Diterence betwen AC and De

0In adernatng curent he eument keeps suwitehing

d'rechone penodieally -forward ond beckward
electric charge PHow
I n adternoin9 curent, the
diréchion pen'odtcally
change a nd eleotne Powe
3) AC re Mot coMmonly wwed prefe red
or howe hol d equipment, offhe, buùldings, e.
is resistve or copacitive.
)Ac ood , 'nductve
50 Hz to 60 H .
frequenty
Ac ha polaity Ct, -),
electron s bidirectiona.
l o w of
AHernadds

ies between 0 and

/L
'n a singe
while direct eument f flow!
direchon steodily
J cunent
Unlike aldenahng curent ,the flow of d'rect
doe not change penedtcally
a direction in
The cument electnicty flouun stngle
a teady votoge.
T h e major Ue of De s Ho supply power to electrical
devntes a nd aloo to ehage battehes.
flat -sereen
M. Mobile phone bateres, Alashuighte,
Ldevislon and ele ctn e vehidles.
DC Doad is generally resisti've tn nature
Zero frequeny.
o c doesn has polonity
Aowing elrctrory are uhidireehiona,
remouv I eontonHy.
 whet is amen by bruinye
teed
of biasiny. 9 Qhm a differente
ot poten bral
deres and pimultel connertiens. Ohmu law states thot the vollage to the c nent
is dirertly
poporttanal
hetueen two ponts nd diher tly
Ohms law, Ntion , fonmda though the tesirtonce ,a
or electneity a t r g reuit The fhtmulh
Aehaft vi ond c poportonal to the reaistonte
ef the
P.N Jnchd Drate. 's VJR
for ohm's latu

LUhat mean by bitsg of o a l

electonies , biasng t the vetttng
a n anpPber
9Khrehoffr votage locu: anund a
n
devrte n The rum of veltages
of an actve KIehoftvetage law:
pe mting condtHon rteh a s
dicdes, t t e n u t o k and
eop 2 e 0 where n
Counts the elements voltages
Many edechonie devter heffs voltqge
pwrasing time Voyiny con also rtate kire
Vaceu tubes, who Aincdons arund the loop You rise equaly the
Law another way The of voltoge
sum
sonals t operde Correety around a loop
Sum of votage dops
Veed of krg-
pncas of pMviding De vottqgej which
Blastng is the thensirtor is
In the finchoning of
the cntet .A R R
help: make the emitter bave funeton
based tn order to reveve biadd
foruoid brsed ond collertor base junehon
uork a
n active reqlon,to
so that iH matans www-
on amplifer.
ond parallel conheeh'onu) law!-
the seies connechoru end C.s Khchoff cumet
QOwha on
ate Coonertrol cuent entoaing
cttuit, mponents
all co
stote thect the total
In ase ries for curent flow. In Kchoft cument law
leruy the
hocdes a
to- end o orm
a single path oF a nede oquals
the charge
Conmected acrOss eoch a Juneton
cihtult, olU Components ate Cwrth the
poralle! common node s last.
Other exartly tuwo
edectrieally no choge
acrOc eoch
(omponent.
Same vo Hoge paraile!
Senes

R
ww

. R S
1

ww-
 Diede dat shee-
Drode Moto rola Semi conduehr Down lga d the Datd Sheut
IN 4001 - I N 4 C0t

-O

Clced suihh pened r u

FBLOw Resirken F8 Ha Kesiskr
FB 00
Diode rbel R.B 1000 MMAL R8 Low Resieten te RBHh Resiteo
Diede s Damag
Dtode is Ok ond
good

Rech er i
n DC upph
AC rupp
A clreut whlch conwerts
caded as Rechfer
Two type alF cwave Bndge wave
futlfutl wave
Center Tap
-
30 v

S0H2

ro 4cvaw ecP er

Nin
 Jancton 'rasISTor

Bidge wave rechfer ON11- BIT ( Bipolar

| BJT
freuen.
230v
RL
Peak NPN PNP
SoHz pak

D NPN
B

Vo
PI
Note:
Arow Ind'tade
B
Complete fuil
wave oudp m i t t e r en d

n P Nregtor=
£
output n hut poitive
alfuweve rechfer-
Becawe it has
recttier.
so calked half wave
ycle 2mtter Basee Colteetor
Becauue it hau ouput n fu porpttve g ht
tul wove techfien
do called full wave rottich, Dopng Heavy Madeate

cele Size Mederote Small Thrn) loge

Emitter NE
sase NVs
Coll eetor Nc

Ne Na N
n

Appichon
Mode
RB RB
Property
Offer veq hiq h eslstonce | OfF
SUitth,

O Cut-oft reirtonce ONwith,

Scduration FB FB Offexs very dow
Amplfr
RB 2celle nt Transistor Actior
FB
(forubrd Attencctor
Actt ve
Ta nsis or Action
FB Worst [never Use)
Revene RB
Active
 BE PB aetve mode
Co mme
s adurotion mode Commo
Common collector 180se -FB
Comnon
CoMmo0
Be-
BC
? sadirotion mode
E RB Cat-oft mede
C o mmen CB
common lf RB Cut-off mOde
Common EB FRBB octve mede Common BL
Common CB
/n
Translstor Operattens P-NP Convetona tuvrerrt
2lectronte curernt
Some
OCommon Bae Re Re ellrodion
W- www-
edron
Stechovc cuent (Umet
TP
Te B
nB VB
VAT
PN (onventon
(u r e t .
R.e Olp Curent
Curent 8ar
TP Cument TE
TE Jet+3 De cuent galn the
cf collector to
Te98 T+ is deffned as the rotio
Te o Te >i1 gmitter ccurent. Or
T t s denoted by \DC
modthermodtealy =
ument Aun CNPN) Te .Je
R Ac_cument garn: tatte of smol change n collector
as the
deftned
ww It is
M emitter c u e n t .
cuent to the small change
T t is dencied as ,, A or fe
NA Ne Mathemhern aticallyy
Te Ae
1
Current an Tn CE conftqurahon
 Relaton Between d,and B:-
ComMentmHer (ce) enhguraien
'Ie = I 8 + Jc -0
Dvide by c
+.eP
f= B-.p
-Slechonte
Curent dBC-)
Conventon Te 3
Curent ww B
C1-)
w- (ume0t gan
saluoy Jes
than .98. ItP
2d98
0.975 what ta he Valluof E
tanststor has an d
=
A
ahd If B- (20o) w hat ts
DC_cument garn:- Gtven
I t is the ratio of Collector cument to the Base
curent
B B
CI-) tB
dencied by P, Bpc 0.975 200
1-0.9755 +200
mathematically
20
O 975 20
O 025
AC cUret goiD 0.9950
ehange In collector
1+ is the radto of small
in &miter Pose curent
Cuerrt to smal ohonge
st i denoied by P.Bac
Mahemoti'ecly CSR
orpoote
social esponsibi
 4 Jt the I= 30uA. when the Je 4.2 mA who are
Tranatstor hos B 3 he 7c 40 mA what h e valuu of d and
the value' oF Te
B=c
2 1 0 - 80x1o= Ic
BA . x16
Tp Je= . 17 mA
100
-3
d B
TB04 mA Cl-)
4-1 16
B O-99 Ses
. Je 40 +04 mA -0.995 C1-6.99)
7euo,4mA B 199
Traototor has B = 150 callate colletor TB,Je
Te = l0mA.
BT
10mA Tet e
ITe +
'0.01-9.9338 1g
10x0= 10-93338x10i
o.016 mA
L+1
50
IS0
Oo
e .00666
C g9338 x o
re-9.9338mA
BJT chorocteristhcs common base) Vote ohd 1/P Cuwenty oJp vi
FP charotteristes -TIP vty
o|p vtg ahd o]p cu mert|P cumor
N 0/P chorotterishes
TLIL /P charaden'Ha
3]P charaetenstis is wed to
and h s ven
determine the
he rotio of
hy
V- RI - ohmvs law

nput res
IP repthohce
s Sma

ista ne
VRi
chrtt anange-ment
Te - Resistarnce islcw
Ease wth modulotion in BIT
2ory e}fect threrh old0.5v 0P_chare cteristies
deberm/ne the
yBane fotento) be ued 0
ce-IcV O]P chatocteristca may the rothos of
reaistonce and it ts ven by
VB 5
a) Jnput oP to baae vtg to the s mal
ChoiacteneHes in collector
small change
n collector cument.
Vte= 1vv chahge
Teje
Ro Vo
Io
o.4 5
ReAVecs
acHve reglon A 3
o1P
Reaistane is high
soturotiont
tHpi cal ralle ts aboud 5o0 k
Te= GmA
J e hmA
Je- 2mA
ud oft
Ve \leakogecurent
(bofp'dhaiadenhie,
 -wW
ww.

Te

-ww-

T
 Inpu charaderrHo et CC-('commor collecer
npud Choecteristes
T|P choractenetics max be wed to deermine
he input teustance cind H» value s given by Smol Ip (uA)
ehange in bae to emiter vty to t e small changd
i'n Base curent
80
R VEB Vec 3 V VEc 5v
6O
Here tnput tesHdnce ls high.
0put chaaeteriaterirtie
0/P choactentia may be ued to determime the
sm al
outpu beA iotance and b gtven by
valu s
to he stmae
T)P chaiacteistie cf Cc 8Vee(v)
change n collector to emiter v betuween
change tn coltectok cument are the relotiensh/p
Fnput chara ctenhies Cutput
ruent ond input voltoge keeping
Ro VeE he input
VOtoge conta n t
4lc
cortoot.
0P vt
Here ouput reaistanee is low, P cument, IP voltoge
and f/p vtg Ve e
Common ollector oument t's e
BI chatactenotru of
E
Here the input
mA VCE
and olP vtg determine the
wwe to
>FIP characterirttec may be small change
is g/ven b4
dD/stance and Its value in
Te input colectoF to the smoull ehange
vty
Base to
bae Cument.
Ri =VBc
Je
The p reautane s Hiy 6.
Oupu charactcrketo :- Cec) Tian silstor Texttrg
IECoA)
-actve regron
sahurahenm IA 80A
reqtm
Te-0uA
Fo 60.uA
T0=uoA
20uA
0-20A
JeAlOA
To 0.uA
ZZ/ZZZCutoftreqton eqiep
5
ol chacterrhes CC
between h
0 P choaractenstia dre he relationship
cument constant
Keeping tIp
O/Pcurent and olp vtq ond eP vtg is Vce and he
cument is Te
Here output
rent s Ia.
FIP e
wed to dedemlne
chaoctensti may be
OP
ta valu gmen sy
smal
ClP char renistonte ahd the Sth al chag
in èmitter
collecetorvty t
change
tn emitter curent,
Ro = Vec
DIE
The 1P rea'rane hrh.
 DCOperating Potnt ond Loodlne, (Quucent
poln
8T-Blaulng- Amplfrr oP
Ncc
-10 V
dipped
Rg= 10-
RL 2002
B100
Te 0.mA
kipped
}D a s =. 3mA
anol to plo ce t
T o tun the device on 3 Fe 0, 2imA
it
operates Iineotly.
Tegton where lewel of cuebi
of ixd
T h e Biaaing dealo with setting
and
sistor jun ctions,
votoge acyo4 the trun
Vce
B=100
We enow hat TB 6 SmA
for
V e e - Jeke-
VeE =0
N c e = Vcc- TcRc
Tc= TB B
o . 3 *0*1o0|
VE4V
O Tp0.4mA
B 0,2 ml How to drauw de oadlne
B-
we enow that
Te Ic 100x 0.2x1o
=0
By kvL
Vet-FcRc -VCE
c- 100 x 0.4 x0°

Te 40 mA By kvL Vec-TRc =V¢£

Vec - JcR¢-Vee=o . Nec- VcE = TcPc
B Kvl

Vce FcRe- Vce=0 0-(ao »iox20o)-v vec-VCE Tc

1040xox200)=Vee . VeF = 10-2 Re
e can

0-8V¢E VCe =6v Here Vce is alsnost=O or ngligible

VcEvv/ negleet it. VCE O
vcc - Jc - o
J (1) V«e(4) Re
Ts (t
Tc 4) Ver ()
Relatronship
Aelatrenehip w e lchow that Vcc- ReIe Vee - =0

Te (4) 0
O - VCE
=

Vec
Vec Vee-
At C 0ff pont
sahnodtoo
pont J8s 0.5m A value 0t Re jcollector we get.
zero
t is
umen

Te mA
G2

Je c03mA DC load
Re
ne

e b r MA

Vce-Vec
20 Tes 0.

CCut of
VCe pei
whot Valul SCdUrato0 cuent an (UFAT and lowet end ofA Dc load tre
.2 And upper
olbo daw DN Aoad ltne.
vtg
vg n figure alA0
fAnd +he poi
Vcc=0pv pr he ctrewt s houn
t on De dood me,
and locate
VOC=20 V
T Re 10 kA FeRc 200
Vee = I0 V
VeBo
ww w
RB 50kk
B 00
VCe Vec= 20
SahiatHeo cument= Ic Sahraton ccument
Vce Wcc =20 Tcs VCC
Vec 20 vee 20
Rc VcE-20v
300
VCE 20v Te= B.JB
Jc O.o66 A
-c mA TC 66 mA Ic=Je
B
D e o a dt n e .
TB033 mA
DC Load ltne
imA
OV
VCE20V
TB 66X10
00
B O.33 mA
Bioun4 methads A
VCC

OBoae bla (fixed bioo) CRg ir always coomeded h Vre),

Bose bios wrth emitter feedbock
collector flb.
Voltoge divider blas.

Looe bn (haed_bio) :
Re
w

Inderna Leop
s AFB EGA
ww.B Applkrcheffs vty taw
N -Vcc

fe - V6e
=0
VceTe
Nee Vec- VBE = Teke
B RB
0. 4 0
BE
. Vee ^O
Ro
Vce T8
AA

(Zndernd Loop AfC EGA =

Vec Vcc-fc RcVce =0

e ce= Vee-feRc-O
www
Re
B I
te

m Vce = V ce-IcRe
1c= . Vec.
RB -
 }t s obeved hot (otleetr
m and
equohoncAtetor Re
cumnt
ate dependent en p.
to mitter vtn Vce and 80 X0.138f x1o
Bud B itongly dependent on temperoture.
Tc I. 104xl0
m e a r n that Ic and V¢e wilI vary w itb ehange
n B du to vaiation temperodure Te 1). 104 mA
in
Ao t is not poeible to obtaln table Q folnt
bare 6ras
the bose bias cecuts
because of hego
this Vce= Vcc- FcPc
amplifeh eleut, *isa
wed In dugi tal = a5 9105.28 x)
s Dever ned suiteh
tan be wwed a
eleut whete ttanstotr Vee= 1S.gev=
=15.8gv
behween saturato0 and cut of
and Je and Vee. .find whether ran tor operotog in sanio ion
vollue of IB
D e l e m i e the
6r ochve or tut-off regton Juste
Vcc S

ReSk

Re
0OK=B VCE
GHven w

Pc 820
Mec 25v
5V =V8B
5
80 Te = RA= 100k
PB Re Sk
h Pe 30 Vce 5
VBB TéRs-VBeVes 5
. vBB V9ES 3
T e 0 13P8 mA
( 4.3x10
5-0.4
00x1S
d.0516 Tp0. 043 mA
-0ds MA
 caledote the valut otVeceollector 4uwert given:-
eeVee-TeKe Q.5
Rce5k
I= p.is
Ve 5-
5 Sx10x 1c Re 5k
A= 30x0-0431
Tc .
VB2.
-
1c= S0AA-05 xt6 e1.49 mA Bl00 4ok
VBe0.

VeE 5-5 x10x 1. Sx10

vCE SV 'TB= VCeVBF -0 g.3

4Oxlo
RB
:VCE-2 3v Suhre O.&25 MA
0 0344 Ta0-2mA
-) (1-30)
Vce c Re
= V e c LcRc

JB 1 o - a51D°Ic
0844x b .0SmA co
VBB-1B Ra VBe
-

=0B4lux 0.dSxi0
.Ax 10x1oo * VBB -VBE_ft
/72x10
c o5142KA T 0 mA RB

VEVcc-Ioke .VCE VcctcRe . + e t -.

/l0-Ab XIx25%)
S- 05172710519
5 0.05142 5 = 10-aOx R 5 = 40
Vee= 4.74l4y Vee40ev
T 0.05 m4
J 0 0 X 0.05x/o

5 mA
 Vote Vee aluoyr E0.7 v
Collector TertmnalCewneted to base Voltge Dyider Rule
Cblledbr teminal Boe, bioed feedbode methu
"Vec

TsteKe + VI

VCC

R V
VCE
M-
Íe
in a senes clvCut
V g dop acMLe ans resletance
VeE rato oF thot resíetance to
the total te1 on
equal to the
multpl ted by
retouke vt.
we on wite
do mothemohicoly
VoHege Dtvider Bro Methd
Vec x Vec V2= Ra_ec
RI+RL
+Vec R+R

R VB= The-dop xVec

R+R
VCE A Vaue of Ie
VBE. VB VBeVe
Te E
VB 0.7 Ve
RE
:VB ve-
1eJ e -
boltage dop acr reateor Re

VAe Tc Re
volHoge o ollecor dermne w.rt. VB- Ro NCC
ground,
RI+R2
Vca = Vec VpRe
VB 5 x10
VcVce-Jeke 9 5 x10
3
'.
Collechor em/tHor va or va fom C.h t. NB =\o.83 x10 0

Vee=Ve-Ve
VB Ve
VeVCE Vec-JcRe -JEke VB VBe= VE
Fe. 10- 6.7 = Ve
But- JE g te Jo ubtihude Jr by .83

. 84 m Vve
VeEVea IcRc-Jc Re
Voe Voe Te CRe+fe) - Te Ve . a4lo 63x1
DeterHmine Le PE
V o zIO
S00
VOE for vt divider
btas ctruihow.
3-46x10
26A
Vee-0.¥v E 4-007A 5.

SPe-1k
p100 Vc = Vcc- T¢Pc
V=1oV

eeIK t o - 546 x1x1

VCE
10-s.6 xto3

ee e 74
VeE Ve VE
E Pe500. 44 - . 6 3 mU
 .Delermine the folloarng value oF VP.B Conftqurato
Vcc
(R+Ra) VE
NCC
Re Se NCE
Ve
0.5v
B

S 10 10
Gven-
Ne
(5+10) 0 TB20uA

Rc
5

Ve- 3.3v VBVe RE12k

VG -Vse = VNE Ra 6.2k-

3.3 0.7 VE

VE = .63v
Ic B.IB Ve FE Fe
VE c+Ta )Re
F VE A63 = S . 6 mA
500
e 5 26 ma A000u A Ve =
mAt 20uA ) 12x10

' Ve Vec- c e Te- 2. mA

10-5.26x10x 10
V£ :(A16A20x10j20
10 5.26
Ve= Vcc -

Ic Pc
Vec Ve+TcRc

VE 42
VC-VE
4.F4 . 63 L
VeVE+0.4
0.6 +2x1 7 .y24 6.7
Veel6v Ve 312v)
VCE Ve -Ve Bneglecttng d.
le6-a2 Ve Ve 342
we 9
VcE0.6-2.4
IV8=2.4
VIE818V
 methad au dshown tn
VB R2 Vec
Trautetor blased by VDB
s
Rt Ra delemtne 0/fecing potn
fA
To find
Tc and Vee

(8.410 x- 8.2x)03
CE
Vc

.42
VE
131.2 x1 8.2x1o3 Nee-
Vcc =
1312 x1o 19.84 m3 RT
RE = 68o

Ra 15E
1.36 x10 = 33k
Te Te
Ve=Re Now 3ec Ve
46.0/6 10
R1tRe
RA 46 K1 A.8)
5 x197x9
680
(IS+8s) 1o3
E-3 16 mA
VB 81 Vg=2.11
Tse=5.10
Ve Ve
VcE= Ve-Ve
= Vee Te CFctFE)
- 3 18 x (iG80 )
NCE - 6.938
VeE 3.q616 v
4 BT1 ha V6E so.4V ealcutcete olu
and Re ch Do= mA and VeeR,5V,
hfE 100
VCe

VBE=0.4
Tc ImDA
1A10x 0.8k10
VeeR5v
Ve= .3v
bFelo0 VB Ve+ VeE
PE0k 0.3 4 04

Vee5
R2l0E
Vel
NB R
1hRaok
R2V R
VCE= cc e RetPe) .VB

e/YecVee_- 0x5 i 0 1 0 xi0

Te

e (5-S 300 EOx1o 10r

10 901)x3
5 8 x10

.5-0.3
 Stobily octor
the rote of
>obili foctor may be doftned a to teverre sdukatto
ef colleotor eurent with bepect
Chahge CA) and
eurret gatn CBand
curet common emitter
bb keeptng
Bae ecUment as
fg consta)tE.

>Mathematheally
S= J

is e d to meaure the btas stobilitya

>The stobilty footor
of transistor cireut.
indleates poor stobilie
of tobility foctor
T h e hgher value nd/eates geod tabilty.
wherear a lower value
collector TS equal to tofe
If the rate of ehange ef
value
curent, then the velue
sahuration
of reveye
change
change aotors unby
of tobilit of Stobility fbctor
the lowert vallue
Unity to the untty
of foctor A clorer
the value stobilty
Jf w)th temperatture wi be
then orlaton of colleetor cument
then in
there wl Le lew va notionu Ppolne
le therefdre