Turbulence 3

University of Tehran,Faculty of Engineering,Department of Mechanical Engineering
Chapter 4 (Mean Flow Equations)

• In the previous chapter, various statistical quantities were introduced to
describe turbulent velocity fields- means, PDFs, two-point correlations, etc.
• It is possible to derive equations for the evaluation of all of these quantities
starting from the Navier-Stokes equations that govern the underlying
turbulent velocity field U(x,t).
• Reynolds Equations (1894): The most basic of these equations are those
governed the mean velocity <U(x,t)>.
• The decomposition of the velocity into its mean and the fluctuation gives:
+∞
U ( x, t ) = + u ( x, t ), = ∫ Vf (V )dV
−∞
• This is referred to as the Reynolds decomposition.

• It follows from the continuity equation:
∇.U = ∇.( + u ) = 0
< ∇.U >= ∇.(<> + ) = ∇. = 0
∇.u = 0
• It follows that both <U(x,t)> and u(x,t) are solenoidal.

Mean Flow Equations

• Taking the mean from the momentum equation is less simple because of the
nonlinear convective term. DUi ∂p ∂ 2U i
ρ =− +µ
12Dt3 ∂x ∂x ∂x j
123i 1 42j 43
Conv . Source Diff .
• The first step is to write the substantial derivative in conservative form:

D U i ∂U i ∂ DUi ∂ < Ui > ∂
= + (U jU i ) (taking < >) ⇒ < >= + 
Dt ∂ t ∂x j Dt ∂t ∂x j
• Substituting the Reynolds decomposition for Ui and Uj, the nonlinear term
becomes: = + < ui u j >
• Thus, we obtain: 1424 3
Re ynolds Stress
DUi ∂ < Ui > ∂ ∂ < Ui > ∂ ∂ < ui u j >

< >= + ( + < ui u j >) = + +
Dt ∂t ∂x j ∂t ∂x j ∂x j
• The final term can be usefully re-expressed by defining the mean substantial
derivative
D ∂ DU i D ∂
= + .∇ ⇒< >= (U i ) + < ui u j >
Dt ∂ t Dt Dt ∂ xj
Reynolds Equations
• Taking the mean from the momentum equation gives:
DUi 1 ∂p ∂ 2U i
< >= − < > +ν < >
Dt ρ ∂xi ∂x j ∂x j
D ∂ 2 ∂ < ui u j > 1 ∂ 
⇒ =ν − −
DU i D ∂ Dt ∂x ∂x j ∂x j ρ ∂xi
< >= < Ui > + < ui u j > 142j 43
Dt Dt ∂ xj ν∇ 2 
• Thus, the final form of momentum equation (Reynolds equation) can be

expressed as: D ∂ < ui u j > 1 ∂ 
2
= ν∇ − −
Dt ∂x j ρ ∂xi
• In appearance, the Reynolds equations and the Navier-Stokes equations are
the same, except for the term in the Reynolds stresses-a crucial difference.
• Like p(x,t), the mean pressure field <p(x,t)> satisfies a Poisson equation.
1 2 ∂U i ∂U j 1 2 ∂U i ∂U j
− ∇ p= (taking < > ) ⇒ − ∇ =< >⇒
ρ ∂x j ∂xi ρ ∂x j ∂xi
∂ ∂ ∂ < ui u j >
2
1 2
− ∇ = +
ρ ∂x j ∂xi ∂xi ∂x j
Reynolds Stresses
• The Reynolds stresses <uiuj> play a crucial role in the equation for the mean
velocity . If <uiuj> =0 , then the equation for U(x,t) and <U(x,t)> would
be identical. The very different of U(x,t) and <U(x,t)> are therefore attributed
to the effect of the Reynolds stresses.
• The Reynolds equations can be written as:
D ∂ ∂ ∂ < Ui >
ρ = [µ( + )− δij − ρ < ui u j >]
Dt ∂x j ∂xi ∂x j
• The term in square brackets representing the sum of three stresses: the
viscous stress, the isotropic stress − δij , and the apparent stress arising
from the fluctuating velocity, − ρ . It is convenient and conventional to
i j
referee to <uiuj> as the Reynolds stress.

• The viscous stress ultimately stems from momentum transfer at the molecular
level. So also the Reynolds stress stems from the momentum transfer by the
fluctuating velocity field.
F:\turbulence\laminar_vs_turbulent_bl.mov
F:\turbulence\laminar_vs_turbulent_diffusion.mov
Reynolds Stresses
• Referring to Figure below the rate of gain of momentum V due to flow
through the bounding surface A is:
M& = ∫∫ ρU (−U .n)dA
A
• The mean of the j component of this equation is:
< M& j >= ∫∫ − ρ( + < ui u j >)ni dA

A
∂
= ∫∫∫ − ρ ( + < ui u j >)dV
V
∂xi
• Thus, for the control volume V, the Reynolds stress as it appears in the
Reynolds equations (i.e. − ρ∂ < ui u j > / ∂ x j ) arises from the mean momentum
flux due to the fluctuating velocity on the boundary A, − ρ < ui u j > ni .
The Closure Problem

• For a general statistically 3D flow, there are four independent equations
governing the mean velocity field (Three components of Reynolds equations
together with either the mean continuity equation or the Poisson equation).
• However, these four equations contain more than four unknowns. (10
unknowns). A set of equations, with more unknowns than equations, is said to
be unclosed.
• This is manifestation of the closure problem.
• The Reynolds equations are unclosed: they cannot be solved unless the
Reynolds stresses are somehow determined.
D ∂ < ui u j > 1 ∂ 

= ν∇ −
2
−
Dt ∂x j ρ ∂xi
∂ 
=0 or
∂x j
∂ ∂ ∂ < ui u j >

2
1 2
− ∇ = +
ρ ∂x j ∂xi ∂xi ∂x j
Tensor Properties
• The Reynolds stresses are the components of a second-order tensor, which is
obviously symmetric, i.e., <uiuj> = <ujui>.The diagonal elements
(< u12 >, < u22 >, < u32 >) are normal stresses, while the off-diagonal elements
(< u1 u2 >, < u2 u3 >, < u1 u3 >) are shear stresses.
• The turbulent kinetic energy is defined: 1 1
k ( x, t ) = < u.u >= < ui .ui >
2 2
• An intrinsic distinction can be made between isotropic and anisotropic
stresses. The isotropic stress is 2 / 3 kδij and then the deviatoric anisotropic
part is: 2
a = − kδ
ij i j ij
3
aij < ui u j > 1
• The normalized anisotropy tensor is defined by: bij = = − δij
2k < ul u l > 3
• Thus, the Reynolds stress tensor is: 2 1

< ui u j >= kδij + aij = 2k ( δij + bij )
3 3
• It is only the anisotropic component aij that is effective in transporting
momentum ∂ < ui u j > ∂ ∂ aij ∂ ( +2 / 3 ρk )
ρ + = +
showing that the isotropic tensor ∂x j ∂xi ∂x j ∂xi
component can be absorbed in a modified pressure
Irrotational motion
• An essential feature of turbulent flows is that they are rotational. Consider
instead an irrotational random velocity field- such as the flow of water waves.
• The vorticity is zero, and so in turn the mean vorticity and the fluctuating
vortcity are also zero.
• Hence we have ∂ui ∂u j ∂ 1 ∂
< ui ( − ) >= ( < ui u i > ) − (< ui u j > ) = 0
∂x j ∂xi ∂x j 2 ∂x j
from which follows the Corrisn-Kistler equation.

∂ ∂k
< ui u j >=
∂x j ∂x j
for irrotational flow.
In this case the Reynolds stress has the same effect as the isotropic stress kδij
which can be observed in a modified pressure.
Symmetries
• For some flows, symmetries in the flow geometry determine properties of the
Reynolds stresses.
• Consider a statistically 2-D flow in which statistics are independent of x , and 3
which is statistically invariant under reflections of the x coordinate axis. For

3
the PDF of the velocity f(V;x,t) these two conditions imply that:
∂f
=0
∂ x3
f (V1 ,V2 , V3 ; x1 , x2 , x3 , t ) = f (V1 ,V2 ,−V3 ; x1 , x2 ,− x3 , t )
• At x =0, this last equation yields <U3>=-<U3>, i.e., =0; it similarly
3 3
yields =0 and <u2u3>=0. The first equation indicates that hold for all x.
1 3
Thus, for such a statistically 2-D flow, =0 and the Reynolds stress
3
tensor is:
 < u12 > < u1u2 > 0 
 2 
 0 
 0 0 
 3
Symmetries- Cont.
• In addition of being statistically 2-D, the turbulent channel flow is statistically
symmetric about x2=0. This symmetry implies that:
f (V1 ,V2 , V3 ; x1 , x2 , x3 , t ) = f (V1 ,−V2 , V3 ; x1 ,− x2 , x3 , t )
from which it follows that <U2> and <u1u2> are odd functions of x2, whereas
<U1> and the normal stresses are even functions.
The Mean Scalar Equation

• The most basic description of a conserved passive scalar field φ( x, t ) is
provided by its mean < φ( x, t ) > .
• The fluctuating scalar field is defined by:
+∞
φ′( x, t ) = φ( x, t )− < φ( x, t ) >, < φ >= ∫ Ψf (Ψ )dΨ
−∞
so that the Reynolds decomposition of the scalar field is:
φ( x, t ) =< φ( x, t ) > +φ′( x, t ),
• The conserved equation for φ( x , t ) can be written
∂φ
+ ∇.(Uφ) = Γ∇ φ2
123
∂t Nonlinear Term
• Taking the mean of the above equation: < Uφ >=< φ > + < ′>
φ3
1u2
Scalar Flux
∂<φ>
+ ∇.(< Uφ >) = Γ∇ 2 < φ > ⇒
∂t 14243
Nonlinear Term
∂<φ> D <φ>
+ ∇.(< φ > + < uφ′ >) = Γ∇ 2 < φ >⇒ = ∇.(Γ∇ < φ > − < uφ′ >)
∂t Dt
• The scalar fluxes play an analogous role to that of the Reynolds stresses in the
Reynolds equations.
Gradient-diffusion and Turbulent-viscosity hypotheses

• The unknown terms in the momentum and scalar equations need to be
modeled.
• The < uφ′ > vector gives both the direction and the magnitude of the turbulent
transport of the conserved scalar φ . According to the gradient diffusion
hypotheses, this transport is down the mean scalar gradient
• Thus, according to the hypothesis, there is a positive scalar ΓT ( x, t ) –the
turbulent diffusivity-such that:
< uφ′ >= −ΓT ∇ < φ >
• With the effective diffusivity defined as the sum of the molecular and
turbulent diffusivities Γeff ( x, t ) = Γ + ΓT ( x, t )
• Thus, the mean scalar conservation equation incorporating the gradient
diffusion hypothesis is: D <φ>
= ∇.(Γeff ∇ < φ >)
Dt
• It may be seen, that this equation is the same as the conservation equation for φ
D<φ>
= ∇.(Γ∇ < φ >)
Dt
• The gradient diffusion hypothesis is analogous to Fourier’s law of heat
conduction and Fick’s law of molecular diffusion.
Turbulent-viscosity hypotheses
• Similarly, the turbulent-viscosity hypothesis introduced by Boussinesq (1877)-
is the mathematically analogous to the stress-rate-of-strain relation for a
Newtonian fluid. According to this hypothesis:
2  ∂ < Ui > ∂ 
− ρ < ui u j > + ρkδij = ρνT  + 
3  ∂x ∂ x 
 j i 
= 2ρνT S ij
• Positive scalar diffusion νT is the turbulent viscosity.
D ∂   ∂ ∂  1 ∂  2 
= ν eff  + −  + ρk 
Dt ∂xi   ∂x j 
∂xi  ρ ∂x j  3 
where ν eff ( x, t ) = ν + ν T ( x, t ) is the effective viscosity.

• This is the same as the Navier-Stokes equations with and νT in place of
U and ν , with + 2 ρk the modified pressure.
3
Justifications & Criticisms

• The gradient-diffusion hypothesis implies that that the scalar flux is aligned
with the mean scalar gradient vector. Even in simple turbulent flows this is
found not to be the case. For example, in an experiment on homogenous
turbulent shear flow the angle between < uφ′ > and ∇ < φ > was measured to be 65°
• Similarly, the turbulent-viscosity hypothesis implies that the anisotropy tensor
aij is aliened with the mean rate-of-strain tensor, i.e.,
2  ∂ < Ui > ∂ 
a ij = − kδij = ν T  + 
3  ∂x ∂ x i 
 j
= 2ν T Sij
Again, even in simple shear flow, it is found that this alignment does not occur.
• For turbulent boundary layer:
∂<φ> ∂ < U1 >
< uφ >= −ΓT , < u1u 2 >= −ν T
∂ < x2 > ∂ < x2 >
Both of these relations relate a single covariance to a single gradient.

These equations can be taken as definitions of ν T and ΓT .
Justifications & Criticisms

• Specification of ν T ( x, t ) and ΓT ( x , t ) solves the closure problem. That is, ifν T
andΓT can be somehow be specified, the mean flow equations for and
< φ > can be solved.
• At high Reynolds numbers, remote from walls, ν T and ΓT are found to scale
with velocity scale U and length scale L of the flow, independent from the
molecular properties of fluidν and Γ. Consequently, the rations of ν T / νand
ΓT / Γ both increase with Reynolds number, and so molecular transport is
negligible.
• The turbulent Prandtl number σT is defined by:
νT
σT = ≈ 1 in most flows
ΓT

Turbulence 3

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Turbulence 3

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University of Tehran,Faculty of Engineering,Department of Mechanical Engineering

Chapter 4 (Mean Flow Equations)

• This is referred to as the Reynolds decomposition.

• It follows that both <U(x,t)> and u(x,t) are solenoidal.

Mean Flow Equations

• The first step is to write the substantial derivative in conservative form:

DUi ∂ < Ui > ∂ ∂ < Ui > ∂ < U i > ∂ < ui u j >

• Thus, the final form of momentum equation (Reynolds equation) can be

referee to <uiuj> as the Reynolds stress.

< M& j >= ∫∫ − ρ(< U i >< U j > + < ui u j >)ni dA

The Closure Problem

D <U i > ∂ < ui u j > 1 ∂ < p >

∂ < U i > ∂ < U j > ∂ < ui u j >

• Thus, the Reynolds stress tensor is: 2 1

from which follows the Corrisn-Kistler equation.

which is statistically invariant under reflections of the x coordinate axis. For

The Mean Scalar Equation

Gradient-diffusion and Turbulent-viscosity hypotheses

where ν eff ( x, t ) = ν + ν T ( x, t ) is the effective viscosity.

Justifications & Criticisms

Both of these relations relate a single covariance to a single gradient.

Justifications & Criticisms

• The turbulent Prandtl number σT is defined by:

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