GR 12 MATHS

Analytical Geometry THEORY

CONTENTS: Compliments of

The Straight Line Page 1

Revision of Formulae Page 6
Circles Page 6
 Module 5: Notes & Exercises
N
Gr 12 Maths Paper 2 – Analytical Geometry THEORY
5
 Collinear points
THE STRAIGHT LINE Three points A, B & C are collinear if
the gradients of AB & AC are equal.
C
The Gradient of a line: Values & Applications A B
m AB = m AC  A, B & C are collinear

Note : Point A is common

 Values of the gradient
 Consider these lines : also : mAB = mBC , where point B is common, mAC = mBC , where pt C is common

The gradients are : POSITIVE NEGATIVE ZERO UNDEFINED

y y
 Consider these lines :
-2
The gradients are :
MODULE 5: ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY
The gradient
1
3 of a line The Inclination of a line
x RISE
x 4 = ±
RUN
⎛ vertical ⎞ Angles α and β alongside are angles of inclination.
3 1 ⎜ or ± horizontal ⎟
+ -- ⎝ ⎠
2 4

α β
The Inclination of a line is the angle which it makes
 Parallel lines B with the positive direction of the x-axis.
α acute . . . β obtuse . . .
Parallel lines have equal gradients. gradient of gradient of line
A
D line is positive is negative
AB || CD  mAB = mCD
C

 Perpendicular lines The gradient of a line is also the tan of the ø of inclination, i.e. m = tan α or tan β.

In the figure, line – is perpendicular to line —.

– 2 If a and b represent positive lengths, then :
If the gradient of line – is + ,
3
3 a a
then the gradient of line — will be - m = m= -
2 b b
a and a and
⎛ 2 ⎞⎛ 3 ⎞ α β
— So: m– × m— = ⎜ + ⎟ ⎜ - ⎟ = - 1 tan α =
opp
=
a
tan β = -
a
⎝ 3 ⎠⎝ 2 ⎠ b adj b -b b
i.e. The product of the gradients of ⊥ lines is - 1.

1
line  ⊥ line —  m– × m— = - 1 or m– = -
m—
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 Module 5: Notes & Exercises
e.g. Acute angle α :
The gradient of the line is the tan of the angle of inclination
i.e. m = tan α or tan β as in y = m x + c
N
y = 3x + 1 y = -- x
(2; 3) (2; 3) The gradient =
3
2
e.g.
α
m = 3
∴ tan α = 3 β
m = -1
∴ tan β = - 1
5
3 and
α α â α ∫ 71,57º â β = 180º - 45º
3 = 135º
2 tan α =
2

3 3
tan α =  α = tan -1 = 56,31º  The inclination of the line
2 2
Worked Example

Write down (a) the gradient, and (b) the inclination of the following lines :
In the sketch alongside, the two parallel lines y y y y
3 (2; 3) 1. 2. 3. 4.
both have a positive gradient = + 3 . (- 2; 5) 5
2
(3; 2)
∴ They have the same inclination, α. α α 2
-2
(The angles correspond.) O x O x O x O x
-3 2

Obtuse angle β : Note :

MODULE 5: ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY

3 3
The gradient = - and tan β = - From the gradient, we can calculate the inclination, or
2 2
(- 2; 3)
from the inclination, we can calculate the gradient.
The gradient is NEGATIVE.
3
β ∴ β is obtuse
-2 ∴ β = 180º - 56,31º Answers
= 123,69º  The inclination of the line 2 2
(a) : 1. 2. 3. -5 4. -5
3 3 2 2
(b) : For both 1. & 2. : 33,69º For both 3. & 4. : 180º - 68,2º = 111,8º

In the sketch alongside, the two parallel

3
lines have a negative gradient = - 3 .
(- 2; 3)
2
∴ They have the same inclination, β. β β
(The angles correspond.) 2

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 Module 5: Notes & Exercises

N Graphs in general Case 1: Horizontal and Vertical lines

EVERY point on this line
y
5 3 Basic facts about graphs in general • Horizontal lines : 5
y=5
has a y-coordinate
equal to 5.
 : Axis intercepts Have the equation
y=c . . . (m = 0) y=0
Every point on the y-axis has x = 0. O
The x-coordinate x
Every point on the x-axis has y = 0. is zero (i.e. y = a number) -3 y = -3 These are the
y EQUATIONS of the lines.
The y-coordinate
 : The equation (0; 2) is zero

The equation of a graph is true for all points O x y

(3; 0) • Vertical lines : EVERY point on this line
on the graph. has an x-coordinate
have the equation
∴ The equation of the y-axis is x = 0 ; O x equal to 2.
x=k -4 2
& the equation of the x-axis is y = 0.
(i.e. x = a number)
 : Types of graph x = -4 x=0 x=2
These are the
Different types/patterns are indicated by various equations. EQUATIONS of the lines.

(See the variations of the equation of a line below.)

Case 2: Lines through the Origin
y
The y-intercept would always be zero.
2
∴ c=0
3
MODULE 5: ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY

Straight line graphs & their equations O x

Substitute in y = m x + c :
∴ y = mx  the standard form of lines through the origin

Standard forms
∴ The equation of the line above is : y = 2 x 
3
There are 2 standard forms of the equation of a straight line :
 y = mx + c : where m = the gradient & c = the y-intercept Case 3: "Other lines"
When m = 0 : y = c . . . a line || x-axis
When lines are not parallel to the axes or through the origin, we consider :
When c = 0 : y = mx . . . a line through the origin
y = mx + c or y - y1 = m(x - x1)
Also : x=k . . . a line || y-axis (see Case 1 on p. 5.6)
Refer to
e.g. Substitute m = 5 and point (1; 6) in :
 y -- y1 = m(x -- x 1) : where m = the gradient The Answer
& (x 1 ; y1) is a fixed point on the line. Series y = mx + c or y - y1 = m(x - x1)
Gr 11 Maths ∴ 6 = (5)(1) + c ∴ y - 6 = 5(x - 1)
This standard form will be explained on page 5.9. 3 in 1. ∴ 6 = 5+c ∴ y - 6 = 5x - 5
∴ 1 = c ∴ y = 5x + 1 
As with distance, midpoint and gradient, we will consider
∴ y = 5x + 1 
equations in the same 3 cases as on page 5.6.

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 Module 5: Notes & Exercises
The Equation y - y1 = m(x - x1): An Explanation
The general form of the equation N
Given a fixed point, e.g. (2; 3), on a line, then, for any other point (x ; y)
on the line, it is true that :
y-3
(x; y) ax + by + c = 0 is the general form of the equation of a straight line. 5
= m . . . = the gradient of the line (2; 3) This form is useful when finding the axis-intercepts and/or the gradient.
x-2
â y - 3 = m(x - 2)
e.g. 2x + 3y + 6 = 0 Again, the 'dual-intercept' method is useful.
So, generally . . .
y
Given a fixed point (x1 ; y1 ), then, for any point (x; y) y-int : Put x = 0, then 3y + 6 = 0
on the line, it is true that : ∴ y = -2
(x; y) x
y - y1 x-int : Put y = 0, then 2x + 6 = 0 -3
= m . . . = the gradient of the line
x - x1 (x1; y1)
∴ x = -3 -2
â y - y1 = m(x - x1) 2
∴ The intercepts are : (0; - 2) and (- 3; 0) & the gradient = -
3
BE OPEN TO THIS ALTERNATIVE TO y = mx + c. It is a much quicker method !

2x + 3y + 6 = 0, the general form, converts to the standard form, y = - 2 x - 2.

3
Non-standard forms of the equation
x y Finding the equation of a line . . .
e.g. (1) 3x - 4y = 12 (2) + = 1
3 5
It is not always necessary to  Given m and c :
convert these equations into the

MODULE 5: ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY

standard form, y = mx + c. 1.1 Given : A line has a gradient of - 2 and cuts the y-axis at 3.
Method : Substitute m = - 2 & c = 3 in y = mx + c.
The Dual-intercept method . . .
Equation : y = - 2x + 3 
To sketch these graphs, one can determine the intercepts as follows. The 'gradient-intercept' method

For the y-intercept, put x = 0 1.2 Given : A line || to the line y = - x + 2, passes through the point (0; 4)
0 y
(1) 3(0) - 4y = 12 (2) + = 1 Method : Substitute m = - 1 & c = 4 in y = mx + c.
3 5
∴ y = -3 ∴ y = 5 Equation : y = - x + 4 
& for the x-intercept, put y = 0
x 0  Given m and a point :
∴ 3x - 4(0) = 12 + = 1
3 5
∴ x = 4 ∴ x = 3 2.1 Given : A line has a gradient of 3 and passes through the
point (1; 6).
y ∴ The sketches : y
Method : Substitute m = 3 & (1; 7) in :
5
x y = mx + c or y – y1 = m(x – x1)
4
-3 x ∴ 7 = (3)(1) + c ∴ y - 7 = 3(x - 1)
3
â 4 =c ∴ y - 7 = 3x - 3
3 5
∴ m= & c = -3 ∴ m= - & c=5 Equation : y = 3x + 4  ∴ y = 3x + 4 
4 3
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 Module 5: Notes & Exercises

N 2.2 Given : A line passes through point (- 2; 4) and is perpendicular to Facts about Points on Graphs
line y = 2x + 5. and Points of Intersection
5 Method : Substitute m = -
1
2
& (- 2; 4) in :

y = mx + c or y - y1 = m(x - x1)
FACT –
⎛ 1⎞ 1
∴ 4 = ⎜ - ⎟ (- 2) + c ∴ y-4 = - (x + 2)
⎝ 2⎠ 2 If a point lies on a graph, the equation is true for its coordinates,
1 i.e. the coordinates of the point SATISFY the equation . . . so substitute !
∴ 4 =1+c ∴ y-4 = - x -1
2 and, conversely,
1
∴ 3 =c ∴ y = - x +3  If a point (i.e. its coordinates) satisfies the equation of a graph
2
1 (i.e. "makes it true"), then it lies on the graph. [See Q1 in Exercise 5.2 on
Equation : y = - x +3  p 5.11 in The Answer Series
2 A quick method !
Mathematics Grade 11 3 in 1.]

 Given 2 points : FACT —

3.1 Given : A line passes through the points (- 3; 1) and (4; - 6). The POINT(S) OF INTERSECTION of two graphs :
The coordinates of the point(s) of intersection of two graphs "obey the conditions"
Method : Determine m (the gradient) from of both graphs,
 The gradient of the line, the 2 points, then substitute m
and either one of the 2 points, i.e. they SATISFY BOTH EQUATIONS SIMULTANEOUSLY.
-6-1 -7
m= = = -1
4 - (-3) 7 i.e. revert to the above method. They are found
MODULE 5: ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY

 Substitute m = - 1 and a point, say (- 3; 1) :  "algebraically" by solving the 2 equations (see below), or
y = mx + c or y - y1 = m(x - x1)  "graphically" by reading the coordinates from the graph.
∴ 1 = (-1)(- 3) + c ∴ y-1 = (-1)(x + 3)
∴ 1 =3+c ∴ y-1 = -x - 3 THESE 2 FACTS ARE CRUCIAL ! !
∴ -2 =c ∴ y = -x - 2 

Equation : y = - x - 2  Worked Example

3.2 Given : A line passes through points (- 3; - 2) and (- 3; 5). Find the points of intersection of the 2 lines . . .
y y=x+5

No 'method' needed ! y=x+5 & y = -x + 1 5

P
NB : The x-coordinates are the same ! . . . Draw a sketch! 1
∴ The line is parallel to the y-axis Answer
O x
∴ Calculating m is ‘not possible’ . . . The gradient is undefined! At the point of intersection, P y = -x + 1
x + 5 = - x + 1 . . . (both = y)
Equation : x = - 3  â 2x = - 4
â x = -2
Remember to sketch the situation and think before
& y = x + 5 = 3 or y = - x + 1 = 3
being lead blindly by formulae and rote methods.
â The point of intersection, P is (- 2; 3)
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 Module 5: Notes & Exercises
REVISION OF FORMULAE CIRCLES  NOTE:
A line and a circle (or parabola !) N
either
 Circles with the origin as centre:
Consider two points A( x 1 ; y 1 ) and B( x 2 ; y 2 ) :
True of any point ( x ; y) on ( x ; y)
y 1 "cut" (twice !) [secant]
(2 points in common)
5
a circle with centre (0 ; 0) ( x ; y)
or 2 "touch" (once !) [tangent]
DISTANCE FORMULA B and radius r is that : y r r y (1 point in common)
y2 - y1 x
2 x2 + y 2 = r 2 x O x or 3 don't cut or touch
AB = (x2 - x 1 ) 2 + (y 2 - y 1 ) 2 ... Pythag.
A (no points in common)
x2 - x1
AB = ( x2 - x1)2 + (y 2 - y1) 2 and if we substitute y = m x + c
into the equation of the ?
(The Theorem of Pythagoras !) there will either be 2 solutions, 1 solution or no solutions for x,
resulting in one of the above scenarios
MIDPOINT

B(x 2 ; y2) Converting from

M ⎛ x1 + x2 y + y2 ⎞ 2 2
⎜ ; 1 ⎟ general form Ax + Bx + Cy + Dy + E = 0
A(x 1 ; y1) ⎝ 2 2 ⎠  Circles with any given centre: to
2 2 2
standard form ( x - a) + (y - b) = r
True of any point ( x ; y) on y
P (using completion of squares)
a circle with centre (a ; b) ( x ; y)
GRADIENT
and radius r is that :
x2 - 6x +
O 2
e.g. y + 8y - 25 = 0
Δy y 2 - y1 (a; b)
m = = (x - a) 2 + (y - b) 2 = r 2 2
â x - 6x
2
B
Δx x2 - x1 O x + y + 8y = 25

MODULE 5: ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY

2 2
y2 - y1 â x - 6 x + 32 + y + 8y + 42 = 25 + 9 + 16
Distance formula ! 2 2
A â ( x - 3) + (y + 4) = 50
x2 - x1 (i.e. the Theorem of
Pythagoras again) i.e. a ? with centre (3; - 4) & radius, r = 50 (= 5 2 ) units

Also NOTE
B tan θ =
opp y - y1
= 2
 A Tangent to a ? y
An interesting fact . . .
adj x2 - x1 is perpendicular to P( x 1 ; y1)
y2 - y1 When 2 ? 's touch,
the radius of the ? the distance between their centres r R
A θ
x2 - x1 â tan θ = m at the POINT of contact. O Q = the sum of their radii (& vice versa) A B

Therefore, i.e. AB = r + R
x
to find the equation of a â for AB > r + R and AB < r + R
tangent we usually use
FACTS ABOUT GRADIENTS mOP = 2 r R r R
"m and 1 point" in the
|| lines : straight line equation â mPQ = - 1 A B A B
 equal gradients 2
y - y 1 = m( x - x1)
(ä radius OP ⊥ tangent PQ)
 ⊥ lines : gradients neg. inv. of each other,
i.e. m1 x m2 = -1
FINAL ADVICE
 For points A, B and C to be collinear : Use your common sense & ALWAYS DRAW A PICTURE ! ! !
mAB = mAC = mBC

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