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62 BASIC CONCEPTS AND THEORIES OF FILTERS

φ φ
φ
K=Z0 tan
2 1
Z0 X=ωL 2X Z0 X=–
φ = –tan–1 ωC
Z0
X K / Z0
φ < 0 for X > 0 = φ > 0 for X < 0
Z0 1–(K / Z0)2

(a) (b)

φ/2 φ/2 φ/2 φ/2

φ
B=–
1 J=Y0 tan B = ωC
ωL 2
Y0 Y0
2B
φ = –tan–1
Y0
B J/ Y0
φ > 0 for B < 0 = φ < 0 for B > 0
Z0 1–(J/ Y0)2

(c) (d)

FIGURE 3.22 Immittance inverters comprised of lumped and transmission-line elements.

3.5 RICHARDS’ TRANSFORMATION AND KURODA IDENTITIES

3.5.1 Richards’ Transformation

Distributed transmission-line elements are of importance for designing practical mi-
crowave filters. A commonly used approach to the design of a practical distributed
filter is to seek some approximate equivalence between lumped and distributed el-
ements. Such equivalence can be established by applying Richards’ transformation
[12]. Richards showed that distributed networks, comprised of commensurate-length
(equal electrical length) transmission lines and lumped resistors, could be treated in
analysis or synthesis as lumped-element LCR networks under the transformation

lp
t = tanh (3.51)
vp

where p = σ + j ω is the usual complex frequency variable, and l/vp is the ratio of
the length of the basic commensurate transmission-line element to the phase velocity
of the wave in such a line element. t is a new complex frequency variable, also
known as Richards’ variable. The new complex plane, where t is defined, is called
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RICHARDS’ TRANSFORMATION AND KURODA IDENTITIES 63

the t-plane. Equation (3.51) is referred to as Richards’ transformation. For lossless

passive networks p = j ω and the Richards’ variable is simply expressed by

t = j tan θ (3.52)

where
ω
θ= l = the electrical length (3.53)
vp

Assuming that the phase velocity vp is independent of frequency, which is true for
TEM transmission lines, the electrical length is then proportional to frequency and
may be expressed as

θ = θ0 ω/ω0

where θ0 is the electrical length at a reference frequency ω0 . It is convenient for

discussion to let ω0 be the radian frequency at which all line lengths are quarter-wave
long with θ0 = π/2 and to let
= tan θ , so that

π ω

= tan (3.54)
2 ω0

This frequency mapping is illustrated in Figure 3.23a. As ω varies between 0

and ω0 ,
varies between 0 and ∞, and the mapping from ω to
is not one to
one but periodic, corresponding to the periodic nature of the distributed network.
LA (dB)
Ω

0
2ω0 4ω0

LAr

ω0 3ω0 0 ω0 2ω0 3ω0 4ω0

ω ω
(a) (b)

FIGURE 3.23 (a) Frequency mapping between real frequency variable ω and distributed
frequency variable
. (b) Chebyshev lowpass response using the Richards’ transformation.
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64 BASIC CONCEPTS AND THEORIES OF FILTERS

Z = pL Z = tZc
L Zc
p = jω t = j tanθ

θ
(a)

Y = pC Y = tYc
C Yc
p = jω t = j tanθ

θ
(b)

FIGURE 3.24 Lumped- and distributed-element correspondence under Richards’

transformation.

The periodic frequency response of the distributed filter network is demonstrated

in Figure 3.23b, which is obtained by applying the Richards’ transformation of
Eq. (3.54) to the Chebyshev lowpass prototype transfer function of Eq. (3.9), showing
that the response repeats in frequency intervals of 2ω0 . It is interesting to notice that
the response in Figure 3.23b may also be seen as a distributed bandstop filter response
centered at ω0 . Therefore, a lowpass response in the p-plane may be mapped into either
the lowpass or the bandstop one in the t-plane, depending on the design objective.
Similarly, it can be shown that a highpass response in the p-plane may be transformed
as either the highpass or the bandpass one in the t-plane.
Under Richards’ transformation, a close correspondence exists between lumped
inductors and capacitors in the p-plane and short- and open-circuited transmission
lines in the t-plane. As a one-port inductive element with an impedance Z = pL, a
lumped inductor corresponds to a short-circuited line element (stub) with an input
impedance Z = tZc = j Zc tan θ , where Zc is the characteristic impedance of the line.
Likewise, a lumped capacitor with an admittance Y = pC corresponds to an open-
circuited stub of input admittance Y = tYc = j Yc tan θ and characteristic admittance
Yc . These correspondences are illustrated in Figure 3.24 and, as a consequence, the
short- and open-circuited line elements are sometimes referred to as the t-plane induc-
tor and capacitor, respectively, and use the corresponding lumped-element symbols
as well.
Another important distributed element, which has no lumped-element counterpart,
is a two-port network consisting of a commensurate-length line. A transmission line
of characteristic impedance Zu has a ABCD matrix

   
A B cos θ j Zu sin θ
= (3.55a)
C D j sin θ /Zu cos θ
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RICHARDS’ TRANSFORMATION AND KURODA IDENTITIES 65

Zu
Zu
UE
θ

ABCD matrix: t = j tanθ ABCD matrix:

cosθ jZusinθ 1 1 Zut
j sinθ / Zu cosθ 1–t 2 t / Zu 1

FIGURE 3.25 Unit element (UE).

which, in terms of Richards’ variable, becomes

   
A B 1 1 Zu t
=√ (3.55b)
C D 1 − t2 t/Zu 1

This line element is referred to as a unit element, hereafter as UE, and its symbol
is illustrated in Figure 3.25. It is interesting to note that the unit element has a half-
order transmission zero at t = ±1. Unit elements are usually employed to separate the
circuit elements in distributed filters that are otherwise located at the same physical
point. We will demonstrate later (see Chapter 6) that unit element can be used in the
filter design either as redundant or nonredundant elements. The former do not have
any effect on the filter selectivity, but the latter can improve it.

3.5.2 Kuroda Identities

In designing transmission line filters, various network identities may be desirable to
obtain filter networks that are electrically equivalent, but that differ in form or in
element values. Such transformations not only provide designers with flexibility, but
also are essential, in many cases, to obtain networks that are physically realizable
with physical dimensions. The Kuroda identities [13], shown in Figure 3.26, form a
basis to achieve such transformations, where the commensurate line elements with
the same electrical length θ are assumed for each identity. The first two Kuroda
identities interchange a unit element with a shunt open- or a series short-circuited
stub, and a unit element with a series short- or a shunt open-circuited stub. The other
two Kuroda identities, involving the ideal transformers, interchange stubs of the same
kind. The Kuroda identities may be deduced by comparing the ABCD matrices of the
corresponding networks in Figure 3.26.

3.5.3 Coupled-Line Equivalent Circuits

A pair of coupled transmission lines with the imposed terminal conditions, such as
open- or short-circuited at any two of its four ports, is an important type of two-port
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66 BASIC CONCEPTS AND THEORIES OF FILTERS

Z 2uYc
Z ′c=
1+Z uYc
Z ′c
Zu Z ′u
Zu
Z ′u=
Yc 1+Z uYc
UE UE

(a)

Zc Z ′u=Z u+Zc
Zu Z ′u
Zc
Y ′c Y′c=
UE UE Zu(Zc+Zu)

(b)

n:1

Zu Z ′u Z ′u=nZu
Zc Z ′c Z ′c=nZc
UE UE
Zc
n=
Zc+Zu

(c)

Z ′u=Zu /n
Yc Y′c 1:n
Zu Z ′u
Y′c=nYc

UE UE
n= Yc
Yc+1/Zu
(d)
FIGURE 3.26 Kuroda identities.
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RICHARDS’ TRANSFORMATION AND KURODA IDENTITIES 67

1
Yc1 =
vp(L11 – L12)
θ Yc1 Yc2
Zu 1
1 Yc2 =
vp(L22 – L12)

2 UE Zu = vpL12

(a)

–1:1 1
θ Zc1 =
Zu vp(C11 – C12)
1
Zc1 Zc2 1
Zc2 =
2 UE vp(C22 – C12)

Zu = vpC12

(b)

θ
Zu
1 Zu = vpL11
Yc
vpC 212
2 UE Yc =
C22

(c)

θ Yc2
1 Yc1 = vp(C11 – C12)
Yc1 Yc3 Yc2 = vpC12
2
Yc3 = vp(C22 – C12)

(d)

FIGURE 3.27 Equivalent circuits for coupled transmission lines.

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68 BASIC CONCEPTS AND THEORIES OF FILTERS

θ
I1 I3
1

2
I2 I4

FIGURE 3.28 General coupled transmission-line network.

network in filter designs. Figure 3.27 illustrates some typical networks of this type
with their equivalent circuits in the t-plane. These equivalent circuits may be derived
from the general coupled-line network in Figure 3.28 by utilizing its general four-port
voltage-current relationships:
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
I1  √  V1
⎢ I2 ⎥ vp [C] − 1 − t 2 [C] ⎢ V2 ⎥
⎢ ⎥= √ ·⎢ ⎥ (3.56)
⎣ I3 ⎦ t − 1 − t 2 [C] [C] ⎣ V3 ⎦
I4 V4

where Ik are the port currents, as indicated, and Vk are the port voltages with respect
to a common ground (not shown).
 
C11 −C12
[C] =
−C12 C22

C11 and C22 are the self-capacitance per unit length of lines 1 and 2, respectively,
and C12 is the mutual capacitance per unit length. Note that C11 = C22 if the coupled
lines are symmetrical.
Alternatively, the formulation with the impedance matrix may be used. This gives
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
V1  √  I1
⎢ V2 ⎥ vp [L] 1 − t 2 [L] ⎢ I2 ⎥
⎢ ⎥= √ ·⎢ ⎥ (3.57)
⎣ V3 ⎦ t 1 − t 2 [L] [L] ⎣ I3 ⎦
V4 I4

where
 
L11 L12
[L] =
L12 L22

In this case, L11 and L22 are the self-inductance per unit length of lines 1 and 2,
respectively, and L12 is the mutual inductance per unit length. If the coupled lines are
symmetrical, then L11 = L22 . It may be remarked that [L] and [C] together satisfy

[L] · [C] = [C] · [L] = [U ] vp2 (3.58)

where [U ] denotes the identity matrix.