NOTES: (DO NOT INCLUDE IN THE PPT)

BLUE – To be included in the PPT. Glucose (Sugar)

RED – To be discussed/further explanation.

TITLE: PANCREATIC ISLETS

- The pancreas, located close to the stomach in the abdominal cavity.
 The pancreas (pnk’rē-us) lies behind the peritoneum between the greater
curvature of the stomach and the duodenum.

INSERT: (Figure 9.3)

-The pancreatic islets, also called the islets of Langerhans (lahng′er-hanz), are little masses of
endocrine (hormone-producing) tissue scattered among the exocrine (enzyme-producing) tissue of the
pancreas.
 The pancreas (heterocrine) is both an exocrine gland and endocrine gland. The
exocrine portion consists of acini (as’i-nī), which produce pancreatic juice, and a
duct system which carries the pancreatic juice to the small intestine. The
endocrine part, consisting of pancreatic islets, secretes hormones that enter the
circulatory system.

 But here we will consider only the pancreatic islets….

-Although there are more than a million islets separated by exocrine cells, each of these tiny
clumps of cells works like an organ within an organ as it busily manufactures its hormones. Two
important hormones produced by the islet cells are insulin and glucagon.
 - Islet cells act as fuel sensors, secreting insulin and glucagon appropriately during fed and
fasting states. A high level of glucose in the blood stimulates the release of insulin from the beta (ba′tah)
cells of the islets.

 Each islet is composed of alpha (α) cells (20%), which secrete glucagon, a small
polypeptide hormone, and beta (β) cells (75%), which secrete insulin.

 Remaining 5% of cell types are either immature cells that produce secretions
with digestive functions or delta (δ) cells, which secrete somatostatin.

INSERT: (Figure 9.11)

 This figure 9.11 shows the pancreatic tissue. In which we can see the (a) location
of pancreas relative to the stomach and small intestine. And then, (b) here we
can see the photomicrograph of pancreas with exocrine and endocrine (islets)
areas clearly visible (140*). With this, we can see the (c) diagrammatic view of a
pancreatic islet. Beta cells produce insulin; alpha cells produce glucagon.
TITLE: INSULIN

-Insulin acts on just about all body cells, increasing their ability to import glucose across their
plasma membranes. Once inside the cells, glucose is oxidized for energy or converted to glycogen or fat
for storage. Insulin also speeds up these “use it” or “store it” activities.

- Because insulin sweeps the glucose out of the blood, its effect is said to be hypoglycemic.

 Hypoglycemia or low blood levels of glucose, is directly related to low insulin

secretion. Hypoglycemia occurs when you have too much insulin in your
bloodstream. This might happen if you don't eat for several hours, such as 8
hours or more. A drop in blood sugar means there isn't enough glucose in your
bloodstream to fuel your brain and body.

-As the blood glucose level falls, the stimulus for insulin release ends—another classic case of
negative feedback control. Many hormones have hyperglycemic effects (glucagon, glucocorticoids, and
epinephrine, to name a few), but insulin is the only hormone that decreases the blood glucose level.
  Insulin is absolutely necessary for the use of glucose by body cells. Without it,
essentially no glucose can get into the cells to be used.

TITLE: HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE 9.8

-Without insulin, the blood level of glucose (which normally ranges from 80 to 120 mg/100 ml of
blood) rise to a dramatically high level (for example, 600 mg/100 ml of blood). In such instances, glucose
begins to spill into the urine because the kidney tubule cells cannot reabsorb it fast enough.

-As glucose flushes from the body, water follows, leading to dehydration. This is what we called
diabetes mellitus.

 Which literally means that something sweet is passing through, or siphoning

from the body.

-Because cells do not have access to glucose, fats and even proteins are broken down and used
to meet the energy requirements of the body. As a result, body weight begins to decline. Loss of body
proteins leads to a decreased ability to fight infections.

 So, diabetics must maintain good hygiene and care for even small cuts and
bruises.

-When large amounts of fats (instead of sugars) are used for energy, the blood becomes very
acidic (acidosis) as ketones (intermediate products of fat breakdown) appear in the blood. This type of
acidosis is referred to as ketosis.

 Unless corrected, coma and death result.

 The three (3) cardinal signs of diabetes mellitus are;

-(1) polyuria (pol″eu′re-ah)—excessive urination to flush out the glucose and ketones; (2)
polydipsia (pol″e-dip′se-ah)—excessive thirst resulting from water loss; and (3) polyphagia (pol″e-fa′je-
ah)— hunger due to inability to use sugars and the loss of fat and proteins from the body.

-People with mild cases of diabetes mellitus (most cases of type 2, or adult-onset, diabetes)
produce insulin, but for some reason their insulin receptors are unable to respond to it, a situation
called insulin resistance.

-Type 2 diabetics are treated with special diets or oral hypoglycemic medications that prod the
sluggish islets into action and increase the sensitivity of the target tissues to insulin and of beta cells to
the stimulating effects of glucose. To regulate the blood glucose level in the more severe type 1
(juvenile) diabetic, insulin is infused continuously by an insulin pump worn externally or by a regimen of
carefully planned insulin injections is administered throughout the day.

TYPE 1 TYPE 2
Your body attacks the cells in your pancreas Your body is unable to make enough insulin or
 which means it cannot make any insulin. the insulin you do make doesn’t work properly.
Type 1 is managed by taking insulin to control You can manage type 2 diabetes in more ways
your blood sugar. than type 1. These include through medication,
exercise and diet. People with type 2 can also be
prescribed insulin.
(INSERT TABLE)
 If you have type 1 diabetes, it means you have an autoimmune condition. This
means your body has attacked and destroyed the cells that make a hormone called
insulin. So you can’t make insulin anymore. 

 If you’ve got type 2, either your body doesn’t make enough insulin, or your insulin
doesn’t work properly. This is known as insulin resistance.

 We all need insulin as it helps take the glucose from our blood into our body’s cells.
We then use this glucose for energy. Without insulin, the glucose level in your blood
gets too high.

TITLE: GLUCAGON

-Glucagon acts as an antagonist of insulin; that is, it helps to regulate the blood glucose level but
in a way opposite that of insulin. Its release by the alpha cells of the islets is stimulated by a low blood
level of glucose. Its action is basically hyperglycemic.

 Hyperglycemia, or elevated blood levels of glucose, directly stimulates insulin from β

cells.

-Its primary target organ is the liver, which it stimulates to break down stored glycogen to
glucose and to release the glucose into the blood.

INSERT: (Figure 9.12)

  The figure shows the regulation of the blood glucose level by a negative feedback
mechanism involving pancreatic hormones.

 On the left side, we have the stimulus for the elevated or high blood sugar level
after eating four (4) jelly doughnuts. The insulin-secreting cells of the pancreas (beta
cells) will be activated resulting the release of insulin into the blood. With this, most
body cells have increased blood glucose absorption. While the liver takes up glucose
and stores as glycogen. Homeostatic restored, the blood glucose level decreases.

 On the right side, we have the stimulus for the low glucose level after skipping a
meal. The glucagon-releasing cells of the pancreas (alpha cells) will be activated
resulting the release of glucagon into the blood. The liver breaks down stored
glycogen and releases glucose into the blood. Homeostatic restored, the blood
glucose level increases.

 So take note, Glucagon increases the blood sugar level, whereas the insulin
decreases the blood sugar level.

TITLE: GONADS

The female and male gonads produce sex cells (an exocrine function). They also produce sex
hormones that are identical to those produced by adrenal cortex cells. The major differences from the
adrenal sex hormone production are the source and relative amounts of hormones produced.

INSERT: (Figure 9.3)

TITLE: HORMONES OF THE OVARIES

 -The female gonads, or ovaries, are paired, slightly larger than almond-sized organs located in
the pelvic cavity. Besides producing female sex cells (ova, or eggs), ovaries produce two groups of
steroid hormones, estrogens and progesterone.

-Estrogen
-Growth and maturation of the reproductive organs
-Hair in the pubic and axillary regions
 The estrogens are responsible for the development of sex characteristics in women
(primarily growth and maturation of the reproductive organs) and the appearance
of secondary sex characteristics (for example, hair in the pubic and axillary regions)
at puberty.

- Breast development and menstrual cycle

 Acting with progesterone, estrogens promote breast development and cyclic
changes in the uterine lining (the menstrual cycle, or menstruation).

-Progesterone
-Menstrual cycle
 Progesterone, as already noted, acts with estrogen to bring about the menstrual
cycle.

-Prepare the mammary glands for lactation

 During pregnancy, it quiets the muscles of the uterus so that an implanted embryo
will not  be aborted and helps prepare breast tissue for lactation.

-Ovaries are stimulated to release their estrogens and progesterone in a cyclic way by the
anterior pituitary gonadotropic hormones.

 But this will be tackled in the reproductive system…

-Hyposecretion of the ovarian hormones severely hampers a woman’s ability to conceive and
bear children.

 Hyposecretion is when the amount of hormones that are released is too low.

TITLE: HORMONES OF THE TESTES

-The paired oval testes of the male are suspended in a sac, the scrotum, outside the pelvic
cavity. In addition to male sex cells, or sperm, the testes also produce male sex hormones, or androgens,
of which testosterone is the most important.

-Testosterone
-Growth and development of the male reproductive structures
-Muscle enlargement
-Body hair
-Voice Changer
-Male sexual drive
  At puberty, testosterone promotes the growth and maturation of the reproductive
system organs to prepare the young man for reproduction.

 It also causes the male’s secondary sex characteristics (growth of facial hair,
development of heavy bones and muscles, and lowering of the voice) to appear and
stimulates the male sex drive.

-In adults, testosterone is necessary for continuous production of sperm. In cases of

hyposecretion, the man becomes sterile; such cases are usually treated by testosterone injections.