LPI Course Notes Rev 1.9

Liquid Penetrant Inspection Course Notes
Rev 1.9- 06/04/17
OCEANEERING
LIQUID PENETRANT INSPECTION
LEVEL 2 Course Notes
Revision Reason for Revision Prepared Approved Date

by by
1.1 Reformatting & Report Update AGM J Taylor 02/07/08
1.2 Reformatting G Crossling J Taylor 30/01/09
1.3 Reformatting J Taylor AGM 09/04/09
1.4 Reformatting I Cheney J Taylor 24/02/11
1.5 Review I Cheney J Taylor 11/09/12
1,8 Review I Cheney J Taylor 07/05/16
1.9 Review and updates to C Sykes G Mason 06/04/17
product technology
Rev 1.9- 06/04/17
Contents
SCOPE ............................................................................................................................................... 3
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................ 3
CAPILLARY ACTION.......................................................................................................................... 3
CAPILLARY PRESSURE ................................................................................................................... 4
PENETRATION of SURFACE DISCONTINUITIES ............................................................................. 4
LIQUID PENETRANT INSPECTION COMPARED WITH OTHER N.D.T. METHODS ........................ 5
LIQUID PENETRANT THEORY AND PRACTICE .............................................................................. 6
CLEANING METHODS....................................................................................................................... 7
TEST PROCEDURE ......................................................................................................................... 11
TEST PROCEDURE STEPS ............................................................................................................ 11
CHARACTERISTICS and PROPERTIES of a PENETRANT ............................................................ 12
PENETRANT INSPECTION PROCESSES ...................................................................................... 15
CONTROL of PENETRANTS ........................................................................................................... 28
CONTROL of DEVELOPERS ........................................................................................................... 31
PENETRANT INSPECTION SAFETY............................................................................................... 32
PENETRANT INSPECTION – INSPECTION AND VIEWING ........................................................... 33
UV-A/BLACK LIGHT VIEWING......................................................................................................... 34
WHITE LIGHT VIEWING .................................................................................................................. 35
PENETRANT INSPECTION – TEST INDICATIONS ......................................................................... 36
GENERAL ADVANTAGES OF THE PENETRANT METHOD ........................................................... 38
GENERAL LIMITATIONS OF THE PENETRANT METHOD ............................................................. 38
FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED WHEN SELECTING A PENETRANT PROCESS ........................ 39
PENETRANT FLAW DETECTION REPORT .................................................................................... 40
SELECTION OF PENETRANT PROCESS AS PER BS EN 571 ...................................................... 40
PENETRANT FLAW DETECTION PROCEDURE REQUIREMENTS ............................................... 41
GLOSSARY OF TERMS................................................................................................................... 42
LIQUID PENETRANT REPORTS........................................................................................................44
WRITTEN INSTRUCTION ................................................................................................................ 50
LABORATORY REPORTS..................................................................................................................52
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WELDING PROCESSES.....................................................................................................................63
WELDING DEFECTS...........................................................................................................................80
PRODUCT TECHNOLOGY - CASTING PROCESSES.....................................................................113
PRODUCT TECHNOLOGY - FORGING AND WROUGHT PROCESSES.......................................132
PRODUCT TECHNOLOGY...............................................................................................................144
CLASSIFICATION OF DEFECTS......................................................................................................144
SMELTING DISCONTINUITIES.........................................................................................................145
INHERENT DISCONTINUITIES ..................................................................................................... 145
CAST DISCONTINUITIES .............................................................................................................. 147
FORGING DISCONTINUITIES ....................................................................................................... 150
WROUGHT PRODUCT DISCONTINUITIES .................................................................................. 151
PRIMARY PROCESSING DISCONTINUITIES ............................................................................... 152
ROLLING DISCONTINUITIES ........................................................................................................ 153
PLATE, SHEET, STRIP DISCONTINUITIES .................................................................................. 153
BAR DISCONTINUITIES ................................................................................................................ 154
SECONDARY PROCESSING DISCONTINUITIES ......................................................................... 155
SERVICE DISCONTINUITIES ........................................................................................................ 156
WELD DISCONTINUITIES ............................................................................................................. 158
PHASE TEST 1 .............................................................................................................................. 165
PHASE TEST 2 .............................................................................................................................. 175
COURSE EVALUATION....................................................................................................................186
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SCOPE
These training notes are intended to be used to impart the basic theoretical knowledge required for inspection
personnel who will inspect castings, forgings and welded items using any of the colour contrast or fluorescent
liquid penetrant techniques.
INTRODUCTION
Originally the liquid penetrant method of non-destructive testing was expedited by the utilisation of paraffin and
powdered chalk.
The principal used with this method of testing are still applied today, although the techniques have become
more varied and also more sophisticated. There is still reliance on the fact that the defects, which have to be
detected, are surface breaking and that the parent material should not be excessively porous.
This testing method can be used on a variety of materials, such as metals, plastics, glass and ceramics
(glazed).
In principle the penetrant is applied to the surface of the material under test, it soaks into the surface breaking
defect due to “Capillary Action”, after sufficient soak time has been allowed the excess penetrant is removed
from the surface prior to the application of the developer. The developer is applied and “Reverse Capillary
Action” blots the penetrant out of the defect.
CAPILLARY ACTION
Defined as – “The tendency of liquids to penetrate or migrate into small openings such as Cracks, Pits or
Fissures”. It is possible for penetrants to enter cracks as fine as 1.25 × 10
–4
mm across.
Capillarity is the action by which the surface of a liquid, where it is in contact with a solid is elevated or
depressed, this can be observed when a plastic straw is inserted into a glass of water, water enters the straw
and by cohesion of nearby molecules, the liquid rises up the tube until equilibrium is reached between the
upward capillary pressure and the downward air pressure, if the discontinuity is small or narrow as in a crack or
pinhole, Capillarity assists the penetration.
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CAPILLARY PRESSURE
Is given by the formula P = 2S × Cos ϕ

D
Where: P = Capillary Pressure

S = Surface Tension
ϕ = Contact Angle
D = Capillary Diameter
This formula shows that an increase in surface tension or a decrease in contact angle or capillary diameter will
give an increase in capillary pressure.
The contact angle is a measure of the wetting ability.
CONTACT ANGLE WETTING ABILITY DROPLET SHAPE
Less than 90° High
Equal to 90° Moderate
More than 90° Low
The contact angle of water for example will increase significantly on a greasy plate
PENETRATION of SURFACE DISCONTINUITIES
CAPILLARY ACTION
1. Surface Preparation
The surface must be cleaned of all surface

coatings, grease, oil, rust etc.
2. Penetrant application
Typically penetrant is applied to the surface

and left on for between 5 and 60 minutes
3. Remove excess penetrant
Excess penetrant is removed in such a

way that it leaves the surface clean but does
not remove the penetrant from within the flaw
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4. Developer application
A thin coating of developer is applied to the

surface
5. Initial inspection
Immediately after application of the developer

a visual examination is carried out
6. Final inspection
A final examination is carried out after

approximately 10 to 30minutes after
application of the developer
LIQUID PENETRANT INSPECTION COMPARED WITH OTHER N.D.T. METHODS
Within the field of NDT there are three other major methods of detecting defects in non-ferromagnetic materials
apart from Liquid Penetrant Inspection. A comparison of these three methods and the penetrant systems
available are of interest.
a. Penetrants are ideal for the location of surface discontinuities and more flexible than Radiographic
methods. They are cheaper, faster and are not restricted by size or shape of the component to be
tested.
b. Compared with Ultrasonic Inspection, penetrants are quicker, cheaper and more reliable for the
detection of fine surface discontinuities. In a mass production situation penetrants are a far better
proposition.
c. Penetrants are far more flexible than Eddy Current methods and are not restricted by geometry. Eddy
Current methods are slightly better on long bars and tubes but the penetrants are more reliable
generally for location with regard to width, type and orientation of discontinuities.
d. Penetrants yield to R.T., U.T. and E.C. as far as internal defects are concerned and with regard to this,
also M.P.I. They are however equal to M.P.I. with regard to surface breaking defects, possibly better,
on a wide variety of materials providing they are non-porous and apart from the situation where the
discontinuities are filled with some form of contaminant material.
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e. Because the penetrant system beats the three other major methods of NDT at the detection of fine
surface discontinuities, it is a widely used tool of NDT.
f. M.P.I. is equal generally to penetrants when the material is ferromagnetic but is much better than
penetrants in cases where the defect may be full of a contaminant.
g. Due to the sensitive nature of the penetrant system of inspection it can be used to detect fatigue
cracking. These defects usually start from the surface of a material, which is highly stressed. This
defect will then propagate through the material until complete failure occurs.
LIQUID PENETRANT THEORY AND PRACTICE
Penetrant flaw detection is a non-destructive testing means of locating surface discontinuities in material, which
is based on the complicated principles of capillarity. It is capable of dealing with most types of non-porous
material manufactured in various ways. Also defects created during process work such as heat treatment, cold
forming and grinding. However it is important to note that some processes and cleaning methods should be
avoided as they will close the surface of the material and thus close the outer extremity of the defect.
Prior to penetrant inspection the surface to be inspected shall be thoroughly cleaned and dried. One of the most
important aspects of penetrant testing is pre-cleaning and preparation. This is also the part that is most often
overlooked or just not carried out correctly. All protective surface coatings will require complete removal in the
area under inspection. A penetrant method cannot be valid or meaningful if you cannot ensure a clear passage
for the penetrant into any discontinuities.
Cleaning methods can be broken into two categories: mechanical and chemical. As surface preparation,
cleanliness and finish is of such great importance in penetrant testing, the use of non-mechanical methods are
preferred to clean the surface.
Typical contaminants include: water, oil, scale, slag, welding flux, corrosion preservatives, carbon, oxide films,
acids and alkalis. The presence of acid or alkali on the surface under test can seriously affect the sensitivity of
the process, these must therefore be neutralised and thoroughly rinsed off prior to penetrant application. This
must be done as the test may be inhibited because of penetrant contamination and/or the discontinuities will
become blocked with some form of contaminant residue.
If a contaminant has to be cleaned off the component surface prior to the test, the details of the contaminant
should be logged in the test report.
Whichever cleaning process is used, it must be compatible with the material being inspected.
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CLEANING METHODS
As previously stated the components to be inspected must be clean and dry. If not the following may occur:
i) The test may well be ineffective

ii) The contaminant may affect the in-service capability
iii) The contaminant may react with the penetrant
These contaminants include the following:
a) Metal chips b) Metal dust c) Turning d) Abrasive

e) Weld spatter f) Scale g) Rust h) Grease
i) Corrosive oil j) Polishing compounds k) Previous NDT residue
l) Water
All of the above should be removed prior to the test and should be noted when the report on the component is
prepared.
There are a number of cleaning methods, which should be avoided as they will pit the surface of the material
under test and these are as follows:
Cleaning processes that should NOT be used, to avoid contamination/damage to the test surface.
1. Blasting: Shot; Grit; Pressure

2. Liquid honing
3. Emery
4. Wire brush
5. Scrapers
6. Needle gun
7. Grinders
All of the above will close the defect or fill it with a contaminant material
Prior to testing the component it must be free from paint, carbon, varnish, oxides and plating. If necessary
use mechanical or chemical methods to remove the above.
Component materials must be compatible with testing materials, beware of some plastics.
Sulphur in developers can embrittle Steel when subjected to high temperatures.
Mixing certain cleaners and penetrants, may result in the production of chlorines.
Acids can affect colour contrast and fluorescent dyes
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Shot Blasting
The high speed jetting of beads of grit, sand or similar materials on to the surface of the part under test is
effective at removing paint, rust and solid contaminants. It can also remove oils and grease from the surface,
but will not remove it from within discontinuities. Blasting should not be used on soft materials as it can peen
(deform and close) the surface over a discontinuity.
Wire Brush
Can be high-speed rotary type or hand held brush, to remove loose scale, rust and other solid particles.
Paint Removal
There are a number of proprietary paint removers available, all of which are caustic. Neutralising procedures
are necessary after the paint has been removed.
Cleaning processes which may be used
1) Vapour Degreasing.
2) Trichlorethylene – beware of toxic fumes
3) Genklen III or equivalent
All the above methods tend to heat the component as well as clean. The components should be gently
introduced into the cleaner to avoid any splashing, quite often immersion is not required and the vapour will be
sufficient for cleaning. Always follow the manufactures instructions.
Solvent Degreasing for Light Oils
Use non-ionic detergent and sodium carbonate. Vigorous scrubbing by air agitation. Swill off in fresh running
water. Rinse in demineralised water, this must be clean and have a ph value of not less than 6, with low copper
and chloride percentage. Water analysis should occur as a post-test procedure.
Solvent remover may also be used together with lint free cloths. This is the most common method of pre-
cleaning used on site. The solvent is usually sprayed on to the area to be tested and then wiped off. This
method is not good at removing contaminants from within defects and can only clean surface solids that are
contained as a suspension in grease or oil.
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Saponification
For the removal of animal fats, vegetable oils and greases etc.
Also tallow, lards and palm oil.
Immerse the part in the alkaline solution.
This reacts with oils to form an industrial soap which is a water washable compound.
Emulsification
Mineral based oils and greases. Use industrial soap, which acts as a wetting agent and dispersal medium that
renders the oil or grease water washable.
Care should always be taken when dealing with any cleaning solution
Steam Cleaning
High-pressure super-heated steam jet

Beware of scalding - use protective clothes etc.
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Ultrasonic Cleaning Bath
Components are immersed into the cleaning bath, which contains a solvent remover or alkaline solution e.g.
Liquidet.
The ultrasonic crystal vibrates and causes cavitations.
The bubbles created within the liquid by this ‘cold boiling’ impinge on the component surface and then implode
on impact. This in conjunction with the cleaner fluid removes many surface residues.
N.B. Always wash the component and dry before commencing the penetrant test.
Ultrasonic Cleaning Bath
Cleaning Fluid
Components
Ultrasonic Crystals
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TEST PROCEDURE
As will be discussed in further sections of this course there are a great number of penetrant inspection
processes but as a test procedure sequence the following steps will generally apply.
TEST PROCEDURE STEPS
a. The penetrant is applied to the components surface. This can be undertaken in the following ways:
i) Immersion (dipping)
ii) Spraying
iii) Brushing
iv) Electrostatic Application
v) Flooding
Care shall be taken to ensure that the test surface remains completely wetted throughout the entire
penetration time.
b. In order to minimise moisture entering discontinuities, the temperature of the test surface shall
be in the range from 10°C to 50°C.
In special cases, temperatures as low as 5°C may be used.
For temperature below 10°C or above 50°C only penetrant product families and
procedures approved in accordance with BS EN 3452 shall be used.
c. Time is allowed to enable the penetrant to soak into the surface breaking defect.
In the penetrant system process the liquid dye is applied to the surface of the component under test and the
penetrant is then left to soak for a period of time.
BS EN 3452 gives the minimum time as 5 minutes, and a maximum time of 60 minutes. The
penetration time should be at least as long as the time used for the determination of sensitivity (recommended
dwell time by most manufacturers is 15 to 20 minutes).
Penetration of the penetrant into the discontinuity is further enhanced by the diffusion of the entrapped air
through the penetrant, allowing the penetrant to completely fill the discontinuity.
After sufficient time has elapsed, the surplus penetrant is removed, however it is important that the penetrant is
not removed from the defect, so careful removal of the excess is important.
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CHARACTERISTICS and PROPERTIES of a PENETRANT
To be a good penetrant, a liquid must have good wetting ability and high surface tension. Not all liquids with
high surface tension are necessarily good penetrants. An example of a liquid with high surface tension but
which is a poor penetrant is water.
Wetting Ability
The ability to wet a surface may be measured by the contact angle of the liquid to the surface of the material
under test. For example, mercury on glass wets a very small area and thus has a high contact angle. A good
penetrant must have a very small contact angle. The wetting ability of a penetrant can vary from one type of
surface to another.
Surface Tension
The surface tension of a penetrant liquid is a complex phenomenon that includes the effect of the forces of
attraction existing between the molecules of a liquid and the material under test. The surface tension of a
penetrant can vary from one type of surface to another.
Viscosity
The viscosity (thickness) of a penetrant does not significantly affect a liquid’s ability to enter a discontinuity. A
penetrant that has a high viscosity may however take longer to fill a cavity than a low viscosity liquid.
Visibility
All penetrants contain a dye, normally red or fluorescent, in a solution. The penetrant must hold sufficient dye to
be visible in very small quantities.
Volatility
A large number of liquids with good penetrant ability are unfortunately volatile, this means that they evaporate
very quickly, usually too quickly to be of practical value in penetrant testing. The penetrant could dry on the
surface and in any discontinuities. If this happens no penetrant would bleed out after application of the
developer.
Flash Point
The flash point of a material is the temperature at which enough vapour is given off to form a combustible
mixture and a minimum value of around 93°C is typical. Insurance companies and transport regulations are
tending to dictate a movement upward in penetrant flash points and this can be a particular problem with
solvent-based removers and developers that are required to be halogen free. Most manufacturers can,
however, supply non-flammable alternatives using chlorinated solvents.
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Chemical Inertness
All penetrant material must be as inert and non-corrosive as possible. Often the customer specifies the
maximum sulphur, sodium and halogen levels, this is to reduce the possibility of corrosion, embrittlement or
cracking. Failures may occur many years after testing, quite small quantities of contaminants being a major
contributory factor.
Removability (solubility)
Having applied the penetrant, it will become necessary to remove the surplus from the test specimen to ensure
a clean, clear background. Penetrants are manufactured to be removed by the application of various liquids,
including solvents and water. Whichever method is used the principle is to remove excess penetrant only and
not wash out the penetrant in the defect.
Tolerance to Contaminants
Penetrants kept in open tanks will become contaminated after a time, even with great care. Water is the main
enemy especially for water washable penetrants. Oil, grease and solvents as well as many strange objects find
their way into tanks. Even though great care in cleaning is taken, contaminants can still remain in a defect.
Therefore the penetrant materials must be formulated to minimise such problems. Reduction of fluorescent
brilliance by chromates residue on water washable penetrants can be of particular concern.
Solubility
All penetrants contain a dye, red or fluorescent, in a solution. The penetrant must hold sufficient dye at ambient
or high temperature and the dye must not come out of the solution if the temperature drops. Red contrast
penetrants tend to cause most trouble in this respect.
Solvent Ability
Having applied the penetrant, it becomes necessary to remove the surplus from the test specimen to ensure a
clean, clear background. Volatile solvents, some flammable - some not, are often used. These must not
dissolve the penetrant in defects.
Health Hazard
Chemists developing new penetrant materials must comply with or exceed the most stringent health and safety
requirements. Three of the main problems are of toxicity, odour, and skin contact. Again, it is more likely that
the solvent-based cleaners, removers and developers will come under closest scrutiny. For instance,
Halogenated hydrocarbons are extremely dangerous in the presence of heat, so smoking is absolutely
forbidden when they are being used.
Availability and Cost

Materials that are difficult to obtain are unlikely to be used even though they might have big advantages in
terms of capillarity. Similarly there is no commercial sense in using components which are very expensive,
making the final product uncompetitive in a very open market.
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There are three types of penetrant:
i) HYDROPHILIC – WATER BASED

ii) LIPOPHILIC – OIL BASED
iii) THIXOTROPIC – NON-DRIP (Gels that can become fluid when stirred or shaken)
All penetrants contain a dye, normally red or fluorescent, in a solution. The penetrant must hold sufficient dye to
be visible in very small quantities.
Certain penetrants have a LIPOPHILIC BASE, as stated above, and therefore are not water washable. In such
cases an emulsifying agent has to be used on the component surface to render the penetrant water removable
after the emulsification time has elapsed. This therefore means that an extra stage is introduced between the
penetration and the development stage, which does slightly increase the test time and also the usage of extra
materials.
High temperatures degrade the effectiveness of the penetrant and make it harder to remove excess
penetrant from the surface. Could flash or evaporate rapidly.
At low temperatures some precipitation of the penetrant may occur which reduces the effect of the
process. Penetrant may become highly viscous (WON’T FLOW EASILY).
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PENETRANT INSPECTION PROCESSES
SOLVENT REMOVABLE
Generally, the excess penetrant shall be removed first by using a clean lint-free cloth. Subsequent cleaning with
a clean lint-free cloth lightly moistened with solvent shall then be carried out, then a dry lint-free clothe to finish
with. The contracting parties shall approve any other removal technique, particularly when solvent remover is
sprayed directly on to the surface of the part being tested.
HYDROPHILIC EMULSIFIER (water-dilatable)

To allow the post-emulsifiable penetrant to be removed from the test surface, it shall be rendered water-rinsable
by the application of an emulsifier. Before the application of the emulsifier, a water wash should be performed in
order to remove the bulk of the excess penetrant from the test surface and to facilitate a uniform action of the
hydrophilic emulsifier that will be applied subsequently.
The emulsifier shall be applied by immersion or by foam equipment. The user shall evaluate the concentration
and the contact time of the emulsifier through pre-tests according to manufacturer’s instructions. The
predetermined emulsifier contact time shall not be exceeded. After emulsification, a final wash shall be carried
out by using a suitable rinsing technique (spray rinsing or wiping with a dampened cloth). Care shall be taken to
minimise the effect of mechanical action caused by the rinsing method (water spray temperature should not
exceed 50°C and not exceed 2 bar pressure).
LIPOPHILIC EMULSIFIER (oil-based)

To allow the post-emulsifiable penetrant to be removed from the test surface it shall be rendered water-rinsable
by the application of an emulsifier. This can only be done by immersion. The user shall evaluate the emulsifier
contact time through pre-tests according to the manufacturer’s instructions (OII Lab – 45 - 90 seconds)
This time shall be sufficient to allow only the excess penetrant to be removed from the test surface during the
subsequent water wash. The emulsifying time shall not be exceeded. Immediately after emulsification, a
water wash shall be carried out as described in the previous paragraph. (water spray temperature should not
exceed 50°C and not exceed 2 bar pressure).
WATER and SOLVENT

First the excess water-washable penetrant shall be removed with water. Subsequent cleaning with clean lint –
free cloth lightly moistened with solvent, shall be then carried out.
The excess penetrant having been removed will leave the component surface clean and ready to have the
developer applied. This acts as a blotter and by reverse capillary action the penetrant secreted in the
discontinuity is drawn out. This in turn will provide an indication, which because of the penetrant diffusion within
the developer will give an indication that is, in terms of surface area, larger than the surface area of the
discontinuity.
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The ultimate success of the penetrant system is dependent on a number of factors one of which is the “see
ability” of the indications present.
To ensure that this is working at an optimum level the penetrant must contain strong, stable dyes (usually red),
which will show up well in white light viewing or strong fluorescent dyes that will show when examined under
black light conditions. When using the ordinary dye penetrant system the background of the developer is usually
white thus providing a good contrast for viewing purposes.
The see ability of colour contrast indications are dependent on two factors;
a) Amount of penetrant present

b) Contrast of the developer and penetrant
(Dwell Time - As per BS EN 3452 the minimum penetration time is 5 minutes, and a maximum
of 60 minutes, or to procedural requirements. This also includes the dip and drain time if
using tanks).
d. The excess surface penetrant residue is removed without removing the penetrant from the
discontinuities.
e. The specimen is dried.
f. The developer is applied to the component surface by one of the following methods:
i) Spraying via pressure spray

ii) Tumbling in powder
iii) Dust Storm
iv) Electrostatic Spraying
v) Flock Gun
vi) Storm Cabinet
g. The component is visually examined to locate and assess the indications. This examination is carried
out in either white or black light conditions which depend on the penetrant used.
h. The test residue is completely removed.
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ELECTROSTATIC APPLICATION of PENETRANTS/DEVELOPERS
The advantages of applying penetrants/developers electro-statically are that less of the consumable is applied
for the same sensitivity; an even uniform coating is applied. It is quicker and gets to all areas of the part due to
‘wraparound’
Electrostatic spraying takes place at very high voltage (60 – 90 kV) but with very low and harmless current (150
– 200 mA)
When the penetrant leaves the gun it is negatively charged, and it is attracted to the positively charged work
piece, following the high electrostatic potential.
There is no need to spray the back of the part as the homogenous dye mist, is pulled into bores, keyways,
threads, due to the ‘wraparound’ effect. It also helps to increase the ability of the penetrant to enter cracks.
High Voltage in Gun

(60 – 90 kV)
Compressed Air Line
Spray Booth
Low Voltage
Line 10v Penetrant Line
Pressurised
Penetrant
Control Unit
Reservoir
240 v AC
Mains Supply
To Earth
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WATER WASHABLE PENETRANT TEST
AND
SOLVENT REMOVABLE PENETRANT TEST
After cleaning the component Water washable: Excess surface

Fluorescent or Contrast penetrant is removed with water
Penetrant is applied to the spray.
surface and seeps into the Solvent: Excess penetrant is
discontinuity removed with lint free cloth
impregnated with cleaner/remover
Developer is applied to the

surface to draw out the
Indications are viewed
penetrant by reverse capillary
action or blotting. under white light or black
light, if fluorescent
penetrant is used
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POST - EMULSIFIABLE PENETRANT TEST
After cleaning the component

fluorescent penetrant is Emulsifier is applied to the
applied to the surface and surface
seeps into the discontinuity
Surface penetrant is
emulsified Water spray removes the
emulsified penetrant
Developer draws the Black light causes

indications to fluoresce
penetrant out of the
when viewed in darkened
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WATER WASHABLE / WET DEVELOPERS
i) Pre-Clean Surface
ii) Apply Penetrant
iii) Penetrant dwell time: including dip and drain time (BS EN 3452 - 5 to 60
iv) minutes) Remove Excess Penetrant
v) Apply Developer
vi) Dry Specimen (warm air oven)
vii) Developer time (BS EN 3452 - 10 to 30 minutes)
viii) Interpret
ix) Evaluate
x) Clean
xi) Apply Protective Coating
SOLVENT REMOVABLE
ii) Apply Penetrant
iii) Penetrant Dwell Time (BSEN 3452 - 5 to 60
v) Apply Developer
vi) Developer Time (BS EN 3452 - 10 to 30 minutes)
vii) Interpret
viii) Evaluate
ix) Clean
x) Apply Protective Coating
WATER WASHABLE
ii) Apply Penetrant
iii) Penetrant Dwell Time: including Dip and Drain Time (BS EN 3452 - 5 to 60
v) Dry Specimen (warm air oven)
vi) Apply Developer
vii) Developer Time (BS EN 3452 - 10 to 30 minutes)
viii) Interpret
ix) Evaluate
x) Clean
xi) Apply Protective Coating
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POST EMULSIFIABLE
i) Pre-clean Surface
ii) Apply Penetrant
iii) Penetrant Dwell Time: including Dip and Drain Time (BS EN 3452 - 5 to 60
iv) minutes) Apply Emulsifier (45 to 90 seconds)
v) Remove Excess Penetrant
vi) Dry Specimen
vii) Apply Developer
viii) Developer Time (BS EN 3452 - 10 to 30 minutes)
ix) Interpret
x) Evaluate
xi) Clean
xii) Apply Protective Coating
SOLVENT REMOVABLE FLUORESCENT
ii) Apply Penetrant
iii) Penetrant Dwell Time (BSEN 3452 - 5 to 60
iv) minutes) Remove Excess Penetrant with Solvent
v) Apply Developer
vi) Developer Time (BS EN 3452 - 10 to 30 minutes)
vii) Interpret under Black Light
viii) Evaluate under Black Light
ix) Clean
x) Apply Protective Coating
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DEVELOPERS
Generally there are two types of developer utilised that consist of the following;
a) A dry developer that consists of a dry, light finely divided powdery material. This dry type developer is
applied to the component surface after the excess penetrant has been removed and the component is
completely dried.
It can be applied in the following manner:

ii) Tumbling the component in a powder container
iii) Floating the powder onto the component
iv) Blowing the powder with a pressurised air gun
b) A wet developer consisting of a finely divided powdered material that is suspended in liquid such as
water or an alcohol based solvent that has a very quick evaporation rate. The usage of ‘wet’ developers
permits rapid coverage of large numbers of parts, which may have complicated geometric
configurations. This type of developer is applied via a low-pressure spray in the form of aerosol
canisters or a compressed air gun.
Non-Aqueous liquid developer
This is also called solvent suspended developer and is a suspension of inert white powder in a volatile solvent.
This is the most common type of developer used with colour contrast penetrant, and is the most sensitive for
detecting fine discontinuities. It leaves a fine white background through which red indications are readily visible.
Solvent suspended developers are invariably sprayed from aerosols. The developer must be thoroughly
agitated.
When used with colour contrast penetrant the developer coat should almost obscures the background surface.
When applied as part of a fluorescent system, the coating should be only just discernible (visible) in daylight
conditions. The developer should be sprayed from a distance of approximately 250mm such that the developer
particles are just damp when they strike the test surface. The remaining solvent on the particles will bridge the
gap between the developer particles and the penetrant in the discontinuity. This is especially important with fine
tight defects where the developer particles do not necessarily contact the penetrant.
Dry Developers
These developers are better on defects where heavy bleed-out of penetrant is likely to occur, also on rough
surfaces where it is difficult to obtain a fine even coating. Dry developers may only be used with fluorescent
penetrants.
To remain effective they must not be hygroscopic (obtain moisture from the air)
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Wet Developers
Aqueous wet developers are slightly less sensitive than dry powder and more difficult to apply as a fine even
coating, they are preferred for high volume testing. Development time is shorter because there is no need to dry
the test surface before application.
PENETRANTS
The selection of the penetrant itself is of paramount importance and the following table is a guide to some
inspection problems.
W = Water Washable fluorescent penetrant
P = Post Emulsifiable fluorescent penetrant
S = Solvent Removable visible dye penetrant
INSPECTION PROBLEMS PROCESS (Preferred) REMARKS

Large number of small parts W Handle in small baskets
Large number of large parts P.S. Large forgings extrusions etc:
Highest sensitivity to fine P Brightest indications
defects required
Shallow defects and P.S. Depth of the emulsification
scratches must be controlled
Parts with rough surfaces W Spurious indications possible
Threaded parts and keyways W Process P may lodge in
corners
Parts have medium rough W.P. Choice depends on sensitivity
surfaces and test time available
Spot testing of localised areas S
Portable equipment S
necessary
Water, Electricity unavailable S
Anodised parts cracked after S.P.W. Order of preference
anodising
Repeat application of process S.P. Five or six repeats
Leak detection W.S. Penetrants only
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The following tables formulate the advantages and disadvantages of the various penetrant systems as
mentioned in the previous page.
PROCESS W – WATER WASHABLE FLUORESCENT PENETRANT
NO ADVANTAGES NO DISADVANTAGES
1 Has fluorescence for greater 1 Anodising may affect test sensitivity
visibility
2 Easily washed with water 2 Chromate finish may affect test
sensitivity
3 Good for quantities of small 3 Requires inspection in dark area with
components black light
4 Good in keyways and threads 4 Water must be available
5 Good on rough surfaces 5 Not reliable for detecting scratches
and shallow discontinuities
6 High speed economic and fairly 6 Susceptible to water contamination
good on a wide range of
discontinuities
Suitable for large volume inspection of components during manufacture as the emulsifier/remover stage is
eliminated. Effective for defects induced during manufacture where dimensionally the defects are not wider than
their depth. Acid or alkaline residues must be minimal as penetrants are more prone to have the water wash
response affected and their fluorescence impaired by such contaminants. Oxidants (e.g. chromates and
chromic acid) suppress penetrant fluorescence and shall be removed by aqueous alkali solution followed by
detergent wash and drying.
Water pressure of up to 2 bar at a temperature not exceeding 50°C – I.A.W. BS EN 3452
In works, casting and forging inspection should use red water washable for relatively large flaws, use
fluorescent water washable for smaller flaws (better sensitivity). It is cheap and flexible but requires a water
supply.
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PROCESS P – POST EMULSIFIABLE FLUORESCENT PENETRANT
1 Has florescence for greater 1 Emulsification is a separate
visibility operation
2 Very sensitive to fine small defects 2 Requires darkened areas and
viewing with black light
3 Can show wide shallow defects 3 Sometimes difficult to wash
penetrant from, Threads, Keyways,
Blind holes
4 Easily washed with water after 4 Some materials used for tests are
emulsification flammable
5 Short penetration time due to the 5 Difficult to use on rough surfaces
absence of emulsifier e.g. Sand castings
6 High production rate 6 Requires a rinsing aid
7 Can be used on anodised surfaces
8 Can be used on chromate surfaces
Penetrants are available with different levels of sensitivity dependent on fluorescence index and the type of
emulsifier/remover used, providing greater flexibility to deal with widely varying surface conditions and
sensitivity requirements.
Suitable for components during manufacture, but their greater resistance to chemical contamination and
tolerance for varying surface conditions render them especially suitable for the inspection of components at
overhaul.
Never apply emulsifier using a brush as it mixes with the penetrant irregularly, making control of the
emulsification time impossible.
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PROCESS S - SOLVENT REMOVABLE VISIBLE DYE PENETRANT
1 Has great portability 1 Some materials are flammable
2 Requires no black light 2 Can be expensive (time and
pressurised aerosols)
3 Can be used on local areas and 3 Indications are not as visible as
repairs etc. fluorescents
4 Can be used on anodised surfaces 4 Difficult to use on rough surfaces
e.g. sand castings etc. cleaning
problems
5 Can be used on acid or alkaline 5 Not good on broad shallow defects
contaminated parts
6 Can be used where water is not 6 Materials should only be used in
available or permitted open atmosphere, because of fumes
7 High sensitivity to fine defects 7 (Should not be used in closed
tanks/vessels)
Suitable for inspection of localised areas on components or structures that are too large to be treated in a
process unit or where water rinsing is not feasible or it is technically unacceptable.
ANODISING – covers metal with a protective film by electrolysis in which the metal acts as the anode.
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THE NATURE and PROPERTIES required of PENETRANTS
1. Must be of low viscosity – good capillarity

2. Must be able to be brought out of the defect at the development stage – reverse capillary action
3. Low viscosity – flows freely
4. Must possess temperature stability – high and low
5. Must not evaporate
6. Must not dry
7. Must have colour / fluorescent stability
8. Must resist removal from defects during cleaning stage
9. Must not react with material under test
10. Fluorescent process penetrants must fluoresce when subject to black light viewing
11. Should be none toxic
12. Should be none flammable
13. Should be stable when stored
14. Should be low in cost
15. Should not react with cleaners or developers
16. Colour dyes must be bright
THE NATURE and PROPERTIES required of DEVELOPERS
1. It must be a good blotting agent so as to secure maximum bleed out of the penetrant
2. It must contain fine-grained particles of fairly uniform size and shape to expose a small amount
of penetrant over a large surface area.
3. It must retain sharp indications for easier defect interpretation
4. It must mask out background, especially when using the colour contrast dye systems
5. It must be easily, evenly and uniformly distributed
6. It must form a thin minimum surface coating
7. It must itself be easily wetted by the penetrant. This allows the penetrant to spread over the
particle surface.
8. It must not contain harmful ingredients, either to the operator or component under test.
9. It must not kill fluorescence when used with a fluorescent penetrant
10. It must be easily removed after the test is complete.
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CONTROL of PENETRANTS
The reliability of any penetrant test is determined in large by the condition of the material being used. Even the
best procedures are worthless if the test materials are faulty. To comply with Quality Assurance Standards,
various quality control tests are employed to ensure compatibility of materials, and give maximum defect detect
ability. Reference should be made to the relevant standard, i.e. BS EN 1SO 3452-2, being used at the time of
inspection.
TEST BLOCKS
The uses of test blocks, plates or panels are often specified in the performance of test procedures used in
testing penetrant materials. The aluminium test block measures 4” by 2” inches (100mm × 50mm) and are cut
from 3/8” (9mm) thick alloy plate, with the 4” dimension in the direction of rolling. The blocks are heated up to
950°F (520°C) and are then rapidly quenched in cold water. This operation is repeated on both sides of the
block. This then forms two separate specimen areas on each side of the block and permits the side by side
application and comparison of two penetrants without cross contamination. The main use of this type of block is
for comparing the performance of penetrants under actual crack finding usage and to compare suspected
contaminated penetrant with a known non-contaminated penetrant.
ARB BLOCK (Aeronautical Registration Board)
50mm
100mm
9mm
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REFERENCE BLOCKS
A Chromium plated sample may also be used to assess penetrant sensitivity. A Sample as indicated below may
be used. Indentations are produced on the un-plated side of the sample. This produces radial type cracking on
the plated side.
SHERWIN PLATES
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REFERENCE BLOCKS
The type one reference block consists of a set of four nickel-chrome plated panels with 10, 20, 30, and 50µm
thickness of plating, respectively. The 10, 20, and 30µm panels are used for determination of the sensitivity of
fluorescent penetrant systems. The sensitivity of colour contrast penetrant systems is determined using the 30
and 50µm panels.
The dimensions of the reference block are 100mm x 35mm x 2mm and transverse cracks are made in each
panel by stretching the panel in the longitudinal direction, then the width to depth ratio of each crack should be
approximately 1:20.
35mm
100mm
Reference block 2
The type two-reference block consists of a single panel of which one half has been plated with electro less
nickel and a thin layer of chromium and the other half prepared to achieve areas of specific roughness.
The plated side exhibits five star-shaped discontinuities. The test panel is rectangular in shape with dimensions
of 155mm x 50mm x 2.5mm.
Ra 15µ m Ra 10µ m Ra 5µ m Ra 2.5µ m
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CONTROL of DEVELOPERS
1. In all cases check on a daily basis for contamination.
DRY DEVELOPERS
a) Make sure that it is stored in dry conditions. A small-enclosed muslin bag of silica gel will remove a
certain amount of atmospheric moisture when placed inside the storage container.
b) Dry powder may only be used with fluorescent penetrants. The developer shall be uniformly applied
to the test surface by one of the following techniques: Dust storm, Electrostatic spraying, Flock gun,
Fluidised bed or Storm cabinet. The test surface shall be thinly covered; Local agglomerations are
not permitted.
c) If developers become damp or lumpy, it should be replaced with fresh developer.
WET DEVELOPERS/SOLVENT BASED DEVELOPERS
a) If aerosols or pressurised cans are used they should be vigorously agitated prior to use and during
usage.
b) If performance does not come up to specification use a new batch/mixture that does meet the
requirements
c) A thin uniform application of the developer shall be carried out by immersion in agitated suspension
or by spraying with suitable equipment in accordance with the approved procedure. The user shall
evaluate immersion time and temperature of the developer through pre-tests according to the
manufacturer’s instructions. The immersion time shall be as short as possible to ensure optimum
results. The part shall be dried by evaporation and or by the use of a forced air circulation oven.
d) Non-aqueous liquid developer is also called solvent suspended developer and is a suspension of
inert white powders in a volatile solvent. This is the most common type of developer used with
colour contrast penetrant. It leaves a fine white background through which red dye indications are
readily visible. Solvent suspended developers are invariably sprayed from aerosols. The developer
must be thoroughly agitated prior and during usage.
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When used with colour contrast penetrant the developer coat should almost obscure the
background surface. When applied as part of a fluorescent system, the coating should only just
dissemble (visible) in daylight conditions. The developer should be sprayed from a distance of
approximately 250mm such that the developer particles are just damp when they strike the test
surface. The remaining solvent on the particle will bridge the gap between the developer particles
and the penetrant in the discontinuity. This is especially important with fine tight defects where the
developer particles do not necessarily contact the penetrant.
PENETRANT INSPECTION SAFETY
As in any other industry, The Health and Safety at Work Act 1974 must not be ignored.
You are your own and your colleagues Safety Officer so therefore safe working practice should always be
adopted.
Because penetrant inspection involves the usage of a number of toxic, flammable and volatile substances,
special care must be taken at all times.
Always comply with the following guidelines.
1. Work in well ventilated conditions – if this is not possible use respirator
2. Beware of working in heat or near naked lights – vapour enrichment can saturate clothing
etc – and a fire would cause fatal results.
3. Wear protective clothing – gloves, goggles, etc.
4. Follow manufacturer’s instructions for all consumables.
5. Black light must be filtered
6. Do not smoke in the proximity of a penetrant inspection
7. Use Your Common Sense
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PENETRANT INSPECTION – INSPECTION AND VIEWING
Interpretation
The term “Interpretation” and “Evaluation” are often confused by the inspection personnel. To interpret an
indication means to determine what defect / discontinuity is present. It may be a crack, porosity, and lack of
fusion or merely penetrant remaining on the surface due to some other cause. Evaluation follows interpretation.
If a discontinuity exists, its effect on the usefulness of the article requires, i.e. the article is either accepted,
rejected or rework is carried out.
Note
Inspection and viewing should only take place after the correct development has been allowed to take place.
It may be advisable to examine the test surface continuously during the development time and also after further
period to see whether there are any changes in indications. Where excessive bleed out of penetrant occurs,
wiping with a dry cloth or paper towel and then re-applying the developer will achieve clearer indications.
Viewing Conditions
Due to the fact that there are a number of different types of penetrant inspection processes, viewing conditions
vary considerably.
Viewing Conditions when using Fluorescent Penetrants
a) The lamp should be warmed up for at least 15 minutes prior to use, and prior to viewing at least 5
minutes shall be allowed for eye adjustment.
b) Semi-dark conditions should not exceed 20 Lux.

2
c) The intensity of the black light at the component under test should be at least 1000µw/cm
(tested by using a Radiometer) and conform to BS EN 3452.
d) The inspection personnel who will be viewing the components wearing orange filtered glasses prior to
entering the inspection booth can hasten the personal eye adjustment.
e) No paper or cloth that fluoresces under black light shall be in sight of the operator.
f) Another factor to be considered is that viewing in such conditions can be extremely fatiguing and
therefore regular breaks should be taken. If this is not expedited, defects may be misinterpreted or
completely overlooked.
g) The wearing of photo - chromic spectacles is not recommended as exposure to UV (A) may darken the
spectacles, thus lowering the ability of the wearer to detect flaws.
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UV-A/BLACK LIGHT VIEWING

When inspecting using any fluorescent process, the useful range of wavelengths in the electromagnetic
spectrum is between 315 nm – 400 nm.
This is due to the fact that the mercury vapour lamp has a maximum emission in the range of 360 – 370 nm and
the penetrant has maximum fluorescent performance at 365 nm. The lower wavelength UV rays are of a
much higher intensity and penetrating power and can cause a “sunburn” effect on human skin.
Ozone is also generated which is extremely harmful to the human eye tissue. However, industrial black lights
are fitted with a filter, which only allows the wavelengths between 350 nm – 400nm to pass through. This has
the effect of only allowing useful light to be transmitted with only small amount of deep purple light being visible.
This light is enough for viewing and handling the component being tested.
The ‘see ability of a fluorescent indication depends upon the following;
a) The amount of dye present

b) The amount of dye response to the black light
c) The intensity of the black light
Of the above (a) is conditioned by correct test procedures and conditions, (b) is entirely in the hands of
the penetrant manufacturer and its make up by the technician, (c) is a function of the following;
a) The manufacturer of the light

b) The light/component distance
c) The throw of the light and its position relative to the centre of the component.
a), b), c) are governed by BS EN 3452 and procedural specifications.

Assuming that the conditions for (a) and (b) are correct, then the only variable to contend with is the
lamps intensity.
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This should be monitored regularly using standard tests. These tests should be carried out with a new lamp and
also at regularly intervals with used lamps, as they will deteriorate with age.
The life and intensity of the mercury vapour lamp is affected by switching on and off and this may foreshorten
the lamps life to only a matter of hours. However most lamps are fitted with a thermal cut-out which prevents
this situation arising. The lamps when used generate a vast amount of heat so operator safety should be
considered. Never look directly into a black light source, replace cracked filters or damaged lamps as soon as is
practically possible and clean them regularly as airborne dust etc. will affect the performance of the intensity
considerably.
The lamps performance should be checked by the use of a radiometer. Place the meter 400 mm from the front
of the lamp and read off to the nearest nm. If the distance of 400 mm cannot be achieved then the reading is to
be taken on the test components surface.
–9
N.B. 1 nanometre (nm) = 10 m i.e. 0.00000001m
10 Angstroms = 1 nm
WHITE LIGHT VIEWING
This type of viewing is used in conjunction with colour contrast dye penetrant inspection processes.
The test surface shall be inspected under daylight or under artificial white light with a luminance of not
less than 500 Lux (tested by using a Photometer) on the surface of the test part. The viewing conditions
shall be such that glare and reflections are avoided.
500 Lux can be achieved by either of the following artificial light sources:
80W fluorescent tube at 1 metre, or a 100W tungsten filament pear lamp (light bulb) at 0.2 metre
The operator’s eyesight must be checked and this must include a colour blindness check e.g. Jaeger 2,
Ishihara, or Snellen 0.6 letters.
Beware of fatigue factor; take regular breaks when long periods of viewing are required.
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PENETRANT INSPECTION – TEST INDICATIONS
The following figures attempt to show diagrammatically the most common forms of indications likely to be
encountered in penetrant inspection.
As a broad generalisation the nature of the flaws extending to the surface may be recognised as follows:
a) Lines that develop quickly and become as fine lines indicate fine shallow defects.
b) Lines that develop slowly and become intense indicate fine deep defects.
c) Dots that develop quickly and remain small indicate the presence of small pores – scattered or
grouped, or small fine cracks, if in a definable line.
d) Dots that develop slowly and become intense indicate the same as in c) but these may be of
greater depth and interlinked below the surface and therefore widespread.
During the interpretation/evaluation stage of the process, non-relevant and relevant indications may be seen
and must be evaluated as such.
Non-relevant indications are those indications that will not interfere with the components structure or integrity
e.g. finger marks, dust etc. Such indications must be carefully examined since they may interfere with correct
interpretation.
Relevant or true indications are those caused by a discontinuity that may interfere with the service life or
integrity of the component; e.g. Cracks, Porosity and Lack of Fusion. Refer to acceptance criteria.
Typical Indications
Porosity: Point indication, which may be random, grouped or aligned.
Lamellar Tearing: A stepped or castellated indication with its direction of propagation parallel to the
surface
Crater Cracks: Linear indications emanating from a crater. Maybe due to stop/start in a weld or at the
end of a run of weld in a plate.
Overlap: A linear indication running along the edge of the weld cap following the exact contour of
the weld.
Lack of Fusion: A very straight linear indication may be continuous or intermittent.
Reheat Crack: To be found in the centre of the weld area, HAZ, or transverse across the weld. These
can be continuous or intermittent.
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TYPICAL PENETRANT INDICATIONS
(a) Clean and Retest (b) Report
Non-Relevant
Finger Print Vice Jaw Marks

(a) Evaluate (b) Evaluate
Surface Porosity (group) Surface Porosity (random)

Cracking Cracking (intermittent)

Lamellar Tear Lamination
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GENERAL ADVANTAGES OF THE PENETRANT METHOD
1) Relatively simple to operate
2) Generally produces fairly convincing result
3) There are no limitations to size or geometry
4) It is adaptable to production, batch and repair situations
5) It is sensitive and therefore is able to find very small tight cracks. Generally the indications
created are more visible than those created with MPI
6) Results can be photographed and evaluated for using as a permanent test record in
conjunction with test reports
7) One man operation short training only required
GENERAL LIMITATIONS OF THE PENETRANT METHOD
1) It will only find surface breaking discontinuities
2) The component surface must be non-porous
3) Some penetrants have an adverse effect on materials such as plastic, polystyrene etc.
4) It cannot be used on ‘hot work’
5) Test residue may be difficult to remove
6) It can be easily contaminated
7) It is sometimes over-simplified and open to human abuse
8) Some materials are volatile and flammable
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FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED WHEN SELECTING A PENETRANT PROCESS
Q1 What is the component surface state?

A1 Welded, dressed, cast extruded, forged, machined etc.
Q2 What is the geometry of the component?

A2 External, internal, tight corners, large or small
Q3 What contrast is required?

A3 Red on white background etc.
Q4 What sensitivity is required?

A4 Colour dye or fluorescent penetrant – chromate surface
Q5 What is the accessibility?

A5 Spraying, immersion, painting on, how to clean
Q6 What defects are to be located?

A6 Cracking, laps, porosity, undercut, laminations etc. Size, shape, type, possible location, wide,
shallow, tight, deep.
Q7 How many components are to be inspected?

A7 Production line or batch, or one off.
Q8 What mains services are available?

A8 Water, electricity, generators, viewing booth
Q9 What is the component material?

A9 Porous, stainless steel, copper, glass, etc.
Q10 what temperature is the component at?

A10 cold, hot, etc. Contamination in the environment (gas)
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PENETRANT FLAW DETECTION REPORT
The following should be included on a penetrant report
1) Operator’s name
2) Operator’s qualification
3) Date
4) Procedure number
5) Specimen identity
6) Sketch of defect area
7) Sentence of defects found – relevant specification
8) Types of material used in test
9) Sensitivity checks
10) Name – signature
11) Date of test
12) Any further information
SELECTION OF PENETRANT PROCESS AS PER BS EN 571
a) The sensitivity of inspection required.

b) The surface finish of the component to be inspected
c) The compatibility of process materials with the component to be inspected
d) The size, shape and accessibility of the component to be inspected
e) The ultimate use of the component to be inspected
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PENETRANT FLAW DETECTION PROCEDURE REQUIREMENTS
The following must be included on a penetrant procedure sheet.
1) Material type and/or composition

2) Material size and shape
3) Material surface finish
4) Method and materials used for cleaning
5) Type of penetrant and method of application
6) Application time – dwell time
7) Materials and penetrant removal method
8) Type of emulsifier
9) Method of emulsifier application and subsequent removal
10) Temperature of component/emulsifier
11) Emulsification time
12) Drying method used
13) Drying temperature
14) Drying time
15) Developer used
16) Method of development application
17) Time of development
18) Type of viewing light – sensitivity check
19) Test sensitivity check
20) Final cleaning
21) Writer’s name and signature
22) Date
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GLOSSARY OF TERMS
AEROSOL SPRAY Delivery of a liquid or suspension of fine particles in a liquid from a

pressurised container.
AQUEOUS LIQUID DEVELOPER A suspension of inert white powders in a water-based carrier medium.
AQUEOUS WASH A water rinse used as part or all of the penetrant removal stage
BLACK LIGHT Ultraviolet radiation having a wavelength in the region of 315 nm to

400 nm, used for exciting fluorescence.
BRUSH APPLICATION The application of a penetrant by means of a brush.
COLOUR CONTRAST PENETRANT A solution of dyes, typically red, in an organic carrier system.
COMPARATOR TEST BLOCKS A cracked metal block having two separate areas for the application of
different penetrants so that a comparison can be obtained.
CONTACT TIME Time during which the penetrant is in contact with the component
under test.
DEVELOPER A substance that gives contrast in colour and has the property of
withdrawing penetrant from discontinuities to make them more easily
visible.
DEVELOPMENT TIME The time between the application of the developer and subsequent
viewing.
DRY DEVELOPER Developer in the form of a fine dry powder.
DRY DEVELOPER CABINET An enclosed cabinet in which a dust storm of fine developer is created
by circulating an air and developer mix.
DYE PENETRANT A penetrant liquid used for flaw detection, containing dyes for viewing
in normal light.
EMULSIFIABLE PENETRANT Penetrant that can be converted to a water-washable condition by the

addition of emulsifiers.
EMULSIFICATION The treatment of penetrants to render them water-washable.
FLUORESCENT PENETRANTS Penetrant fluids containing additives that fluoresce under UV-A (black
light)
HYDROPHILIC Water based
HYDROPHILIC REMOVER Water based penetrant remover
LIPOPHILIC Oil based
LIPOPHILIC REMOVER Oil based penetrant remover
NON-AQUEOUS WET DEVELOPER a suspension of inert white powder in a volatile organic solvent/alcohol
carrier.
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PENETRANT A liquid which when applied to a component is designed to find its way
into fissures (surface breaking) and remain there in detectable
amounts.
PENETRATION TIMES Same as contact or dwell/soak time.
POST-EMULSIFIABLE PENETRANT A penetrant which does not contain an emulsifier and which can be
removed by a hydrophilic or lipophilic remover after emulsification.
POST EMULSIFIER An emulsifying agent, which is applied to a non-washable penetrant in

the post-emulsifiable process.
PRE-CLEANING The preparation of a surface prior to penetrant inspection.
SOLVENT CLEANERS An agent employed to clean oil, grease, etc. from the surface of a
component prior to application of penetrants.
SURFACTANT A detergent
THIXOTROPIC Non-drip
ULTRASONIC CLEANING A method using a combination of solvent/detergents and high

frequency sound to remove organic soil,
UV-A Black light
WATER WASHABLE PENETRANT A penetrant flaw detection process in which the penetrant used is
washable by water.
Page | 43 of 104
Oceaneering Asset Integrity
Bowesfield Lane
Stockton
TS18 3HF
LIQUID PENETRANT REPORT Tel.: 01642 604661
Fax.: 01642 670300
Report No. OII 45 W.I. No. Sheet 1 of 3
Customer: Oceaneering Job No. SS 09 Receipt/Test Date 01/03/2011
Address / Bowesfield Lane Procedure No. AGM 1 Iss. Rev.
Location: Stockton-on-Tees Technique No. OII 23 Iss. Rev.
Inspection Std. BS EN 3452 Iss. Rev.
Acceptance Std. N/A Iss. Rev.
Job Description: Plate Butt Weld
Component Identification: DP 10
Drawing / Line Number: N/A
Material: Stainless Steel Manufacturing Process: Weld
TEST DETAILS
Solvent Removable: Post Emulsify: Water Washable:
Penetrant System
Visible: Fluorescent:
Penetrant Type: Ardrox 996 PB Batch No.: 659208
Penetrant Application Time: 30 Min
Remover Type: Ardrox 9PR5
Test Materials: Emulsifier Type: N/A Application Time: N/A Min
Developer Type: Ardrox 9D1B Batch No.: 679636
Developer Application Time: 30 Min Non Aqueous: Dry:
2
UV Light Serial No.: N/A Irradiance Level: N/A µW/cm
Surface Condition: As Welded Test Temperature: 20 ˚C
Test Restrictions: None
RESULTS
Test Item / Weld Identification / Accept Defect Description

Size / Thickness or Reject Location and Remarks
DP 10 Defects detected as shown on sheets 2 and 3
Technician: A.G. Morris Supervisor: Inspection Authority:

Signature:
Qualification: PCN II Check Date: Acceptance Date:
This report signifies acceptance or otherwise with regard only to the acceptance criteria of the applicable standard.
Such compliance, or otherwise, does not infer or imply suitability and/or fitness for any particular use or purpose. No
other communication by Oceaneering, whether oral or written, shall be construed as an opinion as to whether the weld
or other work inspected should be accepted or rejected.
NDT-FRM-012 Issue 1 Rev 3

Bowesfield Lane
Stockton
TS18 3HF
(CONTINUATION) Fax.: 01642 670300
RESULTS
Accept / Defect Description
Test Item / Weld Identification /
Reject /
Size / Thickness Location and Remarks
Record

Signature:
This report signifies acceptance or otherwise with regard only to the acceptance criteria of the applicable standard. Such compliance, or
otherwise, does not infer or imply suitability and/or fitness for any particular use or purpose. No other communication by Oceaneering, whether
oral or written, shall be construed as an opinion as to whether the weld or other work inspected should be accepted or rejected.

Bowesfield Lane
Stockton
TS18 3HF
Fax.: 01642 670300
Customer: Oceaneering Job No. SA57 Receipt/Test Date 01/03/2011
Job Description: Rocker Cover
Material: Aluminium Manufacturing Process: Casting
TEST DETAILS
Penetrant System
Penetrant Type: Zyglo ZL-60D Batch No.: 1008320
Penetrant Application Time: 30 Min (Including Dip and Drain Time)
Remover Type: Water
Test Materials: Emulsifier Type: N/A Application Time: N/A Min
Developer Type: Magnaflux ZP 4B Batch No.: 9601009
2
UV Light Serial No.: NBLF 00011 Irradiance Level: 3500 µW/cm
Surface Condition: As Cast Test Temperature: 20 ˚C
RESULTS

DP 21 Defects detected as shown on sheet 2

Signature:

Bowesfield Lane
Stockton
TS18 3HF
Customer: Oceaneering Job No. SA57 Receipt/Test Date 01/03/2011
RESULTS
Reject /
Record

Signature:
Qualification: Check Date: Acceptance Date:

Bowesfield Lane
Stockton
TS18 3HF
Fax.: 01642 670300
Job Description: Hanger Bar
Material: Stainless Steel Manufacturing Process: Forged
TEST DETAILS
Penetrant System
Penetrant Type: Zyglo ZL-2C Batch No.: 1012553
Penetrant Application Time: 30 Min (Including Dip and Drain Time)
Remover Type: Water
Test Materials: Emulsifier Type: Zyglo ZE-4B Application Time: 45 - 90 seconds
Developer Type: Ardrox 9D1B Batch No.: 679636
2
UV Light Serial No.: NBLF00011 Irradiance Level: 3500 µW/cm
Surface Condition: Machined Test Temperature: 20 ˚C
RESULTS

DP 33 Defects detected as shown on sheet 2

Signature:

Bowesfield Lane
Stockton
TS18 3HF
RESULTS
Reject /
Record

Signature:

Rev 1.9 6/4/17
Liquid Penetrant Flaw Detection

Written Instruction
Reference Number: - 029 Issue Number: - 102
Component/I.D.: - DP 10 - Stainless Steel Double “V” Butt Weld – TIG Welded
Prepared By: - G.MASON Signature: -………………. Date 06/04/2017
Approved By: - C. SYKES Signature: -………………. Date 06/04/2017
Company: - Oceaneering
Aim of Inspection: - Detection of surface breaking defects using liquid penetrant flaw detection in
accordance with BS EN 3452.
Area of Test: - 100% Cap, both sides of the plate, plus 25mm either side of weld
Surface preparation: - Degrease, ensure the surface is free from oil, grease, paint and rust.
Penetrant System:- Solvent Removable Colour Contrast
Equipment: - Ultrasonic bath containing Kemet Cleaning Fluid Type A, white light meter.
(Photometer)
Detection Media: - Penetrant: Ardrox 996PB

Remover: Ardrox 9PR5
Developer: Ardrox 9D1B
Safety: - Safety shoes, overalls and gloves to be worn. No smoking. Obey all relevant
National and Company safety procedures, and good ventilation.
Checks and Calibration: - SHERWIN panel to be processed at start of each shift, smallest indication to be
noted, Background illumination checked with calibrated light meter (minimum 500
lux)
Visual Inspection: - Carry out visual inspection of surface reporting any irregularities or non-
conformance.
Application of Penetrant Material:
Pre-clean: Spray Ardrox 9PR5 solvent onto surface and wipe clean.
Penetrant Application: Brush the penetrant on the weld + HAZ (30 minutes)
Excess penetrant removal: Wipe with a dry paper towel, then wipe with a paper towel dampened with solvent,
and finish with a dry paper towel.
Drying: Atmospheric
Developer application: Spray the non-aqueous developer over the weld and HAZ to a maximum thickness
of 50µ. (30 minutes)
Inspection: - View under 500 lux (minimum) background light
Reporting Action: - All inspections to be recorded on approved report format.
Reporting: - Record all relevant indications found on the component, using left hand edge of
plate as datum point.
Page 50 of 104
Rev 1.9 6/4/17
Sketch: - Location and direction of penetrant indications to include size, type, and position in
relation to datum or ID mark.,
Non-Compliance: - Any non-compliance in relation to the test is to be reported immediately to the

supervisor
Operator level: - Minimum PCN Level 1, Liquid Penetrant Inspection, with all indications checked by
Supervisor.
Post Examination: - Remove all traces of penetrant and developer from the material..
Preservation: - Ensure component is clean and free of surface water and other contaminants prior
to storage.
Sketch:-
Weld
HAZ
Name
Signature
Date
Page 51 of 104
Rev 1.9 6/4/17
LABORATORY REPORT
SURVEY OF ULTRAVIOLET LIGHTING
OCEANEERING
BOWESFIELD LANE
STOCKTON-ON-TEES
NAME
SIGNATURE
DATE
AUTHORISED BY
AUTHORISED SIGNATURE
DATE
Page 52 of 104
Rev 1.9 6/4/17
CONTENT
1. SCOPE
2. EQUIPMENT
3. TEST PROCEDURE
4. RESULT
5. SUMMARY
1. SCOPE
To perform a lighting survey of the Liquid Penetrant Laboratory in the

Oceaneering Training centre. The lighting conditions for UV/A lighting
are to meet BS EN 3452 requirements. Maximum background
lighting (white light) is 20 Lux or less, and the minimum UV/A
2 2
lighting is 1000µW/cm or 10W/cm at the inspection area. For
checking the wash cycle the minimum requirements are 300 µW/cm 2 or
3W/cm 2.
2. EQUIPMENT
The equipment used is a BLAK-RAY Ultraviolet Meter, serial number

13137.
For temperature and humidity the reference surface of the illuminance
meter was taken at the face of the diffuser.
Temperature 25° Humidity 50%
3. TEST PROCEDURE
The sensor of the Blak-Ray meter should be placed 400mm from the front
of the lamp and a reading taken, the setting on the back of the meter may
be changed if the reading is above 1000µW/cm 2. If the 400mm distance
cannot be achieved then the sensor is placed on the test object.
Page 53 of 104
Rev 1.9 6/4/17
4. RESULT
Light 1 µW/cm 2.
Light 2 µW/cm 2.
Light 3 µW/cm 2.
Light 4 µW/cm 2.
5. SUMMARY
BS EN 3452 states that the output of the UV/A lamp should be a

minimum of 1000µW/cm 2, for Liquid Penetrant Inspection.
Lamps ......................... meet the requirements of BS EN 3452, and are

acceptable for use in the inspection process.
Lamps .......................... do not meet the requirements of BS EN 3452, but

may be used at the wash station
NAME
SIGNATURE
DATE
Page 54 of 104
Rev 1.9 6/4/17
LIQUID PENETRANT LABORATORY
Black Lights
Page 55 of 104
Rev 1.9 6/4/17
LABORATORY REPORT
SURVEY OF DRY POWDER DEVELOPER
OCEANEERING
BOWESFIELD LANE
STOCKTON-ON-TEES
NAME
SIGNATURE
DATE
AUTHORISED BY
AUTHORISED SIGNATURE
DATE
Page 56 of 104
Rev 1.9 6/4/17
CONTENT
1. SCOPE
2. EQUIPMENT
3. TEST PROCEDURE
4. RESULT
5. SUMMARY
1. SCOPE
To perform a survey on the dry powder developer in the Liquid Penetrant

Laboratory of Oceaneering Training centre. The developer conditions are
to meet BS EN 3452 requirements.
2. EQUIPMENT
The equipment used is a Blak-Ray meter and Black Light
3. TEST PROCEDURE
The sensor of the Blak-Ray meter is held 400mm from the front of the
black light and a reading taken which is above 1000µW/cm2 . The black
light is then shone into the tumble bucket and the results noted of any
contamination.
4. RESULT
No contamination of any fluorescence was present in the developer.
5. SUMMARY
Very limited fluorescent response from the dry powder, it showed up
white so it may be used for inspection purposes.
NAME
SIGNATURE
DATE
Page 57 of 104
Rev 1.9 6/4/17
Zone 8
Zone 1
Tumble Bucket
Zone 7
Zone 3
Zone 2
Zone 4
Zone 6
Zone 5
Page 58 of 104
Rev 1.9 6/4/17
LABORATORY REPORT
SURVEY OF BACKGROUND LIGHTING
OCEANEERING
BOWESFIELD LANE
STOCKTON-ON-TEES
NAME :
SIGNATURE :
DATE :
AUTHORISED BY :
AUTHORISED SIGNATURE :
DATE :
Page 59 of 104
Rev 1.9 6/4/17
CONTENT
1. SCOPE
2. EQUIPMENT
3. TEST PROCEDURE
4. RESULT
5. SUMMARY
1. SCOPE
To perform a lighting survey of the Liquid Penetrant Laboratory in the

Oceaneering Training centre. The lighting conditions are to meet BS EN
3452 requirements. Minimum background lighting (white light) is 500
Lux natural or artificially achieved.
2. EQUIPMENT
The equipment used is a digital Lux meter, ISO-TECH ILM350 serial

number L661750.
For temperature and humidity the reference surface of the illuminance
meter was taken at the face of the diffuser.
Temperature 25° Humidity 50%
3. TEST PROCEDURE
The sensor of the Lux meter should be placed on the test surface facing
upwards, free from any artificial shadows, this is repeated in the
designated areas.
Page 60 of 104
Rev 1.9 6/4/17
4. RESULT
Zone 1 Lux
Zone 2 Lux
Zone 3 Lux
Zone 4 Lux
Zone 5 Lux
Zone 6 Lux
5. SUMMARY
BS EN 3452 states that the artificial or natural light should be a

minimum of 500 Lux for Liquid Penetrant Inspection.
Zones ................................ are acceptable for the inspection requirements.
Zone/s .................. does not meet the minimum requirements and extra
lighting will be necessary, this can be achieved by using an 80 Watt
fluorescent tube at a distance of 1.0 metre or a 100 Watt pearl filament
lamp at 0.2 metre.
NAME
SIGNATURE
DATE
Page 61 of 104
Rev 1.9 6/4/17
Zone 8
Zone 1
Zone 7
Zone 3
Zone 2
Zone 4
Zone 6
Zone 5
Page 62 of 104
Rev 1.9 6/4/17
PRODUCT TECHNOLOGY
FORWARD
This section of the notes is produced to help the candidates understanding of the general
principal of Product Technology in non-destructive testing, and the syllabus for ASNT and PCN
examinations.
CLASSIFICATION OF DEFECTS
There are several terms in non-destructive testing for the word ‘DEFECT’ such as Blemish,
Flaw and Discontinuity. A part may have a blemish or flaw in it and still not be defective in the
sense that its usefulness for its intended purpose will be impaired. The term discontinuity is
used to cover the condition before it is determined whether it is a defect or not. A discontinuity
that may make a part defective may be entirely harmless in another part designed for a different
service.
The definition of a discontinuity may be considered ‘As anything that breaks the surface of the
material or is within it, and may not affect the usefulness of the article’.
In non-destructive testing, the word defect is correctly applied to a condition, which interferes
with the safe or satisfactory service of the particular part in question.
CLASSIFICATION
Discontinuities may be divided into three different categories.
1. INHERENT Related to the solidification of the molten metal.
2. PROCESSING Related to the various manufacturing processes
3. SERVICE Related to the various service conditions
Page 63 of 104
Rev 1.9 6/4/17
SMELTING DISCONTINUITIES
During the smelting process the ore is converted into molten metal assisted by other materials.
For instance, in steel making, the process begins with iron ore, coke and limestone. Typical
types of discontinuity which occur at this stage are:
a) Pipe
b) Non-metallic inclusions
c) Blowholes and rimming
d) Segregation
At present there are at least fifty processes for the direct reduction of ore to metal. The resulting
metal object may be called different things, depending on the district or country of production.
Typical names are:
INGOT
BILLET
BLOOM
Usually the ingot is the initial shape before the top is cropped. What remains becomes a billet.
However, most steel is now produced on a continuous process and the solidified metal is cut to
convenient length, which may be called billets or blooms.
INHERENT DISCONTINUITIES
There are two types in this group

WROUGHT DISCONTINUITIES
These discontinuities are present in metal as the result of its original solidification from the
molten state, before any of the operations to forge or roll it into useful sizes and shapes have
begun.
During the initial forming of the ingot, defects may be formed such as;
a) POROSITY
This is formed by gas, which is insoluble in the molten metal and is trapped
within the metal, when it solidifies, as rounded or elongated cavities.
b) PIPE
This is a discontinuity in the centre of the ingot, caused by internal shrinking or

cavities formed during the solidification. The majority of defects are usually
removed when the portion containing the primary pipe (hot top) is discarded.
Page 64 of 104
Rev 1.9 6/4/17
c) NON-METALLIC INCLUSIONS
These are caused by impurities, such as slag, oxides and sulphides,

accidentally included in the original ingot of molten metal and are not usually
injurious to the steel but should rise to the top before solidification. However
they sometimes gather into larger clumps which when rolled out into production
of bar stock or forgings, are known as ‘STRINGERS’
d) SEGREGATION
When an ingot solidifies the distribution of the various elements or compounds

are not uniform throughout. When this happens, segregation of some
constituents may occur. As the ingot is forged and rolled, the segregation’s are
elongated and reduced in cross-section. If further processing is carried out,
they may appear as very thin lines or bands and is generally known as
banding. Banding is not usually considered significant.
e) SKULL
The correct term for this defect should be ‘ non-metallic inclusions associated
with skull’ as the word skull refers to a prematurely solidified raft of steel, which
tends to form during the pouring of the steel into the ingot.
f) BLOWHOLES and RIMMING
Blowholes are due to the trapping of gases in the casting. These can occur by
gases:
a) Dissolved during melting, which evolve during and after solidification.

b) Generated by the mould dressing or the metal reacting with a dirty mould.
c) Produced by chemical reaction in the melt.
During the production of a type of steel called ‘effervescing’ or ‘rimming’ steel,

a chemical reaction produces carbon monoxide and blowholes result at a
uniform depth below the surface. This is known as rimming but since carbon
monoxide is a non-oxidising gas, these blowholes weld up more or less
completely during subsequent hot rolling.
Page 65 of 104
Rev 1.9 6/4/17
CAST DISCONTINUITIES
Inherent cast discontinuities relate to the melting, casting and solidification of a cast article.
Casting requires a mould into which is poured molten metal. The molten metal is allowed to cool
and solidify into the shape of the mould. It is a vast subject and there are a number of methods
of casting employed. However the four most common methods are:
a) Sand Casting - where the mould is made of one of a number of special sands or silicates.
The resultant casting usually has a rough surface and needs machining, drilling, etc to
achieve the finished product.
b) Shell Moulding utilises resin mixed with silica sand, which when ‘dumped’ or blown over
a heated pattern, cures to form a mould which can be handled. Small moulds can be
made, the process can be automated and the surface finish of the cast product is better
than from a normal sand casting.
c) Die-Casting or Injection Moulding, in which the mould is metal and the cast material, is
low melting temperature alloy. The hot metal is forced into the mould, often at high speed
and pressure. In this way thin wall precision castings can be made.
d) Investment Casting (lost wax process), utilises a master die made of metal. From this, die
wax components are produced. These are subsequently coated with a silicate based
refractory material. The mould is then heated in a low temperature oven to remove the
wax. The shape which is left is filled with molten metal which when solidified and the
refractory material removed is the finished casting.
a) COLD SHUT
These may result from splashing, surging, interrupted pouring, or the meeting of two
streams of molten metal coming from different directions. They are also caused by the
solidification of one surface before the other. Metal flow over it, the presence of
interposing surface film on cold sluggish metal, or any factor that prevents fusion where
two surfaces meet cold shuts are more prevalent in castings formed in a mould having
several spurs or gates. Appears as smooth indentations on the cast surface, resembling
a forging lap.
b) HOT TEARS (CRACKS)
Cracks caused by non-uniform cooling resulting in stresses which rupture the surface of
the metal while its temperature is still in the brittle range. They appear as ragged lines of
variable width and numerous branches. They are caused by non-uniform cooling
resulting in stresses, which rupture the surface of the metal while its temperature is still in
the brittle range. The tears may originate where the more rapid cooling of thin sections
that adjoin heavier masses of metal, which are slower to cool, sets up stresses.
Page 66 of 104
Rev 1.9 6/4/17
c) SHRINKAGE FLAWS
These are cavities formed during solidification that occurs as a result of liquid to solid
contraction. They may occur in the steel castings where there is a localised variation in
section thickness. The flaws are not normally associated with gas but high gas content
will magnify their extent.
d) AIRLOCKS
A cavity formed by air that has been trapped in the mould by the metal during pouring.
e) BLOWHOLES
These are small holes on the surface of the casting. They are caused by gas, not from
the mould itself. During the casting operation, moisture from the mould produces steam,
this is normally forced through the mould due to the absorbent nature of the sand, but
sometimes the stream cannot get through to the outside and is forced back into the
casting, blowing holes in the casting surface. If cores are used, blowholes may be formed
due to inadequate venting, causing vapours from the oil binding forced into the casting
surface where it comes in contact with the core.
f) POROSITY
This is entrapped gas and is the same as in the ingot. The porosity can be either at the
surface or sub-surface, depending on the design of the mould or configuration of the
article.
g) SCABS
When molten metal is poured into the mould, splashing occurs causing metal droplets to
solidify and become oxidised on the cool mould walls. As the mould is filled the majority
of the splashes will be absorbed into the metal, but some will remain as ‘scabs’ of
oxidised metal adhering to the surface of the ingot.
h) INTERNAL FISSURES
Internal ruptures caused by shrinkage stresses during cooling
i) INGOT CRACKS
Surface ruptures due to surface stresses during cooling, may become ‘seams’ in rolling.
Page 67 of 104
Rev 1.9 6/4/17
j) SINKS
In sand and gravity die-casting surfaces depressions or sinks may occur should the
solidification pattern not be correct. Often the chilling effect of the mould causes a skin to
form on the solidifying metal, should the metal not then be able to feed in to compensate
for contraction the surface sinks in. In some cases this produces a dimensional problem
but a sink is a visual indication that porosity may exist beneath the surface.
k) FUSED CHILLS
Chills may be designed into the mould and are not expected to fuse to the casting,
should the superheat of the metal or alloy be too high, unwanted fusion may occur.
l) UNFUSED CHILLS
In order to control the direction of solidification and thus avoid subsurface and surface
defects, ‘chills’ may be incorporated into the cast product, should the superheat of the
metal or alloy be too low, these may not melt when the metal or alloy is poured and an
internal defect will be present. Radiography is used to detect unfused internal chills. In
some parts of the casting industry a chill may be called a densener.
m) FINS
Most types of casting may suffer from fins, which are caused by the parts of the mould
not fitting together closely. The problem is common with sand and die cast products.
n) UNFUSED INSERTS
Chill nails, chaplets, spacers or other inserts in the mould, which do not fuse thoroughly
with cast metal.
o) INCLUSIONS
Inclusions arising from slag, oxides, or refractory materials are commonly found in
castings. Their position and size is unpredictable. Radiography is used to detect
inclusions.
p) MISRUNS
Lack of fluidity due to low superheat or long casting range or excessively long runs on
thin sections may prevent the metal filling the mould. This is called a misrun and can be
seen visually.
Page 68 of 104
Rev 1.9 6/4/17
FORGING DISCONTINUITIES
Cast metals and alloys do not develop the full potential mechanical properties, which
might be expected from a given chemical composition. This is due to flaws such as pores
and cracks, which often develop during casting and the presence of large grains.
Hot and cold mechanical working are required to improve the quality of the product by
welding up the flaws, refining the grain and, in addition, orienting the grain flow of the
material in a favourable direction to increase strength. Forging is an industrial process,
which is designed to achieve these objectives.
Modern forging processes employ hammers and press to exert the necessary force and
the work-piece may be free to deform or be constrained by the confines of a die. The
work may be hot or cold forged.
The presses are usually hydraulically operated, the rate of deformation is slow but the
capacity is large, a considerable advantage is that the whole bulk of the metal or alloy is
deformed. The mechanically operated hammers on the other hand apply the force at a
high rate of strain and the deformation is more limited to the surface layer.
The industrial variations in forging are then determined: by the method of applying the
force, and whether or not the work is free to deform, or constrained by a die, and the
forging temperature. The principal variations are:
a) Smith Forging
b) Closed Die Forging which may be ‘drop forging’
c) Upset Forging
The metals and alloys, which can be forged successfully, are very wide but the ease of
forging does vary considerably from one alloy to another. In general those materials,
which retain their mechanical properties at high temperature, are difficult to forge.
The discontinuities that arise in forging may be due to faults in the structure, or the
chemical composition of the stock, the heating process, to poor forging technique or
badly designed die equipment.
Page 69 of 104
Rev 1.9 6/4/17
WROUGHT PRODUCT DISCONTINUITIES
a) BURST (Forging)
Bursts are surface or internal ruptures caused by processing at to lower

temperature, excessive working or metal movement during forging, rolling, or
extruding operations. A burst does not have a spongy appearance and
therefore is distinguishable from pipe, even when it occurs at the centre. Bursts
are straight or irregular cavities varying in size from wide open to very tight,
usually parallel with the grain. These defects very seldom heal during
subsequent working.
b) BANDING
As the ingot is forged and rolled the segregation’s are elongated and reduced
in cross-section. If further processing is carried out they may appear as very
thin parallel lines or bands and is generally known as banding. Banding is not
usually considered significant.
c) EXCESSIVE FLASH (Forging)
This is excess metal outside the required form caused by too much metal
being placed into closed dies.
d) UNDERFILL (Forging)
Insufficient metal being placed into closed dies, resulting in an incomplete

forging.
e) INTERNAL CRACKING (Extrusions)
This appears as arrowhead shaped fractures, also known as CHEVRON

CRACKING and CUPPING. It is caused by impurities in the material or an
incorrect die angle.
Page 70 of 104
Rev 1.9 6/4/17
f) SEAMS and ROKES
Linear surface breaking defects that are usually caused by the existence of
oxidised blowholes, oxidised ingot surface, ingot splash or inclusions that have
been elongated by hot work.
g) SLUGS
A slug is a piece of foreign material, which has been pressed or rolled into the
wrought material.
h) STRINGERS (Bar Stock)
As a billet is rolled into bar section, any non-metallic inclusions are squeezed
out into longer and thinner defects. These are called stringers.
PRIM ARY PROCESSING DISCONTINUITIES
a) FORGING
These discontinuities happen when the metal is hammered or pressed into

shape, usually while the metal is very hot. The two main defects are laps and
bursts.
1. FORGING LAPS
These are caused by metal being folded over and flattened, but not fused onto
the surface of the forging. This can be produced by using fully or oversized
dies.
2. FORGING BURST
These are surface or internal ruptures caused by processing at too lower

temperature, excessive working, or metal movement during forging.
3. FLAKES
Internal ruptures due too rapid cooling after forging. Release of dissolved
hydrogen may be a factor.
Page 71 of 104
Rev 1.9 6/4/17
4. MISMATCH
The discontinuity occurs when the upper and lower dies move out of alignment
during the forging process. The cause can be poor die design or wear on the
alignment pins.
5. LACK of FILL
The stock may not fully fill the die, this can be caused by incorrect stock cutting or
forging at low temperatures. In addition worn dies may allow metal to escape at
the joints thus reducing the metal available for filling.
ROLLING DISCONTINUITIES
Rolling reduces a billet. The desired final shape may be flattened or spread out as plate or
sheet or thin strip. Alternatively the billet may be pushed through rollers of varying configuration
to make bar, the cross-section of which could be rectangular, round or some other shape.
The billet may be hot worked, above the recrystallisation temperature, or cold worked, below the
recrystallisation temperature.
In general, initial rolling is done hot because the metal is soft and large reductions can be
achieved without a large energy input. However, final rolling is often cold as this will give a:
a) Clean bright finish

b) Accurate dimensional tolerance
c) Increased hardness and strength
PLATE, SHEET, STRIP DISCONTINUITIES
The discontinuities left undetected in the billet during initial solidification are likely to become
significant now as it is rolled into plate, strip, and sheet.
LAMINATION: Pipe or gross internal blowholes and entrapped non-metallic

inclusions will change from 3 dimensions and be spread into 2 as laminations
often gross laminations are found along the centre of a plate and at one end.
These separations are generally aligned parallel to the surface of the material.
They may be the result of blowholes or internal fissures enlarged and flattened
into sometimes quite large areas of horizontal discontinuities.
b) INCLUSIONS: Inclusions are often found adjacent to laminations but may be

found in groups or individually throughout the plate. They occur when entrapped
pockets of oxide are rolled out in two dimensions.
Page 72 of 104
Rev 1.9 6/4/17
c) LAPS: Non-metallic inclusions and oxide layers which break surface will, when
rolled, form laps.
When rolled strip is straightened these laps can sometimes spring out like a tongue.
BAR DISCONTINUITIES
When a billet is rolled into any form of bar, again the inherent discontinuities left in the billet may
become significant.
a) PIPE: If an initial pipe is allowed to remain, it will elongate probably as a fine

centre line discontinuity. It is sometimes considered insignificant just because it is
in the centre.
b) STRINGERS and REEDS: Small pockets of gas or oxide just below the surface
will, during rolling, become elongated and probably break the surface. If their axis
is totally in the rolling direction and they are shallow, they are often accepted. With
light alloys the bar is ‘skinned’ to remove the possibility of ‘crack starters’.
As a billet is rolled into a bar section, any non-metallic inclusions are squeezed out
into longer and thinner discontinuities. These are called stringers.
c) SEAMS, LAPS, and ROKES: These discontinuities can be discussed together but
in reducing degree of severity. Non-metallic inclusions and oxide layers which are
near or breaking the surface will become elongated as the bar is rolled. They may
cause the bar to split during final cold rolling. If allowed to remain in the bat they
can be the cause of failure in service.
During the rolling operation, faulty, oversized dies, surface cracks, or any surface
irregularities may cause laps or seams.
d) FOLDS: If the bar is reduced at too greater rate, especially during cold working,
the surface may fold over to give a linear discontinuity.
COOLING CRACKS
They occur in rolled alloy and tool sheet bars, due to stresses from uneven
cooling after rolling.
SEAMLESS PIPES and TUBES
As seamless pipes and tubes are made from bar stock, they could have seams
or stringers as inherent discontinuities. They can have discontinuities on the
inside caused by pieces of metal adhering to the mandrel. The metal build-up
may be torn from the mandrel and fused back into the pipe gouging a rough
depression in the process. The pieces of metal fused into the pipe in this
manner are called ‘slugs’.
MANDREL DRAG
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Ranges from shallow even gouges to ragged tears. Often a slug of the material
will be embedded within the gouged area. During the manufacture of thick-wall
seamless tubing the billet is ruptured as it passes through the offset rolls. As the
piercing mandrel following this fracture, a portion of the material may break loose
and be forced over the mandrel. As it does, the surface of the tubing may be
scored or have the slug embedded into the wall. Certain types of material are
more prone to this type of failure than others.
WELDED PIPE
Pipes are made from plate material, so discontinuities related with the rolling
process may be present. Defects associated with welding may be formed at the
surface or internally. Some of the defects peculiar to weldments are incomplete
penetration, incomplete fusion, undercut, cracks in the weld or heat affected zone
etc. These defects will be discussed in a later section.
SECONDARY PROCESSING DISCONTINUITIES
a. MACHINING TEARS
Dragging of the metal under the tool when it is not cutting cleanly causes these.
Soft and ductile materials are more prone to this kind of damage.
b. HEAT TREATMENT
During the heating and cooling process, unequal heating or cooling, restricted
movement of the article, or unequal cross-sectional thickness may set up localised
stresses. These stresses may exceed the tensile strength of the material causing
it to rupture. A corner or notch is possible starting points, as they act as stress
concentration points. Heat treatment cracks have no specific direction and may
appear like crazy paving
c. GRINDING CRACKS
Caused by stresses set up from the excess heat created between the grinding
wheel and the metal. Heat occurs at the point of contact between the grinding
wheel and metal. The wheel grinds, heats and expands the metal and, as the
wheel passes, the ground metal cools and shrinks. If the heat is excessive,
stresses occur at right angles to the grinding wheel.
d. PLATING CRACKS
When hardened surfaces are to be electro-plated, care must be taken to ensure

that pickling, or any other preparatory cleaning operation, does not produce
cracks. Residual stresses leading the plating cracks may also be the result of cold
working. Spiral springs, cold wound, and pickled for plating or hot galvanising has
also shown such cracks.
e. STRAIGHTENING CRACKS
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Deformation ruptures caused in cold straightening or bending, if required

deformation is large or is brittle.
f. ETCHING and PICKLING CRACKS
Ruptures usually in hardened surfaces of parts containing residual stresses

from heat treatment or cold working. Acid attack on the surface fibres weakens
the surface and permits locked in stresses to be relieved as cracks.
g. CONVOLUTION CRACKS
Ranging in size from micro fractures to open fissures. Situated on the

periphery of the convolutions and extend longitudinally in direction of rolling.
The rough ‘orange peel’ effect of convolution cracks is the result of either a
forming operation that stretches the material or from chemical attack such as
pickling treatment. The roughened surface contains small pits that form stress
risers. Subsequent service application (vibration and flexing) may introduce
stresses that act on these pits and form fatigue cracks.
SERVICE DISCONTINUITIES
This group of discontinuities comprise of these, which are formed or produced after all
fabrication has been completed and the part has gone into service.
a. FATIGUE CRACKS
This type of crack can start from nicks, poorly finished surfaces, grooves, grinding
cracks, major changes in section or anything that could serve as a stress
concentration point (stress-raiser). Metals that are subjected to alternating or
fluctuating stresses above certain critical levels (the fatigue strength) will develop
cracks, and finally fracture.
b. CORROSION
Components, which are under tension in service and are at the same time
exposed to corrosion from whatever cause, may develop cracks, at the surface,
referred to as stress-corrosion cracking. Such cracks, under continuing corrosion
and stress (whether reversing or fluctuating or not) will progress through the
section until failure occurs. When corrosion is added to fatigue producing service
conditions, this type of service failure is called corrosion fatigue.
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c. OVER-STRESSED
Parts of an assembly in service that are stressed beyond the level of which they
were designed are very likely to crack or break. This over-stressing may be due to
overloading of a part due to failure of some related member of the structure or
simply the result of an accident.
d. HYDROGEN EMBRITTLEMENT
Hydrogen can be absorbed into the material in a number of ways. In operations

such as electroplating, hydrogen is generated at the surface of the material. This
hydrogen penetrates the surface of the material, creating immediate or delayed
embrittlement and cracking. Hydrogen can be absorbed into weld from the
atmosphere or from any hydrocarbon materials, or during welding by the manual
metallic arc process, using cellulose electrodes.
Hydrogen can also be produced and absorbed when a steel structure is protected
by cathodic protection. C.P. produces a hydrogen film (polarisation) on the
structures surface and, if excessive hydrogen diffuses through the steel in the
atomic state. It stays in this condition unless it passes into a cavity or blowhole
where it is converted into molecular hydrogen (H) in this form it cannot diffuse and
will develop high pressures in the metal sufficient to cause cracking.
Many alloy-steel ingots and large forgings are susceptible to the formation of small
silvery cracks (hair-line) or flake (hydrogen flakes) during their cooling cycle.
These discontinuities are caused by the presence of hydrogen.
e. LAMELLAR TEARING
Is a cracking type of fault, which occurs beneath welds and is principally, found in
rolled steel plate fabrications. The tearing always lies within the parent plate, often
outside the H.A.Z. and is generally parallel to the fusion boundary. Caused by high
through wall stresses and low through wall ductility (strength).
f. CREEP RUPTURES (STRESS RUPTURES)
Creep is the change in dimensions of a material under applied stress and at

elevated temperatures. Grain boundary sliding that creates a stress concentration
that cannot be relieved by plastic deformation may cause cracking and thus
produces a grain boundary crack, or by creating of ‘ cavitation creep’ voids at
grain boundaries.
g. FILLET CRACKS (BOLTS)
Fillet cracks occur where a marked change in diameter occurs, such as at the
head-to-shank junction where stress risers is created. During the service life of a
bolt repeated loading takes place whereby the tensile load fluctuates in magnitude
due to the operation of the mechanism. These tensile loads can cause fatigue
failure starting at the point where the stress risers occur. Fatigue failure, which is a
surface phenomenon, starts at the surface and propagates inward.
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WELD DISCONTINUITIES
Weld and base metal discontinuities of specific types are more common when certain
welding processes and joint design are used. High restraint and limited access to
portions of a weld joint preparation will lead to a higher than normal incident of weld and
base metal discontinuities.
Defects are classified into six groups:
1. CRACKS
2. CAVITIES
3. SOLID INCLUSIONS
4. INCOMPLETE FUSION and PENETRATION
5. IMPERFECT SHAPE
6. MISCELLANEOUS
GROUP 1 (CRACKS)
Cracks occur in weld and base metal when localised stresses exceed the ultimate
strength of the material. Welding related cracks are generally brittle in nature, exhibiting
little plastic deformation at the crack boundaries.
They can be classified as either HOT or COLD. Hot cracks develop at elevated
temperatures; Cold cracks develop after solidification is complete. Hot cracks propagate
between the grains whilst cold cracks propagate both between and through grains.
a. MICRO
This crack has microscopic dimensions.
b. LONGITUDINAL
A crack substantially parallel to the axis of the weld. It may be situated in the weld
metal, the fusion zone, the heat affected zone (HAZ) or parent metal.
c. TRANSVERSE
A crack substantially parallel to the weld. It may be situated in the H.A.Z. the weld
metal or the parent metal.
d. CRATER
A crater in the weld, it may be longitudinal, transverse or star.
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e. TOE
Are generally cold cracks, which propagate from the toe of the weld where
restraint stresses are highest?
f. LIQUATION
This is a type of solidification cracking. Solidification cracks in welds may be due in

part to the presence of materials within the metal that have a lower defined
melting point than that of the metal itself. These low melting point materials usually
accumulate at the grain boundaries and can cause problems in the H.A.Z. near
the fusion boundary where melting of the parent metal does not occur, but where
the temperature is high enough to cause melting of the grain boundary. If this
melting occurs in the presence of a high tensile (contraction) stress, then the
boundaries will be pulled apart and a liquation crack occurs.
g. SOLIDIFICATION CRACKING
Cracking that takes place during the weld solidification process is termed hot
cracking or solidification cracking, and occurs in all steel which have a high
sulphur content, sulphur causes low ductility at elevated temperatures.
In order for a crack to develop the solidifying metal must be subjected to a high
tensile stress, this may be present as a result of weld metal contraction combined
with high restraint. Solidification cracks usually occur longitudinally down the
centre of a weld because of the segregation of impurities and have a blunt profile
compared to other crack type. A crater crack is a type of solidification crack and is
often star shaped; hence the alternative definition star cracks.
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g. HYDROGEN INDUCED CRACKING
Hydrogen induced cold cracking in steel: Hydrogen enters a weld via the welding
arc. The source of hydrogen may be from moisture in the atmosphere,
contamination on the weld preparation, or moisture in the electrode flux. With the
M.M.A. and S.A.W. processes the selection of flux type will also affect the H 2
content.
The intense heat of the arc is enough to breakdown the molecular hydrogen (H 2 )
into its atomic form (H). Hydrogen atoms are the smallest atoms known to man
and therefore can easily infiltrate amongst the iron atoms whilst the weld is still
hot. When the weld area is hot, the iron atoms are more mobile thereby producing
larger gaps between themselves, i.e. the steel is in an expanded condition.
As the weld cools down most of the hydrogen diffuses outward into the parent
material and atmosphere but some of the hydrogen atoms become trapped within
the weld zone. This is due to the iron atoms setting as the weld cools, therefore
the gap between them become smaller, i.e. the steel is contracting.
Below 200°C the elements of hydrogen prefer to be in molecular form (H 2 ) the

individual atoms of hydrogen are attracted towards each other as the weld cools,
and they congregate in any convenient space as microscopic gas bubbles.
When the hydrogen molecules exist in large numbers, a lot of pressure is exerted
–60,000 to 200,000 p.s.i. Because of this internal pressure the adjacent grain
structure may react in one of two ways.
1. It may deform slightly to reduce the pressure. This will occur if the surrounding
metal is ductile e.g. Pearlite
2. It may separate completely to reduce the pressure, i.e. crack. This will occur if the
surrounding metal is brittle, e.g. Martensite.
Weld fractures associated with hydrogen are more likely to occur in the H.A.Z. as
this area tends to have increased brittleness. It must also be observed that it
usually takes an external stress to initiate and propagate a crack. Lower
temperatures will decrease the fracture toughness of the steel and at the same
time increase H 2 pressure.
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CONCLUSION: Before hydrogen cracking occurs the following criteria must exist:
a. Hydrogen
b. A grain structure susceptible to cracking normally means are brittle, are
very susceptible to cracking.
c. Stress
RE-HEAT CRACKING
Re- heat cracking also known as stress relaxation cracking. This mainly occurs in the HAZ of
the welds, particularly in low alloy steels during post weld heat treatment or service at elevated
temperatures.
Most alloy steels are subject to an increase of embrittlement of the coarse grained region of the
HAZ when heated above 600°C, the problem is worse with thicker steels containing Cr, Cu, Mo,
V, Nb, and Ti; S and P also have an influence. Typical steels susceptible would be the Cr-Mo-V
types, e.g. creep resisting steel.
During post weld stress relief and at high operating temperatures, the residual stresses will be
relieved by creep deformation, which involves grain boundary sliding and grain deformation. If
due to high creep strength these actions cannot occur, the grain boundaries may open up into
cracks.
Re-heat cracks most frequently occur in areas of high stress concentrations and existing
defects. They are not known in the weld area where the cracks may originate from sharp
profiles, e.g. incomplete root penetration or at the toe of badly shaped fillet welds.
Precautions against re-heat cracking include toe-grinding, elimination of partial penetration

welds, the rejection of poor weld profile, the selection of steel resistant to liquation cracks, the
use of the lowest strength weld metal acceptable and controlled post weld heat treatment.
GROUP 2 (CAVITIES)
A cavity formed by entrapped gas during solidification, the discontinuity is generally spherical
but may be cylindrical. When there are gas discontinuities in ingots that are reduced to wrought
products, gas voids in the ingot will appear as laminations in the finished product.
a. GAS PORE
A gas cavity of essentially spherical form
b. WORM HOLE
An elongated gas pore. The position and shape is determined by the mode of
solidification and the source of gas. The wormhole may be distributed in a
herringbone formation.
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c. SHRINKAGE CAVITY
A cavity due to shrinkage during solidification
d. ELONGATED CAVITY (HOLLOW BEAD)
A large non-spherical cavity with its major dimension parallel to the axis of the
weld.
e. POROSITY
1 Localised Porosity: Also known as cluster porosity, and is a number of gas

pores in a small group
2 Uniform Porosity: A number of gas pores distributed in a substantially uniform

manner throughout of the weld.
3 Linear Porosity: A line of gas pores situated parallel to the axis of the weld.
f. CRATER PIPE
A depression or hole due to shrinkage at the end of a weld run and not
eliminated before or during the deposition of subsequent weld passes.
GROUP 3 (SOLID INCLUSIONS)
Solid foreign substances entrapped in the weld metal, such as weld slag or flux
weld, resulting from faulty welding techniques and restricted access due to joint
design.
SLAG
1. Isolated: Slag entrapped in the weld in random areas.
2. Linear: Slag in line form in the weld commonly termed ‘slag lines’
3. Metallic: A particle of foreign metal entrapped in the weld. It may be tungsten,

copper or other metal.
4. Oxide: Metallic oxides trapped in the weld metal during solidification.
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GROUP 4 (INCOMPLETE FUSION)
Lack of union between weld metal and parent metal or weld metal. As a result of improper
welding techniques, preparation of materials for welding heat or lack of access to all
boundaries of the weld joint.
a. ROOT
Failure to fuse both materials at the root of the weld.
b. SIDEWALL
Lack of fusion between parent metal and weld metal.
c. INTER-RUN
Failure to fuse weld metal during the weld cycle.
d. PENETRATION
Failure to extend the weld metal into the root of the joint
GROUP 5 (IMPERFECT SHAPE)
Imperfect shape of the external surfaces of the weld or defective joint geometry.
a. UNDERCUT (Root or Cap)
A groove at the toe of the weld runs due to welding. It may be continuous or
intermittent.
b. SHRINKAGE GROOVE
A shallow groove in the root caused by contraction in the weld metal along each
side of the penetration bead.
c. ROOT CAVITY
A shallow groove due to shrinkage to a butt weld at the root.
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d. EXCESSIVE PENETRATION
Excess of weld metal at the face of the butt weld.
e. OVERLAP
Excess of weld metal at the toe of a weld covering the parent surface but not fused
to it.
f. BURN THROUGH
A collapse of the weld pool resulting in a hole in the weld or at the side of the weld.
g. EXCESSIVE REINFORCEMENT
An excess of weld metal at the face of the butt weld
h. INCOMPLETE FILLED GROOVE
A longitudinal, continuous or intermittent channel, in the surface of a weld due to

insufficient deposition of weld metal.
i. MISALIGNMENT
Misalignment between two welded plates such that, whilst their surface planes are
parallel, their projected surface are not at the required level (linear misalignment)
Or that their surface planes are not parallel or at the intended angle (angular
misalignment)
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PHASE TEST 1
Q1 Which of the following conditions will affect the rate and the extent a liquid
penetrant will enter cracks, fissures, and other small openings?
A. The hardness of the specimen being tested

B. The surface condition of the specimen being tested
C. The colour of the penetrant
D. The conductivity of the specimen being tested
Q2 Which of the following is a commonly used classification for penetrant?
A. Post-Emulsifiable
B. Nonferrous penetrant
C. Chemical etch penetrant
D. Nonaqueous penetrant
Q3 A generally accepted method for removing excess nonwater-washable penetrant is?
A. Repeatedly dipping the test specimen in a cleaner

B. Soaking the test specimen in hot detergent water
C. Blowing the excess penetrant off the surface of the specimen with compressed air
D Wiping and cautiously cleaning the test specimen with a cleaner-dampened cloth
Q4 Which of the following parts could not be tested by the liquid penetrant method?
A. An iron casting
B. An aluminium forging
C. A part made from a porous material
D. A part made from a non-porous material
Q5 Which of the following discontinuities can be found by the liquid penetrant method?
A. A surface crack
B. A subsurface crack
C. An internal inclusion
D None of the above
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Q6 Which of the following is generally the more acceptable method for cleaning parts
prior to penetrant testing?
A. Sand blasting
B. Wire brushing
C. Grinding
D. Vapour degreasing
Q7 Which of the following is not a generally accepted method for cleaning parts prior to
penetrant testing?
A. Vapour degreasing
B. Liquid solvent
C. Wire brushing
D. Alkaline cleaner
Q8 Cutting oils may be effectively removed from the parts before penetrant testing by?
A. Pre-heating
B. Vapour degreasing
C. Washing with water
D. All of the above
Q9 The most common type of contaminant in fluorescent penetrant fluid is?
A. Metal filings
B. Oil
C. Detergents from cleaning
D. Water
Q10 Black light with a proper functioning filter in place used for fluorescent penetrant
inspection can cause permanent damage to?
A. Human tissue
B. Human eyes
C. Human blood cells
D. None of the above
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Q11 Which of the following is not a basic inspection principle that applies to all
penetrant methods?
A. The penetrant must enter the discontinuity in order to form an indication

B. Indications glow when illuminated with black light
C. A longer penetration time is required for smaller discontinuities
D. If the penetrant is washed out of the discontinuity, an indication will not be formed
by that discontinuity.
Q12 Sub-surface discontinuities can best be detected by?
A. Post-emulsification penetrant method

B. Visible dye penetrant method
C. Fluorescent water-washable penetrant method
D. None of the above will detect subsurface discontinuities
Q13 Visible penetrant may be applied by?
A Brushing
B Spraying
C Dipping
D All of the above
Q14 The first step in conducting a liquid penetrant inspection on a surface that has been
painted is to?
A. Carefully apply the penetrant over the surface

B. Completely remove the paint
C. Thoroughly wash the surface with detergent
D. Wire- brushes the surface to roughen the smooth surface coating of paint?
Q15 When using post-emulsification penetrant, it is necessary to apply the emulsifier?
A. Before applying the penetrant

B. After the water wash operation
C. After the dwell time has elapsed
D. After the development time has elapsed
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Q16 When conducting a water-washable liquid penetrant test, the wet developer is
applied?
A. Immediately after the penetrant has been applied

B. Immediately before the penetrant is applied
C. After removal of the penetrant
D. After the removal of the emulsifier
Q17 The term used to describe the action of a particular developer in soaking up the
penetrant in a discontinuity, so as to cause maximum bleed-out of the liquid
penetrant for increased contrast and sensitivity, is known as?
A. Blotting
B. Capillary action
C. Concentration
D. Attraction
Q18 A black light lamp should not be used with a cracked filter or without the filter in
place because of the harmful effects to the human eye caused by the lamp’s
emission of?
A. Black light
B. Ultraviolet light
C. Infrared light
D. None of the above
Q19 The term used to define the period of time in which the test part is covered with
penetrant is?
A. Waiting time
B. Dip or drain time
C. Penetration time or dwell time
D. Bleed-in time
Q20 Usually, the most desirable method of removing excess water-washable penetrant
after the dwell time is by?
A. A low pressure coarse water spray

B. Water and brush
C. A solid stream of water
D. Water and clean cloth
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Q21 When conducting a liquid penetrant inspection using a post-emulsifiable visible dye
penetrant, the generally accepted method for applying the wet developer is by?
A. Brushing
B. Swabbing
C. Dipping
D. Spraying
Q22 Which of the following is not a characteristic that applies to liquid penetrant
testing?
A. This method can accurately measure the depth of a crack or discontinuity

B. This method can be used for on-site testing of large parts
C. This method can be used to find shallow surface discontinuities
D. This method can be made more or less sensitive by using different penetrant
materials.
Q23 Which of the following discontinuities are most likely to be missed due to improper
rinse techniques?
A. Forging lap
B. Deep pitting
C. Shallow and broad discontinuities
D. The rinse technique will not affect the detection of discontinuities
Q24 When conducting a fluorescent penetrant inspection, a commonly used technique

for assuring that the excess penetrant has been removed prior to the application of
a developer is to?
A. Blow compressed air over the surface

B. Chemically etch the surface
C. Blot the surface with absorbent paper
D. Scan the surface with a black light
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Q25 Which of the following surface conditions could have a detrimental effect on a liquid
penetrant inspection?
A. A wet surface
B. A rough surface
C. An oily surface
D. All of the above will have a detrimental effect
Q26 Liquid penetrant testing is capable of detecting?
A. Intergranular discontinuities
B. Discontinuities open to the surface
C. Sub-surface discontinuities
D. All of the above
Q27 Black light equipment is required when penetrant testing by the?
A. Fluorescent penetrant method

B. Visible dye penetrant method
C. Non-fluorescent penetrant method
D. All of the above
Q28 The term used to define the tendency of certain liquids to penetrate into small
openings such as cracks or fissures is?
A. Saturation
B. Capillary Action
C. Blotting
D. Wetting agent
Q29 Excess penetrant (all penetrant except that which is in discontinuities) is removed
from the specimen?
A. After the required penetrant dwell time has elapsed

B. Before the application of a penetrant emulsifier is used
C. By means of a steam cleaner
D. Only when water-washable penetrants are used
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Q30 When using a post-emulsifiable penetrant, the emulsifier time should be?
A. As long as the penetrant dwell time

B. One-half the penetrant dwell time
C. The same as the developer time
D. Only as long as necessary to effect removal of interfering background
Q31 When an inspector is working in a darkened area, he should become adjusted to the
dark before inspecting. The generally accepted time period for becoming
accustomed to the dark is?
A. One minute
B. Five to ten minutes
C. Ten to fifteen minutes
D. No waiting period is necessary
Q32 When applying penetrant by dipping, heating the penetrant prior to dipping?
A. Will increase the sensitivity of the test

B. Will increase the capillary action of the penetrant
C. Will increase the stability of the penetrant
D. Is not generally recommended
Q33 A penetrant inspection cannot find?
A. Surface porosity
B. Surface cracks
C. An internal cavity
D. A surface forging lap
Q34 Which of the following materials cannot be tested by the usual liquid penetrant test?
A. Unglazed ceramic tile

B. Titanium
C. High Alloy Steel
D. Cast Iron
Q35 Liquid penetrant cannot be used to detect?
A. Discontinuities just below the surface

B. Internal discontinuities
C. Discontinuities open to the surface
D. All discontinuities
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Q36 Which of the following are commonly accepted methods for applying penetrant?
A. Dipping the part in penetrant

B. Flowing the penetrant over the test specimen
C. Spraying the penetrant on the test specimen
D. All of the above
Q37 When viewing the results of a penetrant inspection, the white light level must be
above?
A. 250 Lux
B. 500 Lux
C. 1000 Lux
D. 800 Lux
Q38 Which of the following statements below best state the danger of sandblasting
(without subsequent chemical etching) for cleaning surfaces to be penetrant tested?
A. The discontinuities may be peened over and closed

B. Oil contaminants might be sealed in the discontinuities
C. The sand used in the blasting operation may be forced out of the discontinuity
D. The sandblasting operation may introduce discontinuities
Q39 The penetrant when applied to the surface of a test specimen?
A. Seeps into discontinuities

B. Is absorbed by discontinuities
C. Is drawn into discontinuities by capillary action
D. Is drawn into discontinuities by gravity
Q40 Which of the following statements concerning liquid penetrant testing is correct?
A. Fluorescent penetrants will produce red against white discontinuity indications

B. Non-fluorescent penetrant requires the use of black light
C. Fluorescent indications will be seen when exposed to black light
D. Non-fluorescent discontinuities glow in the dark for easy viewing and interpretation
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Q41 When removing excess penetrant from the surface of a test specimen?
A. The penetrant removal operation must not remove the penetrant from
discontinuities
B. Sufficient excess penetrant must be removed to eliminate an interfering
background
C. The use of a solvent-dampened cloth is a common method of penetrant removal
D. All of the above
Q42 The most widely accepted method for removing excessive water-washable
penetrant from the surface of a test specimen is?
A. By means of a wet rag

B. By means of a water spray rinse
C. By washing the part directly under running water from the tap
D. By immersing the part in water
Q43 Inspection of test specimens for defects/discontinuities should take place?
A. Immediately after the developer has been applied

B. Anytime after the developer has been applied
C. After the developer has been on the test specimen for the proper development
time
D. Immediately after the rinse operation
Q44 Which of the following is an advantage of visible dye penetrant over fluorescent
penetrants?
A. Visible dye penetrants do not require black light

B. Visible dye penetrants are more sensitive than fluorescent penetrants
C. Visible dye penetrants are superior in penetrating characteristics
D. Visible dye penetrants are not toxic while fluorescent penetrants are toxic
Q45 The terms ‘Dry’; ‘Aqueous Wet’ and ‘Non-Aqueous Wet’ are used to describe three
different types of?
A. Emulsifiers
B. Cleaners
C. Developers
D. Penetrants
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Q46 Which of the following is a true statement concerning the application of a standard
temperature penetrant to a test specimen while the specimen is very hot?
A. The penetrant is likely to become entrapped in the specimen as it cools

B. The test will be less sensitive than when the penetrant is applied on a cool
specimen
C. There is no difference in applying penetrant to a heated specimen and a cool
specimen
D. The penetrant may be heated to the point where some of the penetrants
constituents are driven off, causing volatile fumes and leaving a residue on the
surface
Q47 Which of the following is not a generally accepted method for applying penetrants?
A. Rubbing the penetrant over the surface

B. Brushing the penetrant on the part
C. Spraying the penetrant on the part
D. Dipping the part in the penetrant
Q48 Which of the following is the most commonly used method for removing non-water-
washable visible dye penetrant from the surface of a test specimen?
A. Dipping in solvent
B. Spraying
C. Hand wiping
D. Blowing
Q49 Which of the following is an acceptable method for applying wet developer?
A. Application with a soft brush

B. Application with a hand powder bulb
C. Rubbing with a saturated cloth
D. Spraying or dipping
Q50 When using solvent-removable penetrants, the excess penetrant may be removed
by?
A. Dipping the part in solvent

B. Spraying the part with water and a solvent
C. Rubbing the part with a wet rag
D. Wiping the part with a rag or cloth that has been dampened with solvent
Page 93 of 104
Rev 1.9 6/4/17
PHASE TEST 2
Q1 Which of the following physical properties, more than any other, determines what makes a
material a good penetrant?
A. Viscosity
B. Surface Tension
C. Wetting Ability
D. No one single property determines if a material will or will not be a good penetrant
Q2 Which of the following properties influences the speed with which a penetrant penetrates a
surface flaw to the greatest extent?
A. Density
B. Surface Tension and Wetting Ability
C. Viscosity
D. Relative Weight
Q3 Which of the following technical factors should be considered before selecting a penetrant
process?
A. Required sensitivity
B. Surface finish of the component
C. Compatibility of the penetrant system
D. All of the above factors should be considered
Q4 Which of the items listed below is not an advantage of the liquid penetrant test method?
A. The method can find all types of discontinuities

B. The method is simple in principle and relatively easy to understand
C. The method is essentially simple in application
D. There are few limitations on the size and shape of the article that can be treated by this
method
Q5 Which of the statements below apply to the liquid penetrant test method?
A. The penetrant test method is less flexible than the eddy current test method
B. The penetrant test method is less reliable than the magnetic particle method for finding
surface defects
C. The penetrant test method will not detect fatigue cracks
D. The penetrant test method is more reliable than radiographic testing when attempting to
detect minute surface discontinuities.
Page 94 of 104
Rev 1.9 6/4/17
Q6 Which of the following types of discontinuities will not be detected by the liquid penetrant
test method?
A. Surface Laminations
B. Internal Forging Burst
C. Surface Cracks
D. Surface Laps
Q7 Which of the following discontinuities could be classified as a primary processing

discontinuity often found in cast materials?
A. Fatigue Crack
B. Stress-Corrosion Crack
C. Porosity
D. Lack of Penetration
Q8 Which of the following discontinuities could be classified as a finishing processing

discontinuity?
A. Fatigue Cracks
B. Stress-Corrosion Crack
C. Lamination
D. Heat-Treatment Crack
Q9 Which of the following discontinuities could be classified as a service induced

discontinuity?
A. Fatigue Crack
B. Porosity
C. Machining Tear
D. Lap
Q10 Which of the test part characteristics listed below are normally considered before the
specific liquid penetrant test method is selected?
A. The kind and size of discontinuities most likely to occur

B. The intended application for the part
C. The surface finish of the part
D. All of the above
Page 95 of 104
Rev 1.9 6/4/17
Q11 Aluminium alloy test specimens that have been tested by the liquid penetrant method
should be thoroughly cleaned after testing because?
A. The acid in the penetrant may cause severe corrosion

B. The alkaline content of wet developers and most emulsifiers could result in surface pitting,
particularly in moist atmospheres
C. The toxic residue from the test will severely inhibit the application of paint on aluminium
alloy
D. A chemical reaction between the penetrant and aluminium could cause a fire because of
internal combustion
Q12 Which of the following are typical of foreign matter, which might block the openings of
discontinuities if the surface of a test specimen is not properly cleaned?
A. Paint
B. Scale
C. Core and mould
D. All of the above
Q13 Which of the following is not a recommended method of removing grease from a surface of
a part to be penetrant tested?
B. Alkaline cleaner
C. Cleaning with solvent-type materials
D. Hot water rinse
Q14 The penetrant indication for a Cold Shut on the surface of a casting will be?
A. A smooth continuous line

B. A cluster of indications
C. A rough deep indication
D. A large bulbous indication
Q15 The penetrant indication of a Forging Lap will normally be?
A. A round or nearly round indication

B. A cluster indication
C. A continuous line
D. A dotted line
Page 96 of 104
Rev 1.9 6/4/17
Q16 When conducting a penetrant test, spherical indications on the surface of a part could be
indicative of?
A. Fatigue Crack
B. Porosity
C. Weld Lap
D. Hot Tear
Q17 Which of the following is not a form in which penetrant developer is commonly available?
A. Dry developer
B. Non-aqueous developer
C. Wet developer
D. High viscosity developer
Q18 Which of the following is a possible cause for false penetrant indications?
A. Excessive washing
B. Inadequate application of developers
C. Penetrant or part to cold during penetration time
D. Lint or dirt
Q19 Penetrant residues may become entrapped under splines, fasteners, rivets, etc. Which of
the following is the most likely reaction caused by such a residue?
A. Corrosion caused by the moisture attracted by such residue

B. Paint stripping
C. Fatigue cracking
D. Lattice structure breakdown
Q20 Developer assists in the detection of penetrants retained in discontinuities by aiding the?
A. Post-cleaning process
B. Emulsification process
C. Bleed-out
D. Drying process
Q21 Developer assists in the detection of the visible dye penetrant test indications by?
A. Providing a clean surface

B. Providing a contrasting background
C. Providing a dry surface
D. Emulsifying the penetrant bleed-out
`
Page 97 of 104
Rev 1.9 6/4/17
Q22 When using post-emulsification penetrants, difficulties incurred during the washing
operation can be overcome by?
A. Reapplying a coating of emulsifier

B. Increasing the water pressure used during the washing operation
C. Completely reprocessing the part from surface preparation on and by using a longer
emulsifier time
D. Dipping the part in boiling water
Q23 Which of the following method for applying non-aqueous developer is normally considered
most effective?
A. Spraying
B. Swabbing
C. Brushing
D. Dipping
Q24 Of the methods listed below the most effective means of pre-cleaning a test item prior to a
penetrant test is?
B. Detergent cleaning
C. Steam cleaning
D. Solvent wiping
Q25 Fluorescent materials used in fluorescent penetrants respond most actively to radiant
energy of a wavelength of approximately?
A. 7,000 Angstroms
B. 365 Nanometres
C. 250 kV
D. 100 foot candles
Q26 When performing a liquid penetrant inspection using solvent removable visible dye
penetrant, there are several ways to remove excess penetrant from the surface of the part.
Which of the methods listed below is generally regarded as most suitable for giving
accurate test results?
A. Squirting solvent over the surface with no more than 40 psi pressure
B. Wiping with a soaking wet cloth, then wiping with a dry cloth
C. Wiping with a solvent dampened cloth then wiping with a dry cloth
D. Wiping with dry paper wipes, then wiping with solvent dampened cloth and finally wiping
with dry paper towel or cloth
Page 98 of 104
Rev 1.9 6/4/17
Q27 Emulsifier time is?
A. Is important but not normally critical

B. Is the time needed to rinse the emulsifier and excess penetrant from the surface
C. Is extremely important and will greatly affect test results
D. Should be as long as economically practical
Q28 Prior to penetrant testing of a previously machined soft metal part, which of the cleaning
methods listed below would best remove any metal that could mask discontinuities?
A. Etching
B. Shot peening
C. Alkaline cleaning
D. Water cleaning with detergents
Q29 Which of the following is a purpose of the drying process used in penetrant testing?
A. The drying process is used to assure that all excess penetrant will evaporate
B. The drying process assures the uniform drying of dry developer applied over a wet
emulsifier
C. The drying process reduces penetration time
D. After the application of a wet developer, the drying process aids in securing a uniform
developer coating
Q30 Which of the following is the best reason why excessive drying of a part is not desired?
A. The extra time required is wasted

B. The developer may lose its blotting ability
C. A reduction in resolution may result
D. The excess developer may be difficult to remove
Q31 Which of the following is the best reason why the application of emulsifier by a brush is not
recommended?
A. The brushing action mixes the emulsifier with the penetrant prematurely and irregularly,
making accurate control of the emulsification time impossible
B. Brushing does not always completely coat the part, thereby leaving a portion of the part difficult
to wash
C. Brushing in itself is not harmful, but many types of brush material combine with the emulsifier
agents resulting in penetrant and the part with contamination
D. Brushing results in a streaking appearance during inspection
Page 99 of 104
Rev 1.9 6/4/17
Q32 Developing time depends on the?
A. Type of penetrant used

B. Type of developer used and type of discontinuity to be detected
C. Temperature of the material being tested
D. All of the above
Q33 When using a fluorescent post-emulsifiable penetrant the length of time the emulsifier is
allowed to remain on the part is critical when detecting shallow scratch-like discontinuities.
The best length of time should be?
A. 10 seconds
B. 5 seconds
C. 2 to 3 minutes
D. According to manufacturer’s instructions
Q34 Which of the following statements concerning contaminating materials on the surface of a
part to be penetrant tested is not true?
A. The contaminant may be of a composition that attacks the penetrant and reduces the
fluorescence or colour of the penetrant
B. The contaminant may be of such a nature that they reduce or even prevent capillary action by
the penetrant
C. The contaminant may retain the penetrant and thus increase the sensitivity of the inspection
D. The contaminant may completely fill the crack and thus prevent the entry of penetrant
Q35 Water-washable liquid penetrant differs from post-emulsification penetrants in that water-
washable penetrants?
A. Can only be used on aluminium test specimens

B. Need not be removed from surface prior to development
C. Have a soapy base
D. Do not need the application of an emulsifier before rinsing
Q36 The function of the emulsifier in the post-emulsification penetrant method is to?
A. More rapidly drive the penetrant into deep tight cracks

B. React with the surface penetrant to make the penetrant water-washable
C. Add fluorescent dye or pigment to the penetrant
D. Provide a coating to which dry powder developer can adhere
Page 100 of 104

Rev 1.9 6/4/17
Q37 When penetrant testing for shallow discontinuities using post-emulsification penetrants,
the emulsification time should be long enough to?
A. Mix the emulsifier with the excess surface penetrant only

B. Mix the emulsifier with all the penetrant on the surface and in the discontinuities
C. Mix the emulsifier with penetrant in the discontinuities
D. Allow the emulsifier to dry out to a white powder
Q38 Which of the following is not good practice when penetrant testing?
A. Applying emulsifier by dipping the part in emulsifier

B. Applying developer by spraying the part with developer
C. Removal of water-washable penetrant with a water spray
D. Applying emulsifier with a brush
Q39 A commonly used method of checking on the overall performance of a penetrant material
system is by?
A. Determining the viscosity of the penetrant

B. Measuring the wet ability of the penetrant
C. Comparing two sections of an artificially cracked specimen
D. All of the above
Q40 An important difference between non-water-washable penetrants and water-washable

penetrants is that?
A. Water-washable penetrants contain an emulsifier, while non-water-washable penetrants do

not
B. The viscosity of the two penetrants is different
C. The colour of the two penetrants is different
D. Non-water-washable penetrants are more easily removed than are water-washable
penetrants
Q41 Which of the following characteristics are normally considered when selecting the type of
penetrant to be used in a penetrant test?
A. Removal characteristics of the penetrant

B. The flash point of the penetrant
C. The cost of the penetrant
D. All of the above
Page 101 of 104

Rev 1.9 6/4/17
Q42 When penetrant testing Titanium alloy, the materials used in the penetrant system should
not contain any constituent quantities of?
A. Carbon or oil
B. Halogenated solvent
C. Emulsifier or oil
D. Fluorescent agent
Q43 Which of the following discontinuities might be found in a Sand Casting?
A. Incomplete Penetration
B. Undercut
C. Pipe
D. Shrinkage
Q44 Which of the following discontinuities might be found in a Welded fabrication?
A. Shrinkage
B. Lack of Fusion
C. Seams
D. Laps
Q45 Which of the following discontinuities might be found in rolled bar stock?
A. Shrinkage
B. Bleed-out
C. Laps
D. Undercut
Q46 Which of the following discontinuities might be found in rolled plate?
A. Laminations
B. Shrinkage
C. Lack of Fusion
D. Undercut
Q47 Which of the following contaminants could affect the sensitivity of a penetrant?
A. Acid
B. Water
C. Salts
D. All of the above
Page 102 of 104

Rev 1.9 6/4/17
Q48 Which of the following is a discontinuity that might be found in a Forging?
A. Shrinkage Cracks
B. Laps
C. Cold Shut
D. Insufficient Penetration
Q49 Which of the following is a discontinuity that might be found in rolled bar stock?
A. Blow Holes
B. Shrinkage Laps
C. Cracks or Seams
D. Insufficient Penetration
Q50 Which of the following is a discontinuity that might be found in rolled plate stock?
A. Shrinkage Cracks
B. Inclusions
C. Forging Laps
D. Blow Holes
Page 103 of 104

Rev 1.9 6/4/17
COURSE EVALUATION
COURSE: LECTURER:
LOCATION: DATE:
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COURSE CONTENT 1 – Poor, No (Expand on a separate sheet if
5 – Good, Yes necessary)
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objectives?
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and expectations?
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everything you need to know?
COURSE PRESENTATION
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Course Lecturer satisfactory?
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adequate knowledge of the
subject?
Was the coverage of the subject by
the Course Lecturer adequate?
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satisfactory?
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the Course Lecturer in the
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Oceaneering is committed to improving the quality of its Training, please complete this
form and hand it to your Lecturer or in to Reception.
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Page 104 of 104

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Liquid Penetrant Inspection Course Notes

Rev 1.9- 06/04/17

LEVEL 2 Course Notes

Revision Reason for Revision Prepared Approved Date

LIQUID PENETRANT INSPECTION

Is given by the formula P = 2S × Cos ϕ

Where: P = Capillary Pressure

The contact angle is a measure of the wetting ability.

CONTACT ANGLE WETTING ABILITY DROPLET SHAPE

Less than 90° High

Equal to 90° Moderate

More than 90° Low

PENETRATION of SURFACE DISCONTINUITIES

The surface must be cleaned of all surface

Typically penetrant is applied to the surface

3. Remove excess penetrant

Excess penetrant is removed in such a

A thin coating of developer is applied to the

Immediately after application of the developer

A final examination is carried out after

LIQUID PENETRANT INSPECTION COMPARED WITH OTHER N.D.T. METHODS

LIQUID PENETRANT THEORY AND PRACTICE

i) The test may well be ineffective

These contaminants include the following:

a) Metal chips b) Metal dust c) Turning d) Abrasive

1. Blasting: Shot; Grit; Pressure

Cleaning processes which may be used

Solvent Degreasing for Light Oils

High-pressure super-heated steam jet

Ultrasonic Cleaning Bath

The ultrasonic crystal vibrates and causes cavitations.

Ultrasonic Cleaning Bath

TEST PROCEDURE STEPS

CHARACTERISTICS and PROPERTIES of a PENETRANT

Availability and Cost

There are three types of penetrant:

i) HYDROPHILIC – WATER BASED

PENETRANT INSPECTION PROCESSES

HYDROPHILIC EMULSIFIER (water-dilatable)

LIPOPHILIC EMULSIFIER (oil-based)

WATER and SOLVENT

a) Amount of penetrant present

e. The specimen is dried.

i) Spraying via pressure spray

h. The test residue is completely removed.

ELECTROSTATIC APPLICATION of PENETRANTS/DEVELOPERS

High Voltage in Gun

Compressed Air Line

WATER WASHABLE PENETRANT TEST

SOLVENT REMOVABLE PENETRANT TEST

After cleaning the component Water washable: Excess surface

Developer is applied to the

POST - EMULSIFIABLE PENETRANT TEST

After cleaning the component

Developer draws the Black light causes

WATER WASHABLE / WET DEVELOPERS

SOLVENT REMOVABLE FLUORESCENT

It can be applied in the following manner:

Non-Aqueous liquid developer

INSPECTION PROBLEMS PROCESS (Preferred) REMARKS

PROCESS W – WATER WASHABLE FLUORESCENT PENETRANT

Water pressure of up to 2 bar at a temperature not exceeding 50°C – I.A.W. BS EN 3452

PROCESS P – POST EMULSIFIABLE FLUORESCENT PENETRANT