌneering Tesi
SatelliteIVli The lhrusterenergyw.s 2.6 J ar 3 pulses^.and
l0 /rg w.s ablatedper pulse.AlthoÌgh the DreasreúerÌ was
not tinÌe resolved.the .âìculatedrime fÒÍ threebody ÍècoÌn
binrtion was very long cornparedto the meaDchambe.resÌ
denceüne, ând úe MS .eadingswe.e rhe.eforethorghl ro be
characlerisÌicÒf lhe molecularspecFumof iìe exhaustgas.
Theseshowedà ÌârgepeakcoÍespÕndingto the C!_moìecrle,
and snÌallerpeakscorespondirìgro C, F. CF,. ând CR. tr was
concludedthat â considemlrlefrâcrion of üe le0o. was
ejecredrs a high Ìnassúolecule, ivlìich could haÌe ÌÌ.ppèned
late Ìn t|e cúen! pulse.The .Ìlho.s djd nor evaluàtethe pos
sibihy of waÌl reconbjn.L n.
Spârjen eLal.' ÌnvestlgatedÀ thruster(XPPT-Ì) simild to
the LES 8/9, btrr wirÌr betÌerdiagnostìcaccess,âúd wúh arlal
insteadof 30 deg-dÌgledtlÌ st. Time-rcsolvedelèctroDaM
neutraÌ densities $ ere measuredwilh à HeNe laseÍ inrerferoDì
èter The Ì.ser bean was reflecred thÉe tines pârilleì to rhe
rireì .od at a disÌanceol 8 nnn fron Ìhe face, creaiìng e ptasma
lath Ìength of 7.5 cm, eí1èctivelyheâsuÌjng the chÀngein
index of ÈÍìactjon causedLry the pre\enceof piisnâ. BoïlÌ
neuÌÍãl and electon densitywere found ro yary lirÌeârtywith
energyover a raneeôi 2-li0 J. with ihe neut.aÌdensjry,,, -
fen x 10'' cm :'. abo!Ì nle tinìcsthe mdimun eÌecbonden-
siry. AfteÍ .dopúÌs prcvious resulrs lor tast (:10km/t and slow
(3 kftA) veÌocityrneasrrenrents.r3 ir wâs concludedüar iìr a
25 J dischaÍee.üe kinetìcène.gyof the fâst particFsçrs 4.o
J, inÌplying a thrustefeffciency of DedÌy t9%.
I " ì " f , r v o r l , n , h e, . n r er l r r u l r , r e , r o , d c n , ) u . . e a ,
ily detectedeârly in rìme.fàÌlìng ro zero at allroxiôalely ttÌe
end of tle cürent pulse.irNeuÍrl densìrywas observedfor
tinrs much longç. than the end of rhe curelr pülse,ard Í
was conclDdedthat tlÌe neutâl dersjry was aboútfour rìmes
tle densiryof dÌe ionized sl)ecìes.LaÌe tlúe âbìationof 3(10
m/s macÌopaÍicles,hypthesizedrc be ftemalÌy expelledTetr
lon eftpling tìon the süfâce, wd obseNed.IncreaslngÌhe
storcdcnergyp.ódtrceda propoÍÌjônalìncrcasein abláredmass
úd in eìectuonand nÈuLraì densìties-
Using LhesaÌnethrusreÍ,Msrkusic and Spô.esN1 srudiedLhe
time-resolved specrrâlemissio!ofaTellon llume in rhevisibte
-50
í1:0 nn\ ÍJ, . ".
" 1 . ( lr l d r eP P . . r r e . r p J . . o , . F , g )
wìs 15,30. and 45 J, ând tlÌe spectmú was fesolvedât nre
horÌzoDtaÌdidplânç eÍher wirh â chargecoupÌedde!ìce amy
oÍ for a predetermined spècrraÌline wirh an exì1slìr .!d pho-
todiode.fo. a tiúe pèriodup io 75 lis âlìe. terminâÌlonof the
ctrrent pulse.SpeciesidenLìfiedscre F. F'. C'. C' ân.j Cr.
b u r ' o rc o a f s h r . ( . , c . L r - ^ u . i . e . f e { . e r r ( B o .
PloÌsof spectraDoÌÌallzed Ìo üe iDtensityof the 427 ün C*
line wère st.ìkirgÌy indeperdçntof sroÈd en-gy_ as was lhe
erectÍÕnteììpefatureâi leâk curent, detenniredLrythe ÍetÀ,
tive inlensityoíC'excited states.The spâÌjxllyavemgedelec-
trotr tempeìarurewas ioÌnd to be l.:1 a 0.2 ev i! rhe arc,
Velocitydetemiranon from propagationof the sp.riâl disrri
bütionof C' emissiongave 15 krÌVs.and udike somèobsen-
eN, abouÌ the samevaÌue fór C++ and F+. Thesevelocities.
and Ìnoseobtairedconcu.endy by Dópplershifr,nlso tj krt
s. weE concludedto be Ìow fôr reasonsrelaringto specjfics
Eclràn et al.' mâdedelliled plume measuremenÌs of ion
velocityin úe LES-6/9thnster, and fould thaLuE rors Lrav-
eled in a first waÍè ât 35 55 kn^, ald in a secondwavè at
2lj km/s.Ther sxggesred eirìÌermulÌipìoìorizarionor lhe stug-
reÍíLe-steady+tare mode of opeÍatiÒn of Turchi and Mikef
Ìides"'a! a mechanism. NeutraÌ!€locity anddensityweremea
slred wirn a tusi (3 |.s reslonse)iollzaLiongauge.iliLh tlÌe
âssumprion rha!the DeuÌrâlrempeÌahrre wasequalio theTeflon
surfaceÌemp€.atuÌeof:120 K. The dersiLywas foulo ú Deon
the order of l0r0/m;,and io decãy dowÌy on à time sc.te of
The complexityof plàsmamotioDsin rhe ppT inclÌr.lesrlìe
possibiÌit] of diffÈÉnr chargesiâLèsa sing .r djfièrenitilnes,
\ h t . , i r Fd j f f e r e|. . p e e J \o e c i L . eu t í ' h e r p r o ó s. â . , | Bo r
âblìlion-a.cDìodesduring rhe dischârgepulse.When cunents
are no iongefpresenr,rhe PPT exlìaüsrcornprises hor tlaena
rerlainiÍg frcn the dischafgepuÌse.followed b), colder Ìnâ
te.iâl thatleaaesat muchlower speed.Dnectionsfor iúpoved
peÍomance tlÌercfo.eÍequireguidince irom theoreÌicalmod-
èlìng thar caDaccounLprolerly foÍ Íhe vlriety of speedsan.l
XL Recent Advarces in PPT Modeling
The problemof âssociatilgrhe mâssevolvedfrom the pro
pelìanisurfacewnh dìe irnpulsèdevetopeddürins úç operâL-
ìng pühe repEsentsthe prìÌcipal difficully in esrabÌishirgüe
petformâíceof tÌre PPT ln lemN of its specì]ìcinÌpulseol
(average)exhauÍ speed.E'npincally,meâ$úenentofüe Ìolal
ìnas Ìoí by úe sudaceoveÍ many dischargespÍovidesrhe
nrds loss per shôt.This value divìded nÍo the impulseper
shot ofers the ivèrâgeexhanstspeed.ExlerinìenLâldaia sug-
gestthaldìernâssÌôsr is pfopoitionâlro the sioed energy(Fig.
9). This ìrÌultively tÌeasanrresull iDtlies ! consÌrnrvaÌuefoÍ
the averageerhausrspeed.and a ieâ$nabÌe w.y 1oscaìenei!
designstìonÌ existingdâ!a.At rhls leveÌ of discussion.how,
erer, there is !o fuíher insleht to provide a firm bdsisfor
iúproving PPT peifomúce.
Ir is necessàry to delelop theÒrcrì.almodeliíg nar can ú-
corporat€physlcalprocessesnol câpÌúredby Ì!Ìnped,cn.cuiÌ
relresentalìonsand enpnical scalinglâws. For example,ihe
dìscharyecuÍert Ììust lì.ve Lhe opporruniÌyro florv borh
tbroughpatlìsprôpâga!ìng aÌongthè âcceleraror elecbodesald
througha pathÍe èinnrgDearthe pÍolellaDÌsurface.This re-
quircs a fomllatìon ar Ìeastat rhç leyel of MHDS b obÌaln
tìe distribuliorolcunenr densiryvirhir rherhnsteÍ.An efforÌ
ro extôndPPT opeÍxtìonto dìe millipoúndÌevetnBr xrb)Ìlted
sucha! approâch,8J At ihe time, however,compurâriorllsim-
uÌation of plasrnaaccel.râÌiÒnwas too difficÌlL rc acnleve
withÌn a prograÌr largely deyoredto experimenÌdexpìorarion
and development.Over rhe pãst decade,the MACH2 code,
crcatedto suppoí expefimenrswjlh powedul p1astua-guns,!!
has been applièdto €lectro!ìagnelìcrhrusrefprobleÌ)ls.These
aplJÌicaiìoísln.luded quasisieâdyNIPD arcjeÌs3rand \!eady,
srâLe,apllied field N1PDthruslers.'"ând mo.e recenÌtyrhe
The MACH2 code calcuÌaiesrlìe behaljor of unsÌeady,
MHD flow in comllex geonetries.The florv may have rwo
direcLionsof vtuiation ân.l ürce directiÕn\ib. vecÌoÊlìeld
componenrs.For exanìple,MACH2 coÌnDuÌesthe uDsÌeâdy
evohúionof aÌl threecompoDeDuof nagneúc field and flow
rebciiy in the phne côntlinlÌìg rhe axis of symÌeÌÍy of aD
âpplìed-fieÌd.r\'IPDÌhflNler The code âllorvsthree rempera
tures (heâvy-paújcÌe. elecÌron.and radiâÌion)ând coulles ro
the SESAME t.Ìblestbr coúpÒsilioÌ, equationot:\rate. ând
tmnsportprÒpe.he\oi nìanyúaLe.iaìs:ideal gâs ând cìassjcal
plasma options Àho exÌst. F.râday's Ìaw ard a generalized
Ohm s law (ìnclÌÌdingüe effeca of HaÌÌ neUs úd eÌecrron
Piessureg.adients)coúbine to comptrtemagnericconvection
ard diffi$ìon. basedon !hè eÌectricâlÍesistivily of ptâsha ìn
tlÌe pesence of eÌectrjc ând ftagneüc fieÌds. For sluaúons oÌ
hìgh curent densityand lôw palticÌe density,oplronsexis! Ìo
ìnvokephenônenologicaÌ noLlel$of eomaloüs resisiivirybe-
cÀuseof nicroinskbjlities. Optioús tò. anisorropicrherDal
corduclionby both he.vy parriclesald electroìsin mâgnetic
nelds also exisr.Choicesfor r.diàrion ÍaNport inchde opri,
cÂìly!hìn. equiÌibriuú and noleqxilibnum dìffusionnodeÌs.
Th€ needlbr seÌf consjstenr addlrionotma$ duringÌh€ dis
ch.rge pulsemakesnuúeÍical sinÌularionúuch nÌoredifiìculr
t o h e P P Ì ' h d nf o r d B " . . t . , l t l , . r m . i , J { r ' . N I A a H 2* . .
ì , o d f e d . " ' u , n . n | | . . o r r i n r u n . o - r l ' , , o n r , . . \ e . h e- q u i .
Ìibrium vapoÍ prcssureof the prupeÌlanlmaÌeíaì líee Eq. (t ).
sec. II)1, basedon rhe surlaceteúpe.ature,for thè boundart
value ol' pressure .t ihè prol'ellüÌt sürfâce, The nomâ] aìgo
rithms in MACH2 the! calculâÌerhe morion of vdpurnno ne
conìputational domain.A sepdate.oulinefor i$'o-dimensionat,
unsieady heat lÌow iD üe solid lropellanr ir€rareswith
MACH2 to compuleihe sudaceÌemFraiureinielponse ro rhe
nèLenergy flux (cÒnduction, radlâÍtun.dd convecÌion)ftom
MACH2"' providèslhe disrribxrioDsof plasmà disclìarge
côndilions,slch as nass densny.rempemture,dd cuüeDt
noa, ds functjotrsof posjion and tlme. ExamilaÌjon oï rìese
disÌribÌtiors lermìls delìnerìtionof physicôlmecnansús!l a
leveÌ of dehil that remainsbeyondpresènrdiagnosrlceftoÌrs.
Comlarison wjlh avajlable exFrimeni.Ì dâLacan lrovide
someirsight on PPT behâvioroflèredby Ìhe relarivelysnnple
processes modeledby MACH2. F{n.exuÌple, aLvâ.iousrines
and locationsdurlng the dischargepnlse in LES 6. calcuÌaÌed
plamâ speedsrangelrom neariyzèro,âdiacenrro the propeÌ
lant làce,to valuesexceedìns15 km^. Hìghe.speedscorelate
with regionsofÌower densiryand higiìerchaÌsesrate.ExpeÌi
merÌal dân (sec. x) conúecÌinehigheÍ speedswiü hìgher
charge4laÉsmight snggesÌsubítarti.ì slip bènreeDspeciesof
ditrere.tchâ.se.a fesuÌÌar vanancewlÌh eíimaresofcoltistuÍ
nìe.n iiee'times.MACH2. shich corside^ oniy a singlefluid
ìn local lhermodynâmicequilibrium,insre.dindicâre\ihafihe
dâtacould resxlt sìmtly liom spatiâ]and remloral vanations
of ionÌzationh Ìhe lcceleratingflÒw.
Ál ìndi.atedin Flg. 18, thesesamè.àlcutaiions*fÒr LES-6
capturedboÌh úe magnìlude.nd variationof úe nnpuÌsebjÌ
1ô. Lheavaiìablev.Ìues ôf experinenraldata.SucÌragreemelt
mDSibe cÕnsidered somewhâlfoÍuitous. lle .esutrof coú-
pensatmgeüors, be.âuseof severâllinilarÌoN. ThesèincÌude
fte use of a Ìwo'dìmensÌolalcâlcnlâtioD{jn Ìhe planeof ihe
cuent flow) fÒÍ a th.eedìmensìonâlprcbÌem.ãn.l approxi
nrarelbrÌnrlations fÍÌ plasna cohpositio! .rd r..nsporrco
e1ïcìents.The càlculatedvalneofma$ abÌateddunngÌhe dis-
chargepulsejs lessÌhln the experjnìentaÌ vrluè D)' aDouran
ofder of nìagnìtude.TlÌis disrgreemeDr led tÕ \peculaiionrhâr
úÒsÌ ol the propeÌlantnass evolvedüfler compterioíof the
cunentluÌse asthe surfacecooledberwecnnrnrgs.sÌStuhlate
rifte evolutio! coxld âlso explaìnrhè eÌpedÌÌelral obseNa
liÒnsoI lìow speedsgÌeady exceedingrhe averageèÌhausi
speedas represented by the specjncìmluÌse. C.lcülarionser
tendedto esiimâresof the baseienrperaiureof the pÌopelÌart
Decessary lo accôun1ior rhe m.ss nrssai ìow spèedand the
consequelcesot \uch masslo* on PPT perfo.mance.'Tlìe
qresrõn oï propelladtÌemteürufe led Ìo clos€. experjmeÍnl
examinadonof PPT systemternperÍures(Sec.VID.
ln âdditionio nunreÍicâtsinulciiors. Ìhe behaviorof â ppT
has b€en rnodeÌedanaìyiicaÌlyas a qÌrìsisteldy,abÌaÌion-fed
ÌhrusÌer._This nodel nÌvokesa hagnerosoniccondìrìonas rhe
now exìls thc ablationarc. Ihe pressureând remperarure neâ.
the surlãce then .ssume valuesrhâÌ proli.le ihe lrass tjrrï
neededto supporÌthe úagretic pressuÍèg.âdjentaúoss Lhe
dischdge.LaÍser differercesin Dragneúc pÍesÍrc, i.e.,higher
70
. ExpeÍmênt
60
- MACH2
ãzo
1o
0
0 0.5 11.522.53 3.54
(J)
CapacilofEnergy.1/ZCV2
Fis. 18 compadsonof impuls. bii predicredby rhe MACE2
codeÌiih êxp€riDent.
cürenÌs ìn a given widLh.denrandhigher massflow rares(for
an e\haust sleed thÀ! remainsrâLherconsianr).This Ìneâns
highervaluesof the equilibrjumvapor prcssxieâr the surface
and highervaluesof srface temper.lure.For pulsedhearcon
ductioÌ in the solid propellant,rlìe ÌotaÌ heatdelilered ro rhe
propellan!scaleswiú the sud.ce remperahte.The sufacej
uÌereiore,tendslo rernaìnai elevaÌedlemperatuÍes
for tonger
nmes âlter the dischâÍgèpuìse, ev.porating !Ìorè materÌal
wjlhout the benelì1of ele.lroìÌagneticâc.eleration.The nrio
of DraÌeriâlèvÒlled after the discìafgepüÌse ro rhât creàred
durirg the pxìsetendslo a consÌanro! the oÍder of ive. The
ânaÌyticmodel süggeslsthat by âllowilg the cnnent pnlse Ìo
declinegEduaÌÌy rs úè pnpcllarÌ $í!ce coois.eledromag
neÌlc acceìeraiioDto ììigh sFed mighr contjnue.rheÍely de
HiglÌer slrfâcè tempcntÌìres dúiDg the dis.harge also per-
nit decomposition or plìasech.ngèat greâÌeÍdepthin rtìesolid
!ÍopeÌlaDt.The resullingejectìotrol Ìírw speedfrlcrolaÌricles
could burdenbÒLhrhe speciflcnnrulseand rhturt efficiercyoi
the PPT,as weÌl âs increasilgconcemlbr spacec.atìconÌ.in,
Accunre valuesfor rhe plâsma conpÕsirìonand rrân\port
coeffcienrsremainüirical loÍ derailedlimularioDof Íhe ppT.
For equilibriun plasmâsrhèLos AÌamosSèsamecodeh .!ail-
able to predictglobaìiÌÌei!ìodyna!ìic and trnspÒú pfolerties
such xs elthalpy. erÌÍôpyj mean chdge s1aie,eÌeclícâl con-
ductìvity,ard somd \peed.vrASesan. codelre.ìiclion ofrhe
Ì.tÌeÍ iòr Tellon and pÕlyethyleneis shonn in Fig. 16. Fol
noneqnilibÍiuniPPT plasmrs.lhe deconìpo\irionof â poÌyner
srch a\ Telìonì o corsriluenratomsand molecnles.and úe
subseqüent creationof vúiÒus ioiized sp.cies ceÍâiúty Í.!-
resenÌsâ lômidabÌe !rÒce$ lÔ an.lyze.even wiihouÌ the ìn-
terplav $iLh a MHD flowneld. Sonìe progresçoccnÍed rè-
cently with the completion Òi a model io. Teflon jn
lwo tenìpemtÌÌre(heaw laÍicle ând elecrron),local üermo
dlnamic eqüjlibnum." This mÒdel ircorporârès25 species.
and allows a pârametrìcvariationof equilÌbdumberweenvi
bràttunalshtes and LbÈtraDslarional Írìles of eitÌìerelecLrons
or hêayy paÍicles. ligure 19 dìsplúysÌhe predicÌedtarriaÌ
prè$úes of F and F' ìn a Teflon plâsúà iof rhe indicàted
valüesol hè:Ìvy paÍìcle .nd ele.roD temperatures and rotat
planna pressrres.'rhis nìodelnow proyidesÌlìe basir for caÌ
culation of $ânsl)orrpropeÍìes in u Te1ìonfueÌed. ppT dis
charge.The contìruuD1, LrE nairÌreoí rhe modèl cÌedly be
comesiDâptrop.ialeíÌ the loiver-densitihigher*peedregÌons
ol tle 1iow.Coülpà.is,r ofresuÌrsfron MHD codesinüìalions
üsirg 1lìismodel with lìmited anâÌtsisbasedoDklneiic rheory
cân theDâllow âssessment of rhe imloÍance of rhe rwoìen
pe.alure,LTE appÍoxìmationÌÌì differentregnes of PPT op-
Consideration of nÒn.ontintrnnì
flo! processes
requj.esLhe-
orelic.l te.hniquesbetio lMHD codes.For èaâmple,nunìer

Fig. 19 1tíorcúperârure code-predict€dpâÍiial pr€ssureof â) F
âDd b) F iD ! TeÍon plãsma
ical úodeìing oïPPT exhausts,"usingcombirâtionsof.lirect-
simüladoD Morte CdÌo (DSMC) dd hybrid particÌe/fluid
teclDiques, may help to quúiiry condiúons in the PPT Phfte,
at ÌeÀ\t Ior easeousconstitnents Such caÌcuÌations have al
ready ieceived inpür data ftom MACII2 caÌculâtions. bul tur_
lheÍ work is needed to handle the possibjlíy of siSnificânt
n c 8 n e j c ( r e r g ) n . h e Ì l ô e q h e n r h ec J n r r n Lnl a p p r o \m r
XII. ElectricâlCircuitDevelopments
Substarlialswings in the capeitor lollage associated
the oscillâÌirg.reversingwavefom in the nsuaÌPPT cncuitry
exacerbâte a lrincipal design difficulty: capacitoÍ lifetime at
high'ènèrgy delsity. The cnefgy'sÌoÍaee calacitor Íepresentsa
mâjor poúion of the dry-frâss of ihe PPT. an.l úe lnmàry
determinànt of the speciÍìc po$'er of lbe tbnster system Op
ljmization of electric thÌuslen often dePendson üe lroducl ôf
. p È c r n rcc ú e \ \ \ / l g , d n dr h e . l x a . t J r ' 1 d o ní ì F o r p d ì ' e d
ú r ' , r e r ' . s c h ' . I ' e P P I . . l -! p J o u L .e q J c l .ú e P o d u c ro .
speciic energy (J/kg) aDd the nnmber of lìrings duriDg lhe
;lssion. The specific eDergyôf úe capacitôi and tlÌe caPâcitor
Duhe liíelime llnit üe và1ueof üe ÌatÈr pÍôduct For nigh-
-voltaee
enersy*roragecapacilÒrs, ÌifetiEe tendsto scde in-
vemú as chrcine voìtagóto a lÌish porver,e s. V
decreases stÍongÌy wirh úè tolal, Peakìô-Peak
exp€ri€ncèd düring an osciÌlatory waveform. The lifètime of
the capâcitor diminishes turther by opeÍating ai !€úpeÍatues
above manufactureÍ's slecification.
A1úough tne exlerience wjú respect to cãPacitor Ìife lb.
rheMiÌlipoundTbnsÌer wâs very !oor, câPâcitordeveloPmènt
Droaresed in othe. Iìelds to the benefit of the PPT-ln the earìv
ì9?0s. üe GenèralEÌectriccompuy develôpeda Ìowloss ci
pacitor foÍ üìe Stdfo.d Llneü AcceleÍator (SLAC), {hich
p ü | , e . l 8 ^ H / J r d h a . ' i ' c . a c c u m r l , _ eod\ e r 2 5 ) e , r . o f
"r
ò o e n u o n .C o n n e ! i a \ e ! , o n . o f ú r s , J p o . i r o - $ r r h 2 - : ì Ì
sioraeeand an equiralert seriesresistance
aÍe aÌaÌlàblefor PPT alplicârions. Ar tÒtaì
corespoDdiúgro a lower of 50 W at a rime betweeDPulses
of 1 s, úe ESR of úe capacitorein pdâllel would become
Ìes úan üe dynmic impedanceof lhe PPT.evenin a coúiaÌ
arangementwith a modestradiusü1iÒ.The coDcemwith the
vaÌue ol the ESR rclâlive to the lotâl ciÍcnit derives lÍoft its
eflèc! on c]Ìcuit eflìciency and !h€ decreaseof calaciÌor life
e r . ' d b ) r n € m d .I ' , n e
L Í Í e u i ú h i g h e r ê n p e r a . L r' á
Thè oscilÌaiory beh.vloÌ of the discharge in the tÍadìlìonaÌ
PPT deDonrmresthe jnpedancemismalchbetltee! the LRC
circuìr and the PPT, indicaiing pooÍ effciency for elecÌncal
energy hansfer. This impedÀncemismatch êrisès from design
constrainlsoú the values of capacÌtance.inductdce. â!d
chdging voltage.Ar energylevel! of severaÌjoules. the Pt'I
capacitanceof Ì0 30 pf cônbines with çircuit nductances
exceeding 50 100 nH to Provide an inpeddce for cüìcâl
damping nuch greate. than the PPT jmpedân e. AÍtemP!í 1o
design a puÌse fonning network (PFN) with d imPe.lan e
nadhing ihat of üe PPT succeedat hundredsof joules.'L'"
but 1àil a1. few joules becauseof !h€ püâsitic inductânces
To avoid the ditìcuhy of PFN design. a ditrercDt circnit $'as
n , Ò p o . eJdn do n e d r e d . "A r $ o ^ r e pp r o c e * o i t , . ì r e n e i e r
i o n r \ e . , p " c ' o r o a r i n ô ú . r i \ cq o r e . l o . l . w e db ) e n e ' È r
t.ansfer from the iíductor !o the PPT. Düine tlè secondsreP
(slightÌy after perk cürÌent), d second PPI 1ìres,shorrly lfter
úe capaciloÍvôltager€verses,I'he secondPPI servesas a so-
caÌÌed ciowbar'' swilch on the cafacÌoi. resficring the volr
age Ìevel io which lie capacitorcan Íecharge Thú Plrsma
crorvbü switch can literally opeÍaieas a secord PPT,igliied
by a sepdalejgniter orby Plâsnaftom the nrsrPPT (Fi8.2{ì)
In tlÌe nosl Íecent arÌúgèmenls, ìt has become integ..ÌÌ with
rhe n6i PPI. and fires aulomâticalÌywhen the calacilor lolr
age reverses.AÌthongh the cxrenr wavefom (Fig 21) no
longer h6 lhe consta.oyÕf i PFN-drivensystem,vaÌu€sÒr
coDÌpo!€ntcapacitanceând inductancèÍeadily match design
needs,RecenttheoreLicaÌ work" sulgestsüat a cúÍeúr wale
fom that declined roughÌy exPonçniially wilh tirÈ woul.l lro
vide elecrromagnelic accele.alioúof lfoPellànt evaPoÉtedâs
the surfacecoolsÌate in the pulse.Extensionolüe lulse úme
pennils the designol quasisteady. two'dimelsionàìchânneÌ
flovs," $àich Dray offer additional improvements in PPT ef:
Solid statediÕdesinstalledin !úâlÌeÌ wìth Lhecapacitofmâv
offer more conlenience than a pl.sma crowbâ. sq'itch A tech-
niqre for lre!ènting curent Èversal was uchievedby KnÌura
with et a].,r!by ins€ÌÌingdiodesin pàraÌleÌvì1h the capacìlorsin a
6 J capacitôrbanÌ. Thç diodeseliDjldted cuÍeni oscillÀtions
in an atteúpt ro enhancethe etrect ol â tansveNe âpPliedneÌd
R2
'. andâlso PPT1 PPT2
voltage revesal
PÍíT
(ESR)of -30 nO
eter€iesof 50 J,
Fig. 20 Use of tyo PPTSto indudively síoÌe energvând Drcduce

10 20 30 40 50 60
gsec
Fig. 21 Nonreyeniíg cunetri pmduc€d by two PPIS in àtr iD-
düctiv€ íomge circuit.
on lhe lôrce. They \reie found ro dedeâse üe impulse bir
about 10% with zero appliedr'ansvereefieid, and were not
üsèdwjü ,ìnite appliedneld. A diode hâs also beennsedon
r l 0 J ! o . ú . 1 P P | ' o p r e \ e n rP P I \ u r R n rr v e r q , . e ú a n L i n g
! d D r i r o r ì ú e . " ' T h e r m p r o \ e dl i t e á r f o r c e dr l e c â p a co r e i
ther by ihe diode Lechniqueor by â pÌasma crcwba. swÌich,
can âÌso aÌÌow expânded desìgn flexibiÌiry for highèr-ene€y
density dd higher-remperatnrcoperâtion of the capacitor
Addirional improvemeits to the eÌecnical circuitry of rhe
Pt'I have been @hieved by the subsritnrlôn of modern elec-
tronic coúpolents in the charging system and the spark plug
igritior systèm.Thus. for exaúple, rhe EO,l rlruster incor
porates improveúents over the LES E/9 sysrem by facrom of
nore than 2 in weighr ànd volume for !r€ eÌecrricatcircuits.LÌ
FuÍther improvementsin circnir.y and compÕnenrs. e.g.,en-
ergy storaSe.de nighìy desirable to ìno.easeihe porenlial of
XIII. Prospects for the Future
The lext flight opportunity for úe PPT occu6 in 1999 oú
the EO 1 satellite.rrNearrlÌe end of the misloq sôfrwâIewilÌ
disabÌe rhe pitch-âxis wheeÌ, and a breech fed PPT will iake
over for three dats, (corcsponding !o abour 200,000 shors).
'Ihê
stored energy lrill vary from 5 Lo 40 J, and rhe iftpuÌse
bit flom 100 to 700 &N-s, at a specilìcimputseofâboüt 1100
s. The proposedDeèp Space3 missionundef NASAS New
MilÌemiuú Prosúìn for "exoplân€t" imaging ârd spectros
copy outside the solàr system epiesè.ts d oppoíDniry for
âctuâlmissionuse of PgIs. This use occurcin Lwo mooes:
spierdins our the three spàcecraft("apenDrc ÊÌljng, ) by a s€t
of nrc, coast and nre sequencesimd staiiorkeeping and arÌi
tudecontroÌof the deployedda} The nissio! may use up Ío
12 PPIS per saielÌite. alrhough ditreient designsatlow vaíous
degreesof comporent sharing. Each PPT would nave arì Ìm
prlse bit of 50 &N+, and fife up Ìô 25 milÌion times.ra
whiÌe rhese missiôns cên be perfomed with PPIS of the
traditionaÌ design. leveraÌ areasof improvemenr offer lhe pÌos
pect of BreateÍ oppoÌtunity for PPT applicarlon. These üeas
incÌude enlìanced ôapaciror Ìife. hisher rhnsr eficie.cy, and
highè.specìlìcinpulse.The first ofúesè dèrivesffom rhè use
of induclivèío.age circuiÌs(Sec.XID üar substaÍtiâlÌyFduce
üe levei of loltage rcveBal on úe calaciror IúI)roved ca,
pacitoi dèsignalso heÌpsby rèducingÌossesin the capacitor,
tlÌereby edxcing inremaÌ heating ând increasing thè eÌectricâl
€tÏcìency of the cÍcuit. In mission araÌyses, the needed ve
ÌocÍy charge deteminesthe necessdyproducrof thrusreffl
ciency, specific power, dd rhnsÌ lime. To the extení rhat the
catacitor massdoúinâles the poweÍ syslemfor the PPI. the
pÍoduci of ihe last Ìwo factoÌsequalsrhe pÌoducrof slecjtìc
-ergy of the capa.jror and the nunber of firings allowèd fol
its hirsion life. Thxs. improvnre úe specìlì. en.rgy of rhe
capacitorând increasirgirs lìfe. by redücingvoÌragereveNals
ud opèiarrng rempenrure, combine ro expand the range of
velocity châng€s accesiblè wirh the PpT. Such inpÍovement
does not dependcÌoseìy on Ìhe deiails of rhê pÌasmadynamics
within a PPT.
To impiÒve rhe PI'I in Ìefts of ils acrúal bebavior, we have
10 undemtandúè severaÌfaceÍs oï pÌasmamorion and mass
evolutiôn.In particuiú, ár leasiiwo úain conponúts appeü
to exist in mosr PPTS:a fasr cohponenr assÕcjatedwirh pro-
cesès duÍing ihe discha.gepulse.and a sÌow cú!Ìpon ! rc
sulring from úemal exparsion Õl matedal w]úout rhe bènefit
or electromagneÌic âcceleranor. The ibrmer comloDeú mây
n c l ü d e( o n l r i b u r i o nb. ) o o r hm r g r e r r (o d F J . o ) r d n l cp e 5
5 ú e g r o J j e r r ìsn ü e d i . ( h d e e f f o w l ì r e r r e r n â r c o m p r . e
a proúpt componenrbecnuseofplasnà leared during the dìs
charge,.nd â iète-timelortion rçìatedÌo the evolutior ofúâss
tiom suifaces hêaredby üe discha.ge. Speedsir rhe fasr côn-
lonent. which ÌnÌìy co.respond !o eirher propâgatilg or ablâ-
hon-dc modes,car exceed30 kn/s in boÌh exDe.imenrs ând
MHD caÌc ations. The slow componentshouÌd scale wjú
thermal speèdsbasedon Ìempemluresrhat râlge frcm the base
leúperatureberweenô.inss (>370 K) io rhe pl.smà rempera
ture ar Ìhè end of ihe dischirge pulse (-3 eV). For Teflon,
these speedswoxld Íânge ffom abôut 300 mA (1br C,Fa) ro
abou!7.8 km^ (fôr C).
The perfomânce of â PPT in rerns of efficiency .ìnd specific
impulse depeDdson thè massesassociaÉdwÌlh ihesè very dif
fèrenÌ speeds.CÌeúly, ân eflìcìercy prolortionâl rÕthe square
of the iDpuÌsebii divided by rhe nass loss per sho!. whìle
possÌblynsefulfor somesystemcalculaÍÌons, hâsno utiÌity jn
guidirg improvemenis basedon detaìÌedpÌasmadynanics.In-
deed.tbe raüer low vÍLlue1òrslecinc ìmlulse ofsomedevrces
coúparedio vaÌnesassociâted wÌdÌ neãsuredflow speedssug
geslsüat most of the mâssin thesecasescon.esponds ro rne
slow component.This corelates weìl wiú esrimaresof rhe
ratio ofhasses lor the slorvvs fast conponenlsof5 10. from
the anaÌyticâlniodelingl and MACH2 slmulatìonsof LES,6.31
F r o / e nn u k . , . r e p r e \ e n rd, I i r c . p J l . e . r i e n ( r i n n Ò . 1
plasmathrusters.but is üe cosr of achievinghighc. specífic
inpulse tìrouglì an electdcallyactivewoúing fluid. This cosr
can be amoÍized by opeútìng at a high exliaüsrsleed_Higher
thrtrs!eilìciercy incrediesrlìe valueof velocirycllJlsç auuús
sibie fo. d avaiÌabÌeproduc!of specincerergy and llferine.
Thus,increasingthe relâlive mss of rhe tìsi conponentrep
resentsá usefuldireclionfor PPT improlemenr.Equivalerrìy,
the massúal es.âpeswithout íìe benefirof rhe eÌecr.icaÌpro
cessesin the dischâigeshouldbe !ìiniúìzed. The healdèpos
iied jn th€ prolellant suÍface. however. will dÌways causenü-
teri.Ì ios for some time. A sôlutior,I rlerefore. coDsisrsot
maintaininethe elecnicaÌdischareeâr tìÌe surfacecooìs.
In the neú future,we may expecìrharunderstandjng of the
pnysicalposibilities i. âblatioDfed. PPTSwiÌÌ overconelìm
llations drat have renained uÌLesolvedafÌer many years of
empidcalshrdies.Progressitr the !àst was accoúpÌishedin ar
empincalfashion.(For example.as wìrb rhe automobileen
gine,detaiÌedxnderstandjng of rhe spark!Ìue was not requted
!o developa practicalsystem.)Fülure improvemenrs wiÌl de
maDdquantitâtivecoìrparisonof expedmentsand theorericat
models.Much of oür porenriâlundesrandingÒf the ppT has
beenlimlÌedby the compÌexityôf the disclÌügeflowÍìeÌd.Wiú
presentexpenmenlalod nuneÍicaltooÌs.o!Ìy coaxiâlsystems
s i l ì , ì o { . ú , h , u n r t J r . o rF
. \ r e n . r oon r l e l o n el ì r p hht 6
tory of Ìhe PPI to future applicârions will, therefoÍç. nÌosr
lftely combinenonreversinginductivecircuitÌf wlth coÀ\jal
elecÍodesand nozzles.
Appendix À: Th€oretieal Formulations for
Electmmagnetic Forces in the PPT
The abillty of Ìhe PPT to achieveexhâustspeedscoÍe-
spondingto Ìnretic energiesa huDdrcdrimeshighorthd elec
132

ron temperaÌwes in üe plasma emphasizeslhe doúindt role based ln Dart on the dhtributions of Íesistivjly and velocitv Ìn
of electroúaeDetic forces in PI'I operation Thes€ lôÍces a'e tbe plasma. Thus. foÍces coftputed 1ìÍ three-diúensional ü
meieÌy comp;nelts of the Loreniz lorce densitv in the pÌasma , , " g " . . " . ^ n g n d J L . r n . eo Ì r l r ' I d l b * d n P t ' e d c ' I
renider.irr dsLrru:o , r ' m , r . b e r ' e d u r r n c a u r r o nU d e t
somecncimstancesconespondingto the usuâlmode of PPT
ÒDeÍation.the Dlâsmadjscharge reúains adjrcent to rhe abìat-
wheieiis the ìocalcurent densiÌy andt istheloca'imagnenc r n c , U a . e o r r h ep r o p e l l m lU . h e, r Í e Í l d ' h b L i ' 1 s h n
field. I;teqmiion of the axial coDrponentof the force deNitv 'nãnr,.'co"e.nó.cioee.rrh ne rhe'negr"'olLq'Arl
prôiides an excelÌenÌbasisfor comPuÌingthe elecÍomâcnerjc
over the volume of rhe plNma pÍovides the totàl electrcmâg-
n€tic contlibution to the thnst Figure 4 displays a skètch of e cd n e | ' c o 1 d u '
i r . . , n d u c L , " coef d . , o s e o, i , . J i r o
üe basic geom€try of the cnrent jìow and magnôric lìeld in
the PPT-ú rectanguld fornr, lhe dischúge has Ìengú /], wìdth
v- thickness .L and m instantaneousposition, z. downslrem luI
ôf thè r.tum condüctor. Tso approàches1Ôinreg.aling Eq , . H , - 0". 4 1 1 / "t r t l \. b- ' l , r
r' P d 0.22'r íAr)
íAl) Demit calculatio! of mÔstof lhe eÌecLomagnetccontn- 12 "ìl I
t'úio; ro thrust wilhout needing 1ô kìos this cuúeút disiÚ-
bulion. The fieÌdìheoretical apProachworks dtectly wilh the
mâ':netic ôeld disúbutions i! thè PPT, Íhereas lhe circuil-
ú;reticâÌ aDproâchuses üe intermedìarf of inductance for
úuìas to deal with a mÀgnerìc neld dislribution whose úâg r,'=0.6+ oa {' l-+). i,H/m (45)
\D+L/
nitude scales with tìe cAcuit cÌÍent.
For LES-6. ,' = 0.93 pHlm. close to the cufle-iìÌ laÌue Ôr
Field-Theoretic ÀPProàch
Bv reDlàcinEihe cunelt deDsitv wirlÌ úe curl of the locàl A second.ÌDproach to ,' i\ the detailedcalculatioDof Ker
m . ' g Í e r ' in e t Aú, ' e r o r c eA e i r ) i Ó o e a ' i r r e n ' Ô l'dmf a
r ar fdernr nLl !,r'rorndillel re.rrgulâ ondr.ro' ü'rn6henJf 'eri'
or ihe ìJ8ìeuc pe..L,e 8,2p rnd úe 'o cdlled r e i r o r o o r i n r : . r I1h. - e . r l r . l o r / a e i r c r P o r 'e d r J l r - b l e.
. , c " l c r l d Ì e dl r o m 1 c u r \ ( h e q L r r r ^ n l J r ' n e L r S _ 6 h r
(A2) approâchgives t' = 0 871 É.H/m Thesetbreemerììodsave'
Fd= -1B1l2p Bltt,tz
l - o r n o r J o ì ! e r t e o nr Ì Ì ê e g | - e d o r d i \ e € i n g c L
rlr'1 = -(R Y4)l4'zdelìnesan effeciiveradinsof cüÊ
.ì,tt\eÍe , . n ^ , t d re t e . r , o d e ./ . . . I r . , l a r e r o h e . , c u l d , e dl Ì o n l h e
vature of üe úagneiic neld lines Th€ notion of magnericpres Ke;isk vecior potenÍa] method or from 1,' = ó'. where dre
su.e acting in üe údner of 8as pressure is aÌwavs quaÌira- flux sr.dient é' is delermined ât th€ Plane of svmmetrv Ìrom
úveÌv us;ful in considering PPI behavioi Quantitdtive magnetic probe ÌneasueftenÌs
caÌcútatiors using Eq. (A2) need computer âssist'nc€' excePt F_.rcoaìiaÌ tiflsÌers, the inductâncesÍadientis ÍeadiÌvcal
in speciaÌ siruarions. cuÌaled if tlÌe cnrent dènsiry is axisymmeÍic Fôr rhrusteB
with an annular elecÍo.le of rèdius r. and a centrâl eledÍode
CiÍcuir-Th.oretiol APPrcach of ra.lius /.. the irducrÂrceerâdientL' is deteminedbv as
B v . r o i d r n Â' h e p l a . m dc. . n . d e - " l r o no f ú e e \ e " n l l' i n _ r l snnún! úimuthal cunent svmftetry and unÌform âxial curent
o r r e i ,s o n e r . c < . s . a l b e i rs , r n ' o m e l o * o l d . . ü r o c ) i n d e densilt ro rhe cetrt.al electÌode Fo. this caset' h i'1enlical to
* ! t , i l e P P I ó e f a \ : o . T h e r . , c e I n 1 5 "p l r . m J r e a . r i . r . ' i n r rhârcàlcuhiedfor the MPD ütustei'
ú e c r ã e r r s a , ' e l i r g i _ J ì c r o i d c o n ü u c ' o rosl l ' e P P l c
cuitrv. Calculatlonof the net axial forcè aciingon thesècon ../ '"' r\
:
rluctors, therefore. also provides the eÌeciromàgnetic thflsi / t,H r) =:" lra r I AÕ'
2n\ +I
Over nuch ôf lhe circuitry this calcuÌalioD mereÌv requiles
knowìeitge of tlìe vâriation of cjlcuit induclânce with displace-
ment in the ariàl dAçcrion For rhe Illinois coaxial PPT.'j' r,//. = 12.8ãnd Ã' = 0 66
'oud |f'I
'! l l r . - o m a ü " b . er o r \ e \ r l l e f u . '
(43) Fôr i íxed circuit inductance. the squde of lhe clrert am-
F = (J12)\L
D , , ro e u , r l. r m r i * J l e s , r \ , 1 , e - e r B )J o r e d i r ' ' 1 . i n r e
i r n . r r L o rT . h u ' , , ' D t , ê b r r' l o u r d \ r r ) I n e a r l ) s r r h e e r g )
wheÍe "r is lhe thrusteÍ cnnenÌ. ald tr is the thíÌster inductance'
'Ihe axial comoonent of electÍomagnetic ibice dePendson the p e : p r ' . e . t e u r ed a i . p t , ' . . , ' . l ' b e n dr\ u r l e n J r n !c e -
à.ni. ro .t. r"dP In rde ro r'e I LI Aìì rJl
{lerivatÌveof inductancewlth respeclto the axiâl size of Lhe " . u .oi
1 rnass
' o ' " loss per shotas â fDncliot of stored
â ìined variâtion
circuii Dath(seeSec.III]. The applicalior of Eq (43) must
wìth câutionif usedwhere muÌual iíductdces exisi energ) '\ 'rda'Jed b) fC ' r\e PrI ìo Ìd \c\e cr--lrrl
Drocee.l_
, p e . i r , . i T p , l ' e . L " e r i T e l ' . l o u . e í I n d' r r e ' n í e v r n ' _
È e L u e epno n i o n so f l l e ' , f t e n r ò s t r i b u h o n '
T h e\ i ; r u eo l l 5 ec a u , r . p p r o â . 1r o c a l c u. Ü o r )o i r \ e e l e ' ' t;ns of sDecificimpulse ând nÌassloss Per ioule of stored
e n e r r \ . T o r .h, e : e 3 ' s r m P onsd'no.srrue'llÒtr\ePr)-
troúasnetic thrust stems from thê insensiúvity of the result !o
i c ' Õ - r . hPeP Ì .b d o r l r eer l r L r i ' d r ' ' í d I n r m : ì D r ' c e " e ' r ' l
. h , n s ; ' I n D l d . n , d i h r s e ( o n d i r i o r ' 'l n c o a i t P P l ' Í o r
er:mo,e. , ion.o" rre I led\erhecuF
Íent àisdbutions unchanged at the èlectrodes do !o1 siSnilì-
ThrusteÍ DyMmic Impedâoc€
cantlv aÌter thè eÌectr'omagneiicthnsr In rec!ângula' geomely
how;ver the position of cunenls in the !Ìasúa detemines dÌe The Íâ.litioDâl PPT uses a singLecap.citoÌ to Power the
d , . . 1 x r t s$( h . ú í e r r \ ' n g l r o J f ' Ì h e i r ì r 1 ' m ' ' Í | c
maEnetic nel; al the circuiL elemenrs and the cNent distfi
buiion wiúin theíe elementsVadàtionsof lhrusteroperaiìon c rr','"., . ,", r) 'nd oroJ'edor e r' r'e' in
"rhe n . i " and rhe e{Ìern!Ì circuìi jnclÌrdingthe equlralenl
r , " .pÌasmâ
thât âffect the cunent dis!Íibutior in th€ plasma. úerefore,
chanÂethe electromagletic lhrost as weÌÌ senJs resisrarce(ESR) of the capacitor If the Plaím' Path
Ex;eDtjn sDecialcases,LhecureúÌ distribulioni! the circtrir fâveÌs Ìhrougha sÌlg of malerialor give
."narciors aães noÌ satislr the conditionsof unilormitv as b! the elecí;maen€ticforce LEq (A3)1,two. lÌ$t-or'ìer' of-
sumedbv availâhìeinduclanceformxlas.The &!üal disttibu dinarv .liftè.eniiaierruâtions Pro!ìdèihe vâloesofplasma ro-
sitio; and speed. MÒtion of the cuÍent palh çith LhispÌasmà
rior for ; puÌsed .lisclÌa$e requires a PoleítiaÌ-tìeÒry solÌrtion
introdDcÈsa resisÍance-like tenn, eqDâl to rhe rime derivative
of lhe inducrance, which modinesèn orhetrisè íandard LRC
circuit. Tbe positionand sleed of Èe plasmadeleminesrhe
instântâneôus circuit inductancedd ils rime derivârive.SoÌu
tion of the dìffereniial equãtions for rhe circuit cuÍert and
câpaciior voltage compÌe€s the descÌipúon ôf the electicaì
power pü1sein rhe PPT.
Alremarivesto úe singteloôp. slug desoiprion include
modèls that Iìx the plasfta dischdge àdjacent to Ìhe Ììblaring
propeÌlot suÍface.The elecÌriclìeld in rhe plàsnraflow pro-
üdes the Ìoad voltâgeseer by the exlematcircuit. ADaÌyÌlc
evaluâiiônof this eÌecrncfieÌd,which includesborhthe resis
tile andeÌect.omotive leÍms,.eqtriresapproximarioísandcon
ditions,suclì as high magneticReynoldsnumberand magne-
tosonicdow at the chânneÌexit.:r AltemptsÌo combiDeboth
propagating and fired curent pâths ttuough the !Ìasma can
readily becomeraÌher èd hoc. Sucb combilarior achìevesrigor
rnen peúbrmedusing a rine dependenr, MHD ânatysis.This
s e n e r o ì ìr)e q u je . n r m e r i ! . '5l o | | r o nb ) n e a n .o ' d c o d e!.r i
Appêodix B: Thrust Stand Designs Íor ppT
Performance Measurements
The lwo fundarnentàl measurcnÌenrs madeon a ppT â.e üe
urrustând the abÌâlivemass1o$. BecauserÌÌe rime scaÌeof
the pulseis a few r.s, lime resolvedthrusrand massrow mÌe
measurements are not possible.and the measurement mustbe
madeoí üe tine-iDlegraredthnÌsl or "InÌpuÌse bir,' 1ú,=.f ? dl
ty!ÌcaÌÌy seve.àl hundred micro,Newron seconds.TnnsÌ sra.d
desiensfor lnpuìse bit rneasureme.ts
are discÌssednext. Ei-
ther â sirgle pulsecan be usedas rhe bàsisfor measuieherts,
or the averagethrustat a pulserateNcan be Ìnedsu.ed,
giving
I'" = T/N.
The àbldive massrneasuements
areúâde ovef al.rge nuo
ber of puises,say 1000, ard úç massÌoss Â,, per pulse is
câlcuìatedfrom thè measuredtoràl nass los. I'hìs nenìod
thèn govides an rcurate determiÍâlioDof rhe specificim
PÌlte fìom 1,. = 1",./sÀn.From thesèlwo measurènenÌsan
unambiguousPPI peúonnâncepÌor ca! Ìhen be made fron
4i vs 1,p.
A vanely or dnsÌ standdesignshavebeenusedfoÍ únÍ
1) The FâirchiìdIndusÌriesveíical axis 'twingíÌe gare.,
thrust stand."' larçr used for MPD thruster meâsDrementsâr
P.Ìnceto! Univèrsiry,:5ór has â verricaÌswing dis with two
ro6iÒnalflexurai!i!oÌs .onnectingâ bâlancearm to â suppoÍ
frme. Am dispÌacement is m€asuredby a Ììnerr vúiâble dji:
ferenliâl traNfoÍmer (I-VDT).6Ì â Benrly Nevada inductive
se.sor.^ or by â laserintederomeLer proximereÍsystem."'All
of thele cân measxredìsrìacementh úì..oDs. CalibrâÌiônìs
doneby rolÌing a bâll down a ramp or by an Ìmpacthanmer
2) A NASA Lewjs ReseafchCenLefs ÌnvefiedpenduÌum.,
thnÍ srand"cln be usèdfor high energy(>100J) PPTS.The
devìcesulporÌs a plaltomì wilh â stàinÌesssteeÌfoil lìexurc
loclted below eachconÌeÌ.so rhâlúe pivoringaxis ìs tocated
beÌow the cenleroï mas. reqDinngthe foil sÌiffnessfor sra
bÌlÌty. The thÍust is neas!red eiÌhe. wÌü an LVDT, or by sra
bilizing thè plaúorm with a feedbacksoleroidúd measuring
the curenÌ. Càlibrationof hÒízôDraldisptacenenÌis achieved
by small weishts on a flexible fiber run over à lÌìcrio!Ìes
pulley to the plaÍom.
l) A NASA Lewis ResearchCenleÍ'slorsionaÌt),?erhrusl
stand" can measnrelow-energyPPT luìses, and is siúilar Ìn
princille to dÌe F.irchild IDdustriesÌhrus! stud. The \!and
opentesin singlepulseorrepetitìveolerarìon.nd is calibraÌed
wiú ân impdr pendulnú.
4) A CT-Devices.lnc.. ìinea thnsÍ srand'{'io neâsüÍèrl
high'ene.gy(-Ì U) impulsebits for â sinsle !uÌse, using a
cmaSe oú a linèa. rail with bâlt bea.ìngsulports.caribfailo!
was achievedby ân impaci pendÌlum using ! focusedìaser
and Roncbi ruling to producea squaÍewave sjgnaÌ fÌom a
5) The NASA GoddnrdSpaceFlìghr Cenrer
thnst Íúd resolurionwas 20 pN. and ws simitú in coDcepr
to the FairchildIndusrriesdesigr, usingã diffefenriâ1. apacitor
drplâ.melt sensôrThe srandwás operaredjn a closedloop
(null balance)nrode,ard was caìjbratedwüh ar ele.aomag
6) Pt/I th.us!on the 638,ks JapdèseEngineerjngTesrSaf
ellÍe-Iv was mea$Ed in orbit by measDrirAthe etrecr ot
úmst IÌom a pair of PPTSon ihe spacecraftspin râte.'.: The
PPTSwere oúented wú rhe thnsÌ vector ar 39 deg !o the
údius vector.This meÌhodrequi.esâccurateknowledgeof rhe
slteìlite monrerrof i.èíìâ,
7) A siÍÌple pendllum Èrusr srmd was develoFdro,ar To-
hokÌ Uniyersityand rhc Unive$iry of Tokyo. wirh a 500 /aN
rcsolution.The resolxtionof üìs type of srandis Ìinited by
ffiction in the pendllum süppoìÍbedjngs.
8) A Unive6iry oflllirois r|nsÌ srand6with.50-kg capaciiy
and â sènsitivìtyof <10 pN uses a JamesWâÌr srraightlift
slean èngi.e linÌage inle.tçd in 1784.The designNes eight
flexuralpivoÌsandan LVDT displacemenr sensof,andemploys
a câlib.atioDsysreú devetopedby Haagal NASA.S The long
peiod ôf the system,!p 10 30 s, isotãresihe plÀLfom lionì
ouhi.le nrechani.aìdisturbances. Veíical dispÌacènrent
of ihe
c . n . i s a s s m a l la s I 0 " ' m
AcknowÌedgments
The èuthorswish 1o acknoçledgeF. CurÌan ând E. peDcil
of Ìhe NASA Lewls ResedchCenteÍ,M. BllkÌn of rhe U.S.
Air ForceOiiìce of ScienlificReseüch..nd R. Sporesof the
U-S.Ai. Fo.ceResearchLaborato{/lìr coDrÌnued supportand
colÌaborãtìon on PPTresedrch.Tlìey.re irdebtedro R. Vondrâ
and N. -{ntÍÕpÒr and to V Khrâbrcv,developerof rhe iì.st
RussianerosionPIIT,fôr making infÕmrationavâilàbleon tÌìe
PPT flown ú zond 2. They a.e also gÍâÌetrì fof infoÍnltion
supflÌedby G. Spanje6of rhe U.S. Aìr Force ResearchLab-
oratory and M. wjìson of PrimeÌ AercspâceCompany.R. L.
BurloD wishesto tha* P Rnstân.Olïce of the SecfeÌaryof
the U.S. AlÍ FoÍce, and M. Osbom and P Lyn! of the U S.
Navèl Reseüch Lâboratory foi suppoÌr o! PPT deveÌopmenÌ.
P J. Túchi acknowÌedees U.S. Ai. Force Office of Sclenritìc
R€searclìfor iLs suplon of the developmenlof equarionof-
stat€and transpo.tl)ropeltiesof noìeculaf plasnas.and rhe
Ohio SulercompurerCenter,Coluúbus, Otìio, for supponof
nurneiicâlcomputarìors.He ex!rcsseshis gratiiudeÌo R. E,
Peterki! Jr.. for cÒrtinuedassisÌancervìilì üe MACH2 code,
and ro P. C. Mikelìidesfor coltaborâriônon ppT sinulàLions.
R€fereÍces
'Cumaì.w J..and\lilliams.T. E.
tulsedpìâsnaN,ticrct[rusÌcr
tbr Synclìronous
llcÌeÒrolosi..lSateniiè(SMS), 4ÌAA hper 73-
Ì066,Nov.1973.
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