ABSTRACT

IT is important for engineers to have proper knowledge about the health safety
regulations in a work shop. This knowledge will make them aware and therefore
prevent possible various electrical hazards. Workshops must regarded as places of
relatively high risk, where powerful machinery on materials such as wood, metal and
plastics. These risks have potential consequences which range from a minor (injury
cuts and bruises) to major injuries e.g. loss of a limb or eyesight or even a fatal
injury. This report covers the basis of electricity in a work shop its uses, risks involved
if used inappropriately and how these risks can be minimized with regard to human
life and livestock. It encompasses Code of practice, safety signs and warning notices,
important health and safety officers, accidents. Training, instructing and supervising
of employees. Electric hazards in a workshop and how to minimise their risk: electric
shocks, thermal effects, over currents, faulty currents, electromagnetic disturbances,
define them individually. Electrical supply systems: brief about power generation,
transformers transmission lines, distribution line, three phase supply system.
Electrical power system of Zambia. Knowledge of electrical wiring: wiring and colour
codes, types of electrical installations and their recommended cable types, tools and
components required for house wiring. Thermal overload protection, conductor size
selection, earthing and equipotent bonding, bonding conductors. Electrical and
electronic systems and components: Resistors, capacitors, diode, Integrated circuits,
Transistors. Lamps, thermistor, photo cell, photodiode, infrared source and sensor,
laser beam fibre optic link.
Table of contents

1. Code of practice, safety signs and warning notices, important health and safety
officers, accidents.

1.1 Code of practice

……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 1

1.2 Safety signs and warning notices

……………………………………………………………………………. 1

1.3 Important health and safety

officers…………………………………………………………………………5

1.4
Accidents………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….7

2. Training of employees

2.1
Training……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...
8

2.2 Instruction and supervising of

employees…………………………………………………………………..8

3. Electric hazards in a workshop and how to minimize their

risk…………………………………....9

3.1 Electric
shocks…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….9

3.2 Thermal
effects………………………………………………………………………………………………………...11

3.3 Over currents

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….11
3.4 Faulty currents
………………………………………………………………………………………………………....11

3.5 Electrical magnetic disturbances

……………………………………………………………………………..12

4. Electrical supply
systems……………………………………………………………………………………………13

4.1 Power generation

…………………………………………………………………………………………………..14

4.2 Tranformers
transmission………………………………………………………………………………………14

4.3 Distribution lines

…………………………………………………………………………………………………..14

4.4 three phase supply system

……………………………………………………………………………………19

5. electrical power system of Zambia …………………………………………………………………………

25

6. knowledge of electrical wiring

…………………………………………………………………………………27

6.1 wiring and colour codes ………………………………………………………………………………………

27

6.2 types of electrical installations and their cable types

………………………………………….28

6.2.1 tools and components required for house wiring

…………………………………………….29

7. thermal overload protection

……………………………………………………………………………….32
7.1 conductor size selection ……………………………………………………………………………………32

7.2 earthing and equipotent bonding

……………………………………………………………………..33

7.3 bonding conductors

…………………………………………………………………………………………..36

8. electrical and electronic systems and components ………………………………………………

36

8.1 resistors
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..37

8.2 capacitors
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..38

8.3 diodes
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..38

8.4 intergrated circuits

……………………………………………………………………………………………..39

8.5 transistors …………………………………………………………………………………………………………

40

8.6 lamps …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

40

8.7 Thermistor…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
41

8.8 photocell ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

42

8.9 photodiodes …………………………………………………………………………………………………………

43
8.10 infrared source …………………………………………………………………………..……………………..
44

8.11
sensors……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….44

8.12 laser beam fibre optic link …………………………………………………………………………………

45

/
 INTRODUCTION

The course is designed to provide students with a wide spread knowledge and
understanding of workshop tools and other facilities. The indispensable and
pervasive knowledge of electrical wiring and the electronic circuits which give
students an insight on their practical approach on their daily lives.

 Applications and analytical skills

To grasp the applications of workshop equipment, wiring accessories and printed

circuits boards and their importance in the practical field. How technology is
advancing towards the electronics chips and their integrated circuits

Various technical facilities in the workshop including machines shop, fitting shops,
welding shops and foundry shop, concepts in electrical safety, safety regulations ,
earthing concepts, electrical shops and treatment.

 Electrical wiring: use of tools used by electricians, wiring regulations, types of

cables and electrical accessories including switches, lamps, sockets etc,
drawing and practice in simple house wiring and testing methods, wiring
schemed of two way and three way circuits and ringing circuits, voltage and
current measurements, transformer windings (low voltage: 6,9 and 12 volts),
motor and generator windings (concept only)
 Electronic circuits: physical realisation of the range of discrete and integrated
semiconductor devices. Soldering: solder, soldering and soldering tools;
soldering methods and skills, PCB soldering, PCB making steps: transferring a
circuit to PBC, etching drilling and soldering components on PCB.
 Statutory regulations and requirements: These are internationally recognised
regulations which employees and employers must be familiar with and abide
by when working and managing workshops. Which include; code of practice,
safety signs and warning notices, important health and safety officers,
accidents, trainings etc.
 Electrical Hazards: electric shock, thermal effects, over currents, faulty
currents, electromagnetic disturbances, and ways of minimising their effects.
 Electric supply systems: power generation, transformers transmission lines,
three phase supply systems, distribution lines.
 Electrical power system of Zambia: power generation plants in Zambia, grid
distribution mechanism, generation capacity, consumption to production
ratio.
 Electrical and electronic system and components: resistors, capacitors,
diodes, integrated circuits, transistor, lamps, photocells , photo diodes,
 CONCLUSION

The report was successful as it provides students a wide spread knowledge and
understanding of electrical workshop and health and safety regulations and enable
them to apply their knowledge with caution in the work place or industry.
 RECOMMENDATION

There should be a provision to show students common electrical hazards come

about and how to prevent them. Physical or real life examples should be shown to
students especially on signs and warning notices so that they can be acquainted with
them.
1.CODE OF PRACTICE

The code of practice is a document developed by an organization providing practical

common sense advice to help employers and employees to manage risk that may
compromise the health and safety of the a work place. It’s made up from several
statutory (legal) documents like the electricity act on2002 and the BS7671. This
document is required to ensure health and safety in working places and ensuring that
electric equipment are well protected and cabling installed according to BS7671.

Some of the most common safe working practices and procedures are listed below:

 Ensure clearly and proper Communication with all your team members
 Assess the risks involved in the work u are about to do and mitigate them

1.2 Safety signs page and warning notices

A safety and/or health sign is defined as 'information or instruction about
health and safety at work on a signboard, a colour, an illuminated sign or
acoustic signal, a verbal communication or hand signal.

Safety signs are in five categories, namely warning, prohibition, mandatory and fire
equipment signs.

Warning signs

A warning sign is a type of sign which indicates a potential hazard, obstacle

or condition requiring special attention. Some are traffic signs that indicate
hazards on roads that may not be readily apparent to a driver.

These signs are mainly triangular in shape and are coloured in bright yellow with their
borders and symbols are black. They are placed in dangerous (hazardous) places to
instruct, advise and alert people of the hazard ahead.

1 1
Prohibition signs

These signs advise people of what is not allowed in a work place. The signs are
usually in oblong shape, carrying a message in a four sided shaped figure with a red
back ground and a white letter. They also have a pictorial logo on a circular whit back
ground with red boarders.

2
Mandatory signs

These signs come in either rectangular or square shape. They have blue and white
symbols and backgrounds with white text. These signs warn and inform people of
what action must be carried out to provide a safer working place.

3
Fire equipment signs

These signs come in all shapes and sizes. These sigs have a red back ground with
white texts and symbols and generally positioned near the firefighting equipment.
Sometimes arrows are used to show the direction to the firefighting equipment.

4
Safety condition or location signs

These signs are rectangular or square are shape, painted in green with white
illustration and text. The symbolize the location of safe conditions or place in care of
and emergency.

1.3 Important health and safety officers

A health and safety office is responsible for monitoring and assessing hazardous and
unsafe situations and developing measures to assure personal safety.Listed below are
the important healthy and safety officers

1.3.1. Safety representative

A safety representative officer is appointed by a trade union movement that is

recognised in a workshop to represent an employee of that respective workplace
facing prosecution under the health and safety act. Below are the main roles of this
officer:

 Represent employees in discussions with the employers on health and safety

matters

5
  Investigate accidents and hazards in work places
 Looking into complains by employees
 Attend safety committees on behalf of employees
 Inspect workplaces to ensure health and safety of employees

1.3.2Roles of health and safety executive inspectors

Health and safety executive inspectors are appointed by regulatory bodies. Their main
roles are stated below:

1. Enforcement of rules and regulations in relation to health and safety

2. Act a mediator between the safety inspector appointed by a larger company
and the safety representatives from a trade union
3. Monitor safety performance in a workshop
4. Ensure that newly acquired machinery and equipment meet the standards
5. Advice employers and employees on health and safety matters
6. Investigate accidents accident and hazardous incidents
7. Prosecute employer or employee who breaks the provision of health and safety
acts
Note that this officer can enter you work place at anytime (day or night) get
any equipment for testing, take photographs videos, ask work place to be left
undisturbed, etc
1.3.3Environmental health officer(EHO)

An EHO’s main duties are to protect the general public and contraction site workers
from environmental hazards. Construction site sometime produce hazards like dust,
smoke, fumes, and industrial noise. The EHO will look into any objection (complaint)
made by a member of public of the public concerning this type of activity. Advice is
given on how to carry out works without affecting others.

Other duties of the EHO include:

1. Hygiene and safety issues

2. Food poisoning both at home and workplaces
3. Infectious diseases within the workplace

6
 4. Accident investigation
5. Keeping record and written reports

Powers of an EHO

1. Inspection of construction sites

2. Full investigation into misconduct within a site
3. Issue warning notices on offending companies and individuals
4. Take legal proceedings

1.4. Accidents.

An accident, also known as an unintentional injury, is an undesirable,

incidental, and an unplanned event that could have been prevented
had circumstances leading up to the accident been recognized, and acted
upon, prior to its occurrence. Most scientists who study unintentional injury
avoid using the term "accident" and focus on factors that increase risk of
severe injury and that reduce injury incidence and severity

The most common causes of accidents according to research include

1. Carelessness – never be destructed work at work and disregard

2. Lack of knowledge- make sure employees are qualified for the task they are
about to carry out
3. Human limitations-
4. Fatigue and listlessness- make sure employees get enough rest
5. Horse play- even when bored in the work place never start plays that can result
in accidents
6. Drug taking and drinking alcohol
7. Faulty equipment
8. Poorly ventilated work place
9. Overcrowded work place
10. Poor lighting in workplaces

2. TRAINING,INSTRUCTING AND SUPERVISING OF EMPLOYEES.

Employers are required by law to inform, train, instruct and supervise their employees
if it’s necessary. This is to ensure health and safety of employees during working

7
hours in full, All employees including older and well established workers, graduates
and school leaver, and newly recruited have to be subjected to training, instruction
and supervision.

2.1.The Various trainings offer to employees

2.1.1 Induction training: is a form of introduction for new employees in order to

enable them to do their work in a new profession or job role.

2.1.2 Supervisor&management training:this is for people in management and

supervisors to improve their skills that can help the organization to operate to
smoothly.

2.1.3 Familisation training:provides information about new electrical equipment,

improvement and modifications in healthy and safety policies

2.1.4 Specific electrical risk training: provide information about risks associated
with working near exposed live part and in confined spaces.

2.1.5 Refresher training: provide information periodically to ensure that workers

continue to perform their duties safely and accordingly.

2.1.6 Emergency procedures training: Provide information to ensure workers know

what to do in event of emergency.

2.1.7First aid training:provide information to ensure appropriate procedures are

followed for administering first aid

NB: amount of training will be determined by the following:

-Nature of the workplace risks

-Degree of associated risks

-Complexity of work, such as operating procedures and equipment

-Other risk treatment measures being implemented

-Qualifications and experience of workers

3.ELECTRIC HAZARDS IN A WORKSHOP AND HOW TO MINIMISE

8
THEIR RISK

Electricity is essential in our daily activities. It is used in Industries (e.g. mines,

construction and manufacturing), for agricultural purposes, for domestic and other
activities.Electricity can be used for lighting, run processing machines, for irrigation,
for cooking (heating), space cooling , run electronic devices, for security systems,
refrigeration, water heating, and ventilation.

Although electricity is useful, if not well manage it can prove to be hazardous

to human beings and the environment.

In electrical installations, risk of injury from electricity may result from:

• shock currents, step and touch potential

• excessive temperatures likely to cause burns, fires and other injurious effects

• ignition of a potentially explosive atmosphere

• undervoltages, overvoltages and electromagnetic disturbances likely to cause or

result in injury or damage

• mechanical movement of electrically actuated equipment,

• power supply interruptions and/or interruption of safety services

• arcing or burning, likely to cause blinding effects, excessive pressure and/or toxic
gases.

3.1 Electric shock

Electric shock refers to current passing through the living body resulting in
injuries or death. This normally occurs when a person becomes part of an
electric circuit by having contact with live electrical parts.
The effects of electric shock are mainly a function of the magnitude of current that
flows through the body. Other factors such as the voltage, type of current (AC or DC),
body resistance (determined by the wetness condition of the body), the duration of
current passing through the body and the part of the body through which the
current passes, will determine the severity of the shock.

9
 Current as low as 50 mA can cause serious injuries or even death. As little as
100 mA of current can cause heart fibrillation when the current is passing
through the heart.  Electric shock can also cause rapid involuntary muscular
contraction which leads to other hazards such as falling when a person is
bounced away from a source of electric shock.
Protection against electric shock

1. Basic protection (protection against direct contact)

NOTE: For low voltage installations, systems and equipment, 'basic protection'
generally corresponds to protection against 'direct contact'.

Persons and livestock shall be protected against dangers that may arise from contact
with live parts of the installation.

This protection can be achieved by one of the following methods:

(i) Preventing a current from passing through the body of any person or any livestock

(ii) Limiting the current which can pass through a body to a non-hazardous value.

2. Fault protection (protection against indirect contact)

NOTE: For low voltage installations, systems and equipment, 'fault protection'
generally corresponds to protection against 'indirect contact', mainly with regard to
failure of basic insulation.

Persons and livestock shall be protected against dangers that may arise from contact
with exposed-conductive-parts during a fault.

This protection can be achieved by one of the following methods:

2. Preventing a current resulting from a fault from passing through the body of any
person or any livestock

2. Limiting the magnitude of a current resulting from a fault, which can pass
through a body, to a non- hazardous value

2. Limiting the duration of a current resulting from a fault, which can pass through a
body, to a non-hazardous time period.

10
In connection with fault protection, the application of the method of protective
equipotential bonding is one of the important principles for safety.

3.2Thermal effects of current

When electric current passes through a conductor, it encounters the resistance of the
conductor. This makes some of the electric energy to be converted in to heat. The
come there current the more the heat generated. When designing and electrical
installation, it’s important to select proper conductor size so that the heat generated
during normal operation of the equipment does to cause excessive heating of the
conductor, as this may melt the conductor or its insulation and led to short
circuit.Short circuits can be accompanied by sparks and arcing which may ignite
flammable material around. Also high voltage may cause to current flow through the
air from one conductive surface to another if the voltage is great enough and
conditions are right. This is also known as arcing and can start a fire. Current can also
cause equipment to heat up so that when a person or livestock get in contact with it
may be burnt.

Protection against thermal effects

1 The electrical installation shall be so arranged that the risk of ignition of

flammable materials due to high temperature or electric arc is minimized. In
addition, during normal operation of the electrical equipment, there shall be
minimal risk of burns to persons or livestock.
2 Persons, livestock, fixed equipment and fixed materials adjacent to electrical
equipment shall be protected against harmful effects of heat or thermal
radiation emitted by electrical equipment, and in particular the following:

(i) Combustion, ignition, or degradation of materials

(ii) Risk of bums

(iii) Impairment of the safe function of installed equipment. Electrical equipment shall
not present a fire hazard to adjacent materials.

11
3.3 Over current and fault currents

Overcurrent is any current load in excess of the safety rating of equipment or the
ampacity of a conductor. Overcurrent may result from an overload, a short circuit, or
a ground fault. Overcurrent does not always cause a fire. The magnitude and direction
of the overcurrent must be sufficient to heat the wire to a temperature that ignites
surrounding combustibles. Sustained overcurrents that can cause damage or fire
(called overload) should trip the fuse or breaker, opening the circuit and stopping the
flow and heating. However, items such as an extension cord can reduce the conductor
size between the load and the circuit protection and can overheat the wire without
tripping the protection.

In an electric power system, a fault or fault current is any abnormal electric current.

For example, a short circuit is a fault in which current bypasses the normal load. An
open-circuit fault occurs if a circuit is interrupted by some failure.

• Protection against overcurrent

Persons and livestock shall be protected against injury, and property shall be protected
against damage, due to excessive temperatures or electromechanical stresses caused
by any overcurrents likely to arise in live conductors.

NOTE: Protection can be achieved by limiting the overcurrent to a safe value and/or
duration.

• Protection against fault current

Conductors other than live conductors, and any other parts intended to carry a fault
current, shall be capable of carrying that current without attaining an excessive
temperature. Electrical equipment, including conductors, shall be provided with
mechanical protection against electromechanical stresses of fault currents as
necessary to prevent injury or damage to persons, livestock or property.

3.4Electromagnetic disturbances

Electromagnetic interference (EMI), also called radio-frequency interference (RFI)

when in the radio frequency spectrum, is a disturbance generated by an external
source that affects an electrical circuit by electromagnetic induction, electrostatic

12
coupling, or conduction.

• Protection against voltage disturbances and measures against

electromagnetic disturbances

Persons and livestock shall be protected against injury, and property shall be protected
against any harmful effects, as a consequence of a fault between live parts of circuits
supplied at different voltages. Equipment can be protected against voltage
disturbances by using over and under voltage protection.

Persons and livestock shall be protected against injury, and property shall be protected
against damage, as a consequence of overvoltages such as those originating from
atmospheric events or from switching,.

NOTE: For protection against lightning strikes, surge/ lightning arrestors can be used

Persons and livestock shall be protected against injury, and property shall be protected
against damage, as a consequence of under voltage and any subsequent voltage
recovery, in accordance with Section 445 of the BS 7671.

The installation shall have an adequate level of immunity against electromagnetic

disturbances so as to function correctly in the specified environment, in accordance
with Section 444 (BS 7671). The installation design shall take into consideration the
anticipated electromagnetic emissions, generated by the installation or the installed
equipment, which shall be suitable for the current-using equipment used with, or
connected to, the installation.

Measures to reduce EMI

The following measures shall be considered, where appropriate, in order to

reduce the effects of electromagnetic interference:
 Where screened signal or data cables are used, care should be taken to limit
the fault current from power systems flowing through the screens and cores of
signal cables, or data cables, which are earthed. Additional conductors may
be necessary, e.g. a bypass conductor for screen reinforcement,
 The use of surge protective devices and/or filters to improve electromagnetic
compatibility with regard to conducted electromagnetic phenomena for
electrical equipment sensitive to electromagnetic disturbances

13
  The installation of power cables (i.e. line, neutral and any protective earth
conductors) close together in order to minimize cable loop areas
 The separation of power and signal cables
 The installation of an equipotential bonding network, see Regulation 444.5. in
the BS 7671.

4.ELECTRICAL SUPPLY SYSTEMS:

In the short span of two, has become an indispensable part of modern day life. Our
work, leisure, healthcare, economy and livelihood depend on a constant supply of
electrical power. Electrical supply systems are integrated grids that produce and
distribute electrical energy around a given region, they may consist of the following,
transformers transmission lines, distribution lines and so on

4.1 Uninterruptable power supply [Ups] systems

In general the use of uninterrupted power supply systems derives from an

increasingly greater dependence on electrical energy and the need to protect
sophisticated equipment, data and processes that are critical for companies. Power
electronics is involved and focused to the design and development of static

14
uninterruptable power systems that alow for adequate energy saving and a lower
environment impact.

Classification of the systems

There are generally three types of systems:

4.1.1 OFF LINE

 The output is identical to the input when the main is on.

 The uninterruptable system attends only when there is no input voltage and
powers the load using the inverter.

4.1.2 LINE INTERACTIVE

 When the main supply is on, the input and output are separated by a filtering
and stabilization circuit.

[Automatic Voltage Regulator] AVR, but some of the disturbances found at the input
may be found on the output; when there is a power outage, the output is connected
to the inverter which in turn is powered by the batteries

15
4.1.3 ON LINE DOUBLE CONVERSION

The input is first rectified and then reconverted into AC with an inverter. This way,
the output voltage is totally independent from the input

4.2 Power generation

Power generation and energy are the back bone of every country to survive in this

16
world. Electricity generation is the process of generating electrical power from other
primary energy. The fundamental principles of electricity generation were
discovered during the 1820s and 1830s by British scientist Michael Faraday. His basic
technique or method is still used today: electricity is generated by the movement of
a loop of wire, or disc of copper between the poles of a magnet. Mankind has been
generating electricity on an industrial scale since 1881. The first power plants used
hydroelectric power and coal power. An alternator is usually used; it is an
electrochemical device that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy in the
form of alternating current. Most alternators use a rotating magnetic field with a
stationary armature but occasionally, a rotating armature is used with a stationary
magnetic field; or a linear alternator is used. The aim is to drive the rotor by any
method and techniques to produce power. Alternators produce electricity using the
same principle as DC generators, namely, when the magnetic field around a
conductor changes, a current is induced in the conductor. Typically, a rotating
magnet, called the rotor turns within a stationary set of conductors wound in coils
on an iron core, called the stator. The field cuts across the conductors, generating an
induced EMF (electromotive force), as the mechanical input causes the rotor to turn.
The rotating magnetic field induces an AC voltage in the stator windings, physically
offset so that the rotating magnetic field produces a three phase current, displaced
by one third of a period with respect to each other.

17
International technical sciences journal (ITSJ) june 2014 edition vol 1, No. 1

4.2.1 FUEL AND INPUT FOR POWER GENERATION

Petrol, diesel, HFO, uranium, coal, air, earth heat, sea water, waves, water, solar and
sunlight, natural gas, biogas, etc.

Key point to select a right method of power generation

You have to select that method of power generation, when fuel and input will be
local and not imported. That method will be cheap and excellent but based on your
requirement of power and quality of power for industrial and domestic utilization.
Solar power and wind power is not suitable for heavy load equipment and
machinery. All methods have their own characteristics , quality and quantity, merit
and demerits, fuel reliability and continuous availability, economical and utilization.
The coal method is used maximum in the world for producing electricity in this time.

Most important and reliable methods

There are very important, quality, high quantity, economical, industrial power
insensitivity for heavy load and suitable methods of power generation, that is, hydro
electric power, coal power, nuclear power, thermal power which are dependent
upon the characteristic, economy and natural resources of every country. Hydro and
coal power is very suitable, reliable and economical for many countries in the world.

According to the WORLD POWER GENERATION MACHINERY AND

EQUIPMENT

18
BRAND: FG Wilson, AKSA- Turkey, Listterpetter-uk, Cummins-
UK, VISA-Italy, Ottomotor- Mexico, GE-USA, GE-Jenbacher-Gas –Austria,
Siemens- Germany, Caterpillar, Waukesha, Wartsila, Weichai & Sida,
Dongfong-China. Mitsubishi-Japan, Jinko Solar, Hitachi, Toshiba, Man &
Duetz-Germany, Toshiba-Japan etc.
I.C.Engine:- Weichai, Cummins, John Deere, Perkins, Volvo,
Listerpitter, Chinese, Yuchai & Sida , MAN, Duetz etc,
Alternator :- Stamford, Leroy Somer, MECC, Sincro etc.
Factors Consider: - Economically, Quantity & quality, fuel-365,
application, Capital investment etc, the pie below shows the common variable
energy sources that are used around the globe.

4.3 Three phase supply system Earthing

Power supply systems differ on the basis of

 Current type: AC , DC ,3(N)AC

 The type and number of live conductors in the system: L1, L2, L3, N resp. L+,
L-

The type of system earthing must be selected carefully as it essentially determines

19
the behavior and properties of the supply system. It is also a contributing factor to
issues associated with system usage, such as

 Supply reliability and or availability of power

 Installation outlay
 Maintenance, downtimes
 Electromagnetic compatibility

The three types of system earthing namely the TT, TN-S, TN-C-S are
explained further below.
First letter - Relationship of the power system to Earth:

 T = direct connection of one point to Earth;

 I = all live parts isolated from Earth, or one point connected to Earth through a
high impedance.
Second letter - Relationship of the exposed-conductive-parts of the installation
to Earth:
 T = direct electrical connection of exposed-conductive-parts to Earth,
independently of the earthing of any point of the power system;
 N = direct electrical connection of the exposed-conductive-parts to the earthed
point of the power system (in a.c. systems, the earthed point of the power
system is normally the neutral point or, if a neutral point is not available, a line
conductor).
Subsequent letter(s) (if any) - Arrangement of neutral and protective
conductors:

 S = protective function provided by a conductor separate from the neutral

conductor or from the earthed line (or, in a.c. systems, earthed phase)
conductor.
 С = neutral and protective functions combined in a single conductor (PEN
conductor)

4.3.1 TN systems Single-Source systems

20
TN systems have one point directly earthed at the source, the exposed conductive
parts of the installation(s) being connected to that point by protective conductors.
Two types of TN systems are considered according to the arrangement of neutral
and protective conductors as follows:

Figure 3.3.1 TN systems

Note:

 There are separate neutral and protective conductors throughout the

system.
 The protective conductor (PC) is the metallic covering of the cable supplying
the installation or a separate conductor.
 All exposed conductive parts of an installation are connected to this
protective conductor via the main earthing terminal of the installation.

4.3.2 TN –C-S (PME) system

Figure 3.3.2 TN-C-S (PME) system

21
  Neutral and protective functions combined in a single conductor (PEN) in a
part of the system.
 The usual form of a TN-C-S system is as shown, where the supply is TN-C and
the arrangement in the installations is TN-S. This type of distribution is known
also as protective multiple earthing (PME).
 The supply system PEN conductor is earthed at two or more points and an
earth electrode may be necessary at or near a consumer's installation.
 All exposed-conductive-parts of an installation are connected to the PEN
conductor via the main earthing terminal and the neutral terminal, these
terminals being linked together.

4.3.3 TT Single-source system

A TT system has only one point directly earthed at the source, the exposed-
conductive-parts of the
installation(s) being connected to earth electrodes electrically independent of the earth
electrode of the supply system (the source earth).

Fig 4.4.3- TT system

22
23
5.ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEM OF ZAMBIA
Zambia operates at a very high competitive (liberalized) electricity market,comprised
of ZESCO and other IPP(independent power producers). Mining operations consume
nearly 60% of its electricity.It is a member of the southern Africa power pool.
ZESCO(zambia electricity supply company) is a parastatal vertically-integrated utility
established in 1970 by the electricity act.It is the dominant player in the electricity
market and generates about 2 203MW from mostly hydro power
stations.Transmission is through a 4 785km high voltage transmissions, the
interconnections are to the DRC,Zimbabwe,South Africa,Namibia;low-voltage
interconnections are to Botswana and Tanzania.The distribution voltages are 66,33
and 11V.
Copperbelt energy corporation(CEC) is an IPP which operates transmission and
distribution lines in copperbelt province.It buys its electricity from ZESCO but has a
backup generation of 80MW of natural gas-fired.
Southern Africa power Pool(SAPP) was formed in 1995 under the african
development community.The members are angola, namibia,south africa,

24
drc,zimbabwe, zambia,malawi mozambigue, swaziland, lesotho,botswana.SAPP
facilitates the exchange of power between member countries and operates competitive
markets.
Energy Regulation Board was created in 1990s following the liberalization of energy
markets under the energy regulation act of 1995.It is the national regulation board of
zambia which is concerned with electricity and other energy and operates
autonomously.It reviews and approve electricity tariffs and gives licenses to power
producers.
The major hydro power plants in zambia are Kafue gorge which generates about
990MW,Kariba North Bank generates 760MW,Kariba North Bank Extention giving
360MW and Victoria Falls producing about 108MWThe total hydro potential is
estimated at 6,000MW.Other power stations are Maamba coal mine generating about
300MW.
Lake Kariba North
It is the worlds largest man-made reservoir with a volume at maximum level 180
billion cubic meters.Volume at minimumoperation level is 115 billion cubic
meters.Live capacity of 65 billion cubic meters.The minimum operating level is 4748
meters above sea level.
Lake Kariba North Extension
It is located at lake Kariba and uses the same dam.It has two turbines designed as
peaking generators,used only 3.5 hours per day.
Kafue Gorge
The location is upstream of the confluence of kafue and zambezi rivers.It is the largest
power station in zambia and was constructed in 1973.
Maamba Coal Mine
This is a 300MW coal-fired power plant in southern province at site of coal mine. It
was completed in early 2016 and their Energy is sold to ZESCO.
6.KNOWLEDE OF ELECTRICAL WIRING

6.1 Wiring and Colour Codes

Wiring

Electrical wiring is an electrical installation of cabling and associated with devices

such as switches, breakers, meters, sockets, distribution box circuit breakers insulated

25
conductors and light fittings etc, used in buildings or other structures.
Wiring is subject to safety standards for design and installation. Allowable wire cable
types and cables sizes are specified according to the circuit operating voltage and
electric current capability with further restrictions on the environmental conditions
such as ambient temperature range, moisture levels and exposure to sunlight and
chemicals.
Colour Codes
To enable wires to be easily and safely identical all common wiring safety codes
mandates a colour scheme for the insulation on power conductors. In a typical
electrical code, some colour coding is mandatory while some maybe of optional.
Wiring safety codes vary by locality, country or region. In Zambia Red or Brown is
used for the live wire, black or blue is mostly used for neutral wire and yellow is
mostly used for earth (ground) wire.

6.2 Types of Electrical Installation and their recommended cable types

Electrical Installation
This is an assembly of components that allows you to rely and safely use electrical
power around your home.
The table below shows the main types of electrical installation and their general

26
requirements

Type of installation Suggested cable to use Recommended carrier

Boil House Mineral insulated, fire –tuff, Cable try ( steel)

FP200/LSOH, any other
fire-resistance cable

House PVC insulated and sheathed Laid directly or mini-

cables trunking

Fuel refinery PVC insulated, double steel Steel cable tray and ladder
wire armoured with or
without a lead bedding
sheath

Farm Stranded single PVC PVC conduit and accessories

insulated cables

Industry PVC insulated single cables, Steel conduit, trunking and

MI cables, steel wire cable tray and cable ladder
armoured cables and
specialised cables

Commercial Single PVC insulated All type of cable carriers

cables, fire resistance
cabled, steel wire armoured
and MI cables where
necessary

Data transmission Braided сщь PVC trunking and mini

trunking, at times laid in
screened PVCutrunking and
modular flush data boxes

6.3 Tools and components required for house wiring

Wiring Materials and Devices needed for house wiring

27
28
Choosing of cables for electrical installations

It’s a vital task to select the correct type of cable for a particular wiring task. The
choice of cable to be used in influences by the following tasks:

29
  Type of installation i.e. industrial commercial domestic, data transmission etc.
 Environment (outside, inside, underground, overhead, on/ under water etc
 Fauna ( type of animals) in surrounding areas, domestic animals, wild animals
 Flora (type of vegetation) in surrounding areas, plants, shrubs, trees and root
formation
 Ambient Temperature, hot, cold, moderate
 Applied voltage- low, high, extra-high, ultra-high
 Current ratings of equipment to be connected- milliamps, amps, kilo-amps
 Applications- motor cir
 cuits, data transmission, lighting, power transmission and distribution
 Wetness factor- saturated, wet, moist or humid
 Trench depth- for underground cables
 Explosive situation factors, gas, battery room, fuel, oil, etc

7.THERMAL OVERLOAD PROTECTION,CONDUCTOR SIZE

SELECTION,EARTHING AND EQUIPOTENT BONDING

7.1Thermal overload protecting

Thermal overload relays are economic electromechanical
protection devices for the main circuit. They offer reliable protection for
motors in the event of overload or phase failure. The thermal overload
relay can make up a compact starting solution together with contactors.

Main benefits
.Reliable protection for motors
.Easy to create starters
.Single mounting kits and wire reset for remote control available for
specific applications.
Main features
 Trip class 10
 Adjustable current setting ranges
 Overload protection with phase loss sensitivity
 Temperature compensation up to +60°C
 Automatic or manual reset, sealable

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 Stop and test function.

7.2Conductor size selection

This is also regarded as American Wire Guage Cable(AWG). It is the standardized
system for diameters of round ,solids,nonferrous,electricity conducting wire.The
larger the number of the conductor cable,the smaller the physical size of the wire. The
smallest cable size is 40 and the largest is 0000(4/0)AWG general rules of thumb-for
every 6 gauge decrease,the wire diameter doubles and for every 3 gauge decrease,the
cross sectional area doubles.NOTE-W&M Wire Gauge,US Steel Wire Gauge and
Music Wire Gauge are different.

Table 1:American Wire Gauge(AWG)Cable/Conductor Sizes and Properties

AWG Diamete Diamete Area Resistance Resistance Max Max

r r [mm2 [Ohms/ [ohms/ current frequency(for
[inches] [mm] ] 1000ft] area] [amperes 100% skin
] depth)
[Hz]
0000(4/0 0.46 11.684 107 0.049 0.16072 302 125
)
000(3/0) 0.4096 10.4038 85 0.0618 0.202704 239 160
4
00(2/0) 0.3648 9.26592 67.4 0.0779 0.255512 190 200
0(1/0) 0.3249 8.25246 53.5 0.0983 0.322424 150 250
1 0.2893 7.34822 42.4 0.1239 0.406392 119 325
2 0.2576 6.54304 33.6 0.1563 0.512664 94 410
3 0.2294 5.82676 26.7 0.197 0.64616 75 500
4 0.2043 5.18922 21.2 0.2485 0.81508 60 650

NOTE:

The above table shows some of the sizes of the capacitors sizes and their frequency.

Diameter Notes ; A milli is a unit of length equal to 0.001 inch(a’’milli-inch’’ or a

‘’thousandth of one inch’’) I.e 1mil=0.001

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Resistance Notes; The resistance noted in the table above is for copper wire
conductor.For a given current,you can use the noted resistance and apply Ohms Law
to calculate the voltage drop across the conductor.

7.4.Earthing and Equipotent bonding

 Equipotential bonding involves joining together metalwork that is or may

be earthed so that it is at the same potential (i.e., voltage) everywhere. Such is
commonly used under transformer banks by power companies and under large
computer installations.

Earthing of Electrical Installation

Each circuit requires an earth conductor to accompany (but kept separate from) the
line and neutral conductors throughout the distribution. Where the distribution is in
the form of a ring, the earth connection must also complete the ring.

The bare tails of earth conductors must be insulated with green/yellow sleeving from
the exit from the cable sheath to the earth terminal.

All metal boxes should be connected to the earth; either through a short tail covered
with green/yellow sleeving to the socket earth terminal or directly by the earth
conductor for a switch box.

Equi-potential Bonding

Equipotential bonding is essentially am electrical connection maintaining various

exposed conductive parts and extraneous conductive parts at substantially the same
potential by bonding, such as that, under fault conditions, the difference in potential
between simultaneously accessible exposed and extraneous conductive parts will
not cause electric shock. There are two aspects to equipotential bonding: the main
bonding where services enter the building and supplementary bonding within
rooms, particularly kitchens and bathrooms.

As mentioned elsewhere, a fault current flowing in the earth wiring will cause the
voltage on that wiring to rise relative to true earth potential. This could cause a

32
shock to someone touching, for instance, the case of a faulty washing machine and a
water tap at the same time. In order to minimise this risk, an 'equi-potential zone' is
created by connecting the services to the main earthing point. Such services are:

 Water Pipes

 Gas Pipes

 Oil Pipes

 Central Heating

 Metallic Ventilation Trunking

 Exposed Parts of Building Structure

 Lightning Conductor

 Any other Metallic Service

The equi-potential bonding reduces the voltage difference which could exist
between the metalwork of these services if an earth fault occurred to any one of
them. It does not necessarily reduce the voltage to true earth. For this reason, metal
window frames or patio doors should not be included in the bonding system - it
could lead, for instance, to a window cleaner receiving a shock if an earth fault
occurred inside the building.

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The equi-potential bonding connections for incoming services should be made close
to where the service enters the building on the consumer's side of the meter, stop
cock etc. It is convenient to use purpose-made bonding clips (obtainable from most
d-i-y stores) which include a label "SAFETY ELECTRICAL CONNECTION - DO NOT
REMOVE". The connections must, of course, be made to metal pipes - not plastic.
The bonding conductors back to the main earthing block should be 6 sq mm
minimum with green/yellow insulation (but see 'PME.' if applicable).

Bathrooms require special attention: The aim is to create a local equi-potential zone,
so all extraneous metalwork should be bonded together. This could include:

 Hot & Cold water pipes to sink, bath, shower

 Waste pipes (metal)

 Central heating pipes, radiator, towel rail

 Electric towel rail, radiant or convector heater

Shaver sockets incorporate special isolating transformers which provide an earth-

free output. The primary (input) side requires an earth which is connected internally
to the transformer core.

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7.5Bonding Conductors
Bonding plays a crucial role in maintaining continuity of the equipment grounding
path. A clear path to ground allows a prompt response of the protective devices,
located upstream of the fault. Protective bonding conductors are called for by the
international electrotechnical commission (IEC) Standards as a specific safety
requirement. Through the years, they have been assisting in the proliferation of
jumpers used both in equipment and mere metal parts. Their presence, in some cases,
is quite useless and adds extra cost to the customer. In this paper, introducing
concepts, as operative tools, like exposed and extraneous conductive parts, as used in
IEC Standards, it will be substantiated that protective bonding conductors, in certain
cases, have even resulted in lowering the aforementioned safety requirement,
exposing users to additional risk of electric shock

8.ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS AND COMPONENTS

There are various basic electrical and electronic systems and components which are
commonly found in different circuits of peripherals.

Electrical electronic components are classified into two;

(I)passive components

(ii)active components

Active components are nothing but the components that supply and control energy.
Passive components can be defined as the components that respond to the flow of
electrical energy and can dissipates or store energy.

8.1.Resistors

8.11.A resistor is an electrical component that restricts the flow of current in the
circuit. When current flows through the resistor, the resistor absorbs the electrical
energy and degenerates it in the form of heat.

8.12.There are four factors that affect the resistance of a conductor and they include:

(i)Material from what the conductor is made of e.g. copper, aluminium, silver, bronze

(ii)The electric conductivity of a conductor is dependent on the size of its atoms and

35
the number of free valence electron available in its out shell. Silver is one of the best
conductors of electricity followed by copper and then aluminium. These materials
have large atoms and just one loosely held electron in the out shell. Copper and
aluminium are the most used as silver is very expensive

(iii)The cross-section area of the conductor

The resistance of a conductor is inversely proportional to its cross section area. A 16

mm2 copper cable has less resistance (allows more current to flow easily) compared to
1mm2 copper cable.

(iv)Temperature of the conductor

The temperature of a conductor must be taken into account when calculating the
expected change in resistance due to extreme temperature changes. Most conductors
will have their resistance increase when their temperatures increase, but some of them
have what is known as the negative coefficient of resistance, these materials are used
in fabrication of electronic components, eg, silicon, Germanium, carbon.

Length of the conductor

Resistance of a conductor is direct proportional to its length.

8.2.0.Capacitor

8.2.1.A capacitor is a two terminal linear passive component which is made from two
conductive plates with an insulator between them.

8.2.2The main function of a capacitor is that it stores electrical energy when an

electric charge is forced onto its terminals from a power source.

The stored electrical charge is Q=CV

Where, “C” is the capacitive reactance and ‘V’ is the applied voltage.

8.2.3. It maintains the charge even after getting disconnected from the power
source.

8.2.4. In a timing circuit,a capacitor is used with a resistor and also can be used as a

36
filter to allow the AC signals and block the DC signals.

8.2.5.When a DC current is applied across a capacitor, a positive (+) and negative (-)
charge builds on a set of terminals. The charge stays until the capacitor is discharged.

2.6When an AC current is applied across a capacitor, a positive and negative charge

forms on a set of plates during the part of the cycle when the voltage is positive.
When the voltage goes negative (-) in the second half of the cycle, then the capacitor
releases before charged current, and then charges the opposite way.

8.3.0 Diodes

8.3.1.A diode is a device, which is made from semiconductor material that allows
current to flow in one direction; it blocks the current which tries to go against the
flow in a wire.

8.3.2.Diodes are often used in many electronic circuits that convert AC to DC.

8.3.3.A LED is the alternative of the diode, When a current is applied to a LED, it
emits light at a particular freqTransistors

8.3.4. LEDs are used in numerous applications like keyboards, hard disks, TV remote
controls, and these devices are very useful as status indicators in computers as well
as battery-operated electronics Transistors.

8.53.5.Colours of LEDs

Red, Orange, Amber, Yellow, Green, Blue, and White

Blue & White are more expensive than other colours

Colour of an LEDs is determined by semiconductor material

8.3.5.Tri-LEDs:

-Most popular tri-LED have red and green

37
Bi-colour LEDs:

Bi-colour LED has two LEDs wired in inverse parallel

one forwards, one backwards

combined in one package with two leads.

Only one of the LEDs can be lit at one time

they are less useful than the tri-colour LEDs

8.4.0.Integrated Circuit

8.4.1.The short form of an integrated circuit is IC and sometimes it is also called as

microchip.

8.4.2.An Integrated circuit is a semiconductor device, where loads of resistors,

capacitors, and transistors are fabricated.

8.4.3 It can function as an oscillator, microprocessor, amplifier, and timer. An IC is

categorized as either linear or nonlinear depending on its application.Linear ICs or
analog integrated circuits have continuously variable O/P and that depends on the
level of i/p signal.

8.4.4.These linear ICs are used as audio frequency and radio frequency amplifiers.

8.4.5.Digital ICs operate at only a few defined states, rather than over a continuous
range of signal amplitudes.

8.4.6. The applications of integrated circuits include computers, modems, computer

networks and frequency counters.

8.4.7.The basic structure of digital integrated circuits is logic gates, which work with
binary data.

8. 5.0 Transistor.

8.5.1.The Transistor is an electronic device, which consists of three terminals, made

of semiconductor material which controls the flow of voltage or current and acts as a
switch for electronic signals.

38
8.5.2 There are two types of transistors PNP and NPN, most circuits tend to use NPN
transistor.

8.5.3Transistors are designed in different shapes and the three terminals of the
transistor namely, base (B), emitter (E) and collector(C).

8.5.4.base terminal is responsible for activating the transistor, emitter terminal is the
negative lead and collector terminal is the positive lead.

8.6Lamps

8.6.1Incandescent bulbs generate both light and heat with an electrified

filament, usually made from tungsten.

8.6.2.Originally, incandescent filaments functioned within a partial vacuum,

but modern incandescent bulbs contain various inert gasses, such as nitrogen
or argon, which help extend the life of the filament.

8.6.3.A typical incandescent bulb yields a yellowish or yellowish-white light

and a fair amount of heat. Due to the relatively high level of energy lost as
heat, incandescent lamps have low energy efficiency; they are, however, still
widely used in homes.

8.6.4.Halogen bulbs are a specialized type of incandescent filled with a

halogen gas, which allows them to function at higher operating temperatures.

8.6.5.Fluorescent lamps use the interaction of electricity, mercury vapor,

argon gas (argon-neon is also used), and phosphor to create light.

8.6.7 These lamps generate far less heat than incandescent bulbs and
produce a bare, white light. They are also far more efficient at lighting than
incandescent bulbs, as they generate only a small fraction of the heat;
fluorescents can use less that 25% of the electricity of an incandescent to
produce the same amount of light, and they have a far longer lifespan.

8.6.8. fluorescent bulbs produce illumination through extremely fast light

pulses rather than constant light, which can lead to problems in certain

39
applications.

8.6.9.Neon lamps produce light by directing electricity through a bulb

containing neon gas. These lamps can function at low voltages, making them
ideal for a variety of uses. By using different gases in a similar bulb or by
altering the color of the bulb, different colors of light can be produced

8.7.0Thermisters

8.7.1.A thermistor is a resistance thermometer, or a resistor whose resistance is

dependent on temperature.

8.7.1.The term is a combination of “thermal” and “resistor”. It is made of metallic

oxides, pressed into a bead, disk, or cylindrical shape and then encapsulated with an
impermeable material such as epoxy or glass.

8.7.2There are two types of thermistors: Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) and
Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC).

8.7.3.With an NTC thermistor, when the temperature increases, resistance decreases.

Conversely, when temperature decreases, resistance increases. This type of thermistor
is used the most.

8.7.4.A PTC thermistor works a little differently. When temperature increases, the
resistance increases, and when temperature decreases, resistance decreases. This type
of thermistor is generally used as a fuse.

8.7.5.Typically, a thermistor achieves high precision within a limited temperature

range of about 50ºC around the target temperature. This range is dependent on the
base resistance.

8.8Photocells

8.8.1Photocells act as light sensors. Unlike infrared sensors that are good for line
followers or detecting the presense of an object, photocells are good when you just
want to detect light.

40
8.8.2 For example, you might want a sensor that detects when a flashlight is on, or
when the sun is out.

8.8.3Photocells are used in automatic night lights and in street lamps that turn
themselves on at night.

8.8.4.In operation, a photocell acts like a light sensitive resistor with a high resistance
when dark and a low resistance when in the light.

8.8.5. Photocell properties vary widely from model to model . You can test sensitivity
to light by measuring the photocell resistance as you subject it to light and dark.

8.8.6.When using with a Arduino, the photocell is wired up in series with a fixed
resistor so that the Arduino can read its output as a voltage.

8.9.0.Photodiode

8.9.1.A photodiode is a p-n junction or pin semiconductor device that consumes light
energy to generate electric current.

8.9.2.It is also sometimes referred as photo-detector, photo-sensor, or light

detector.

8.9.3.Photodiodes are specially designed to operate in reverse bias condition.

Reverse bias means that the p-side of the photodiode is connected to the negative
terminal of the battery and n-side is connected to the positive terminal of the
battery.

8.9.4.Photodiode is very sensitive to light so when light or photons falls on the

photodiode it easily converts light into electric current. Solar cell is also known as
large area photodiode because it converts solar energy or light energy into electric
energy. However, solar cell works only at bright light.

8.9.5 in photodiodes, both voltage and light are used as energy source to generate
electric current

8.9.6.The working operation of all types of photodiodes is same. Different types of

photodiodes are developed based on specific application. For example, PIN

41
photodiodes are developed to increase the response speed. PIN photodiodes are
used where high response speed is needed.

8.9.7.The different types of photodiodes are;

PN junction photodiode

PIN photodiode

Avalanche photodiode

Among all the three photodiodes, PN junction and PIN photodiodes are most widely
used.

8.10.Infrared source

8.10.1.Infrared radiation ( IR ), sometimes called infrared light , is electromagnetic

radiation (EMR) with longer

wavelengths than those of visible light , and is therefore generally invisible to the
human eye, although IR at wavelengths up to 1050 nanometers (nm)s from specially
pulsed lasers can be seen by humans under certain conditions.

8.10.2.An infrared sensor is an electronic instrument that is used to sense certain

characteristics of its surroundings. It does this by either emitting or detecting
infrared radiation.

8.10.3 Infrared sensors are also capable of measuring the heat being emitted by an
object and detecting motion.

8.10.4Infrared technology is found not just in industry, but also in every-day

life. Televisions, for example, use an infrared detector to interpret the signals
sent from a remote control.

8.10.5.Passive Infrared sensors are used for motion detection systems, and
LDR sensors are used for outdoor lighting systems. The key benefits of
infrared sensors include their low power requirements, their simple circuitry

42
and their portable features.

8.11.0.Sensors

11.1.A sensor is a device that detects and responds to some type of input from the
physical environment.

11.2.The specific input could be light, heat, motion, moisture, pressure, or any one of
a great number of other environmental phenomena.

11.3The output is generally a signal that is converted to human-readable display at

the sensor location or transmitted electronically over a network for reading or
further processing.

11.4.Here are a few examples of the many different types of sensors:

In a mercury-based glass thermometer, the input is temperature. The liquid

contained expands and contracts in response, causing the level to be higher or lower
on the marked gauge, which is human-readable.

11.5.An oxygen sensor in a car's emission control system detects the

gasoline/oxygen ratio, usually through a chemical reaction that generates a voltage.
A computer in the engine reads the voltage and, if the mixture is not optimal,
readjusts the balance.

8.11.6.Motion sensors in various systems including home security lights, automatic

doors and bathroom fixtures typically send out some type of energy, such as
microwaves ,

ultrasonic waves or light beams and detect when the flow of energy is interrupted by
something entering its path.

8.11.7.A photosensor detects the presence of visible light, infrared transmission (IR),
and/or ultraviolet (UV) energy.

8.12.0.Laser beam fibre optic links

43
8.12.1.A fiber-optic link (or fiber channel) is a part of an

optical fiber communications system which provides a data connection between two
points ( point-to-point connection ).

8.12.2.It essentially consists of a data transmitter, a transmission fiber (in some cases
with built-in fiber amplifiers ), and a receiver.

8.12.3.Even for very long transmission distances, extremely high data rates of many
Gigabit/s or even several Terabit/s can be achieved.

44