Handout Booklet Electronics

MODES TRAINING CENTER
HANDOUTS BOOKLET
YEAR – (2020-2021)
COURSE TITLE: - REPAIR AND TROUBLE SHOOTING OF

ELECTRONIC DEVICES, CONTROLLERS OF
UTILITY EQUIPMENT & INSTRUMENTATION
DEVICES.
COURSE DESCRIPTION
A Technical course which covers; Electrical and Electronics Maintenance,

Troubleshooting and repairing procedure on Electronic Devices & Apparatus,
Utility Equipment and Instrumentation Devices.
COURSE OBJECTIVE
This course is envisaged for enhancing the Technical skill level of Electronic
Maintenance Technicians in carrying out their duties in a more professional
and efficient way.
DURATION OF COURSE – 12 WEEKS
Prepared by – Engr. Shibu Kuriakose

Techn. John Angelo
INDEX
Sl. Unit No. Module No. Page
No. No.
1. Health and safety. Introduction to
Unit 1 Electronics. Basic formulas for Electronic
1
and Electrical computation. Tools and
Fundamentals of Instruments for assembly and repair.
1 Electrical safety. 2. Schematics diagrams and Symbols.
Electronics and Electrical Measuring Instruments.
Circuit Analysis. 11
Understanding Electronic and Electrical
components.
3. Batteries and DC circuits. DC Power
Unit 2 21
Supplies.
Fundamentals for 4. Transformers and AC circuits. Single-Phase
2 the Maintenance of 31
and Three-Phase system.
Electrical and
5. Electrical safety and protection of AC
Electronic systems. 41
Devices. AC Control equipment.
Unit 3
6. Repair and Maintenance of Variable
3 VFDs & Soft 51
Frequency Drives (VFD) and Soft Starters.
Starters.
7. Overview of Electrical & Electronics
61
Troubleshooting.
8. Repair, Maintenance and Troubleshooting
of Linear Power Supply, Variable Power 71
Unit 4 Supply and SMPS.
Repair, 9. Understanding, Repairing, Maintenance and
Maintenance and 81
Troubleshooting KARDEX Filing Cabinet.
Troubleshooting
10. Understanding, reading, Repairing and
4 procedures for
Troubleshooting Split and Window A/Cs 91
various Electrical,
Main Control PCB.
Electronics and
Mechatronics 11.Understanding, Repairing, Maintenance and
Equipment used in Troubleshooting Dosing pump (Diaphragm
101
MOD. pulse injection), Water Pump control panel,
Flow Meter and Telemetry System.
12.Understanding, Repair, Maintenance and
Troubleshooting Diesel Generator Control
111
Panel, AMF Panel Controllers, AVR,
Generator Battery Charger etc.
Unit No. 1:- Fundamentals of Electrical safety. Electronics and Circuit
Analysis.
Module No. 1: - Health and safety. Introduction to Electronics. Basic formulas
for Electronic and Electrical computation. Tools and
Instruments for assembly and repair.
Week No.1Day 1- Introduction to Health and Safety. Personal Protective
Equipment.
THEORY
Occupational Health and Safety
What is meant by occupational health and safety? We work in an industrial

environment where lot of risks can arise in our daily work life.
Occupational health should aim at: the promotion and maintenance of the highest
degree of physical, mental and social wellbeing of workers in all occupations; the
prevention amongst workers of departures from health caused by their working
conditions; the protection of workers in their employment from risks resulting from
factors adverse to health; the placing and maintenance of the worker in an
occupational environment adapted to his physiological and psychological
capabilities.
In other words, health and safety in the workplace is about promoting positive
wellbeing as well as preventing injury and illness.
In order to prevent and protect the work force from the work related risks and
accidents, a lot of steps have been taken by the stake holders, authorities and
organizations.
The main goal of safety and health programs is to prevent workplace injuries,
illnesses, and deaths, as well as the suffering and financial hardship these events
can cause for workers, their families, and employers.
Occupational health has been defined as ‘enabling people to undertake their

occupation in the way that causes least harm to their health’. Health means much
more: “a state of complete physical, mental and social wellbeing and not merely the
absence of disease or infirmity.”
The best reason for a business to look after the health of its employees and promote
their well-being is that it can enhance productivity and loyalty.
Page 1
People with health problems are more likely to be absent from work, less
productive when in work and more likely to leave.
In order to have a safe and healthy working environment at our work place many
standards have been formulated. One of them is OHSAS 18001, Occupational
Health and Safety Assessment Series (officially BS OHSAS 18001), is a British
Standard for occupational health and safety management systems.
Compliance with it enabled organizations to demonstrate that they had a system in

place for occupational health and safety. BSI cancelled BS OHSAS 18001 to adopt
ISO 45001 as BS ISO 45001.
ISO 45001 was published in March 2018 by the International Organization for
Standardization. Organizations that are certified to BS OHSAS 18001 can migrate
to ISO 45001 by March 2021 if they want to retain a recognized certification.
Prevention is better than cure.
Being working with Voltage ranges up to 440VAC, we need to take care from the
risk of getting electric shock from equipment on which we are working. So there
are a good number of Personal Protective Equipment kit is available in the market.
General purpose PPE Kit Electricians PPE Kit
We should always make sure that wherever we work, we should wear our PPE kit
according to the nature of work we are doing. For example, wear eye glasses and
gloves when we are handling battery and acid etc..
Page 2
Analysis.
Week No.1Day 2- Human safety while handling electrical equipment.
Equipment safety and precautions.
THEORY
Electricity in the work place.
Being an Electrical or Electronic Technician, we always have to handle electricity.
Places of work generally have power nominally supplied at 230 volt (single phase)
and 415 volt (3 phase) although some larger workplaces will receive electricity at a
higher supply voltage.
The main hazards with electricity are:
Contact with live parts causing shock and burns
Faults which could cause fires;
Fire or explosion, where electricity could be the source of ignition in a potentially

flammable or explosive atmosphere, e.g. in a spray paint booth.
The risk of injury from electricity is strongly linked to where and how it is used and
there is greater risk in wet and/or damp conditions.
It is the level of voltage the body is exposed to and the resistance to flow of
electrical current offered by the body that determines the impact of exposure to
electricity. The following factors determine the severity of the effect electric shock
has on your body:
 The level of voltage

 The amount of body resistance you have to the current flow
 The path the current takes through your body
 The length of time the current flows through your body
If a worker has come into contact with electricity the worker may not be able to
remove themselves from the electrical source.
Page 3
The human body is a good conductor of electricity. If you touch a person while they
are in contact with the electrical source, the electricity will flow through your body
causing electrical shock.
Firstly attempt to turn off the source of the electricity (disconnect). If the electrical
source cannot readily and safely be turned off, use a non-conducting object, such as
a fibreglass object or a wooden pole, to remove the person from the electrical
source.
Lock out / Tag out procedure (LOTO)
Lockout/ tag out is a specific set of procedures to safeguard employees from

unexpected switching on of machinery and equipment or the release of hazardous
energy during service or maintenance activities.
An effective lockout/tag out practice requires a designated employee turn off and
disconnect any machinery or equipment from its energy source(s) before doing any
required maintenance on the asset. This authorized employee(s) should either lock
or tag the energy-isolating device(s), preventing the unwanted release of hazardous
energy. Additionally, the employee(s) should take additional measures to ensure the
energy has been isolated effectively.
Tag out device is warning tag attached to energy-isolating devices to warn

employees not to turn on or re-energize the machine.
After all we should keep it mind that all these exercises are to be done for ourselves
and for our family. So it is our responsibility to adhere to PPE practices without any
compulsion. It is for our own safety!
Page 4
Analysis.
Week No.1Day 3- Introduction to Electronics. Fundamentals of Voltage, current
and resistance.
THEORY
Basic Electrical and Electronics concepts.
There are a number of basic concepts that form the foundations of today's
Electronics technology. Electrical current, voltage, resistance, capacitance, and
inductance are a few of the basic elements of Electrical and Electronics
Engineering.
Voltage.
Voltage is one of the fundamental parameters associated with any electrical or

electronic circuit.
The operating voltage of an item of equipment is very important - it is necessary to

connect electrical and electronic items to supplies of the correct voltage.
The voltage levels within a circuit give a key to its operation - if the incorrect
voltage is present, then it may give an indication of the reason for the malfunction.
For these and many reasons, electrical voltage is a key parameter and knowing what
the voltage is can be a key requirement in any circumstance.
Voltage can be considered as the pressure that forces the charged electrons to flow
in an electrical circuit. This flow of electrons is the electrical current that flows.
Voltage shown within a simple circuit

Page 5
If a positive potential is placed on one end of a conductor, then this will attract that
negative charges to it because unlike charges attract. The higher the potential
attracting the charges, the greater the attraction and the greater the current flow.
In essence, the voltage is the electrical pressure and it is measured in volts which
can be represented by the letter V.
Normally the letter V is used for volts in an equation like Ohm’s law, but
occasionally the letter E may be used - this stands for EMF or electro-motive force.
To gain a view of what voltage is and how it affects electrical and electronic
circuits, it is often useful as a basic analogy to think of water in a pipe, possibly
even the plumbing system in a house. A water tank is placed up high to provide
pressure (voltage) to force the water flow (current) through the pipes. The greater
the pressure, the higher the water flow.
Electrical Current.
An electric current is a flow of electric charge in a circuit. More specifically, the

electric current is the rate of charge flow past a given point in an electric circuit.
The charge can be negatively charged electrons or positive charge carriers including
protons, positive ions or holes.
One very important point to note about the electrons is that they are charged
particles - they carry a negative charge. If they move then an amount of charge
moves and this is called current.
Resistance R
What is resistance?
Resistance is the hindrance to the flow of electrons in material. While a potential

difference across the conductor encourages the flow of electrons, resistance
discourages it. The rate at which charge flows between two terminals is a
combination of these two factors.
In a simple circuit comprising of a battery or voltage source and a resistor, then

assuming the connecting wires have no resistance, then the higher the resistance the
less the current that will flow.
Page 6
Analysis.
Week No.1Day 4- Fundamentals of Power and Energy, Series and Parallel Circuit
Analysis. Ohm’s Law.
THEORY
In our previous classes we learned about Voltage, Current and Resistance. Now we
will see the relation between them.
Ohm's Law is one of the most fundamental and important laws governing electrical
and electronic circuits. It relates current, voltage and resistance for a linear device,
such that if two are known, the third can be calculated.
It is used for calculating the value of resistors required in circuits, and it can also be
used for determining the current flowing in a circuit where the voltage can be
measured easily across a known resistor, but more than this, Ohm's Law is used in a
vast number of calculations in all forms of electrical and electronic circuit.
Ohm's Law states that the current flowing in a circuit is directly proportional to the
applied potential difference and inversely proportional to the resistance in the
circuit.
In other words by doubling the voltage across a circuit the current will also double.
However if the resistance is doubled the current will fall by half.
In this mathematical relationship the unit of resistance is measured in Ohms.
Ohm's law can be expressed in a mathematical form:

Page 7
V=IR Where:
V = voltage expressed in Volts
I = current expressed in Amps
R = resistance expressed in Ohms
The formula can be manipulated so that if any two quantities are known the third
can be calculated.
To help remember the formula it is possible to use a triangle with one side
horizontal and the peak at the top like a pyramid. This is sometimes known as the
Ohm's law triangle.
To use the triangle cover up the unknown quantity and then and then calculate it
from the other two. If they are in line they are multiplied, but if one is on top of the
other then they should be divided. In other words if current has to be calculated the
voltage is divided by the resistance i.e. V/R and so forth.
PRACTICAL
Make a simple circuit with a voltage source and Resistance. Apply Ohm’s Law in
this Circuit.
Page 8
Analysis.
Week No.1Day 5- Safety of Tools. Soldering and De-Soldering Stations.
THEORY
In an Electronics Lab, we use a number of measuring instruments and

troubleshooting aids.
The most important instrument among them is the Digital Multi Meter DMM.
Digital Multi meters are classified into four categories based on their application.
Measurement category is a method of classification by the International Electro-

technical Commission (IEC) of live electric circuits used in measurement and
testing of installations and equipment.
Schematic representation of measurement categories
So, we can see a Multi Meter of CAT I should not be used to measure Voltage at
the Main Circuit Breaker side.
Page 9
Another important tool which is frequently used in Electronic Lab is the Soldering
and De-soldering stations.
This is an important tool for working on Printed Circuit Boards.
We use Analogue and Digital Soldering stations.
Analogue stations have a temperature stabilization that operates as follows: The

heating element is working till the soldering tip reaches certain temperature, then
the power switches off. When the temperature becomes lower than a certain level
the heating element is on again and the soldering tip is being heated.
An important part of the de-soldering station is the de-soldering pump. A de

soldering pump also known as solder sucker is a small mechanical device which
sucks the liquid/molten solder from the joint where the components are mounted.
Page 10
This process is repeated until all the residue solder is sucked by the pump and the
hole on the PCB is clear to solder a fresh component.

Analysis.
Module No. 2: - Schematic Diagrams and Electronic Symbols. Electronic

Components. Electrical measuring instruments.
Week No.2 Day 1- Principle of Electrical Parameter measurements.
THEORY
Below is the list of measuring instruments used in electrical and electronic work.
Name Purpose
Ammeter (Ampere meter) Measures current
Capacitance meter Measures the capacitance of a component
Current clamp Measures current without physical connection
Cos Phi Meter Measures the power factor
Frequency counter Measures the frequency of the current
Measures Resistance Of An Winding Of Motor Or
Megger tester
Generator And Measures Earthling Resistance
Microwave power meter Measures power at microwave frequencies
General purpose instrument measures voltage,
Multi meter current and resistance (and sometimes other
quantities as well)
Network analyser Measures network parameters
Ohmmeter Measures the resistance of a component
Displays waveform of a signal, allows measurement
Oscilloscope
of frequency, timing, peak excursion, offset, ...
Tachometer Measures speed of motors
Signal generator Generates signals for testing purposes
Transistor tester Tests transistors
Wattmeter Measures the power
Measures the potential difference between two points
Voltmeter
in a circuit. (Includes: DVM and VTVM)
CRO(Cathode Ray Check the Voltage and Current waveforms.
Name Purpose
Oscilloscope)
We know that Voltage is measure across any circuit and Current is measured
Page 11 in
series in a circuit.
Voltage needs two points so to use a voltmeter you just place each of two probes to
the points you want to read the potential difference.
Current flows thru a segment (wire component or such). To measure a current you
need to cut open the path and insert your meter in series with the path of current.
Method of Voltage Measurement.

Method of Current measurement Method of Resistance measurement
Unit No. 1:- Page 12

Fundamentals of Electrical safety. Electronics and Circuit
Analysis.

Week No.2 Day 2- Oscilloscope and Function Generators.
THEORY
Oscilloscope
We use Oscilloscope in our laboratory to display and analyse the waveform of

electronic signals. In effect, the device draws a graph of the instantaneous signal
voltage as a function of time.
A typical oscilloscope can display alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC)
waveforms having a frequency as low as approximately 1 hertz (Hz) or as high as
several megahertz (MHz). High-end oscilloscopes can display signals having
frequencies up to several hundred gigahertz (GHz). The display is broken up into
so-called horizontal divisions (hor div) and vertical divisions (vert div). Time is
displayed from left to right on the horizontal scale. Instantaneous voltage appears
on the vertical scale, with positive values going upward and negative values going
downward.
Function Generator
A function generator is a specific form of signal generator that is able to generate

waveforms with common shapes. Unlike RF generators and some others that only
create sine waves; the function generator is able to create repetitive waveforms with
a number of common shapes.
In particular it can be made to become a sine wave generator, square wave

generator, and triangular wave generator.
Function generators are normally used in our lab for test and service of various
electronic components. They provide a flexible form of waveform generation that
can be used in many tests.
The model which we use in our lab is a bench top test instrument.
This is the most widely used form of function generator in the test laboratory and is
the test instrument contained within a box that sits on the laboratory bench. This
test instrument contains the power supply, controls, display and of course the output
connector.
Analysis.

Week No.2 Day 3- Active and Passive Components.
THEORY
Electronic components are categorized as active or passive depending on the

functions they are able to perform. Active components can, generally speaking,
inject power into a circuit and are capable of electrically controlling and amplifying
the flow of electrical current, whereas passive components cannot.
Unlike active components, passive components either consume or store energy. A

simple way to test whether a component is active or not is to measure the difference
between its input and output signals. If there is a decline in power, the component is
passive. If the signal is amplified, it is active.
All electronic circuits must contain at least one active component, and most
electronic devices contain both active and passive components.
Active components and their functions
Active components require a source of energy, typically in the form of a direct

current, in order to perform their specific function. Most active components consist
of semiconductor devices, such as diodes, transistors and integrated circuits.
Transistor: Mostly used for amplifying electrical signals or as switching devices
Diode: Permits electricity to flow in one direction only
Integrated circuit (chips or microchips): multiple complex circuits on a circuit

board; used to perform all kinds of tasks; still considered a component despite
consisting of many other components
Display devices such as LCD, LED and CRT displays

Power sources such as batteries and other sources of alternating current (AC) or
direct current (DC).
Passive components and their functions

Page 15
Passive components can influence the flow of electricity running through them. For
example, they can resist its flow, store energy for later use, or produce inductance.
However, they cannot control or amplify electricity themselves.
The most common components and their functions:
Resistor: Resists the flow of electrical current in a circuit; used to lower voltage
Capacitor: Stores electrical energy electrostatically in an electric field (known as

‘charging’), and can release it later when needed
Inductor: Stores electrical energy in a magnetic field; allows direct current (DC) to
flow through it, but not alternating current (AC)
Transducer: Converts an input signal from one type of energy into another type.
The above table shows a few examples of active and passive components.
PRACTICAL
Familiarize with active and passive components in the Lab.

Analysis.

Week No.2 Day 4- Linear and Digital Integrated Circuits.
THEORY
We know that an electronic circuit is a group of electronic components connected

for a specific purpose.
A simple electronic circuit can be designed easily because it requires few discrete
electronic components and connections. However, designing a complex electronic
circuit is difficult, as it requires more number of discrete electronic components and
their connections. It is also time taking to build such complex circuits and their
reliability is also less. These difficulties can be overcome with Integrated Circuits.
If multiple electronic components are interconnected on a single chip of

semiconductor material, then that chip is called as an Integrated Circuit (IC). It
consists of both active and passive components.
Integrated circuits offer many advantages. They are discussed below −
Compact size − For a given functionality, you can obtain a circuit of smaller size
using ICs, compared to that built using a discrete circuit.
Lesser weight − A circuit built with ICs weighs lesser when compared to the weight
of a discrete circuit that is used for implementing the same function of IC. using
ICs, compared to that built using a discrete circuit.
Low power consumption − ICs consume lower power than a traditional circuit,
because of their smaller size and construction.
Reduced cost − ICs are available at much reduced cost than discrete circuits
because of their fabrication technologies and usage of lesser material than discrete
circuits.
Increased reliability − Since they employ lesser connections, ICs offer increased
reliability compared to digital circuits.
Integrated circuits are of two types − Analogue Integrated Circuits and Digital
Page 17
Integrated Circuits.
Analogue Integrated Circuits
Integrated circuits that operate over an entire range of continuous values of the
signal amplitude are called as Analogue Integrated Circuits.
Linear Integrated Circuits − An analogue IC is said to be Linear, if there exists a

linear relation between its voltage and current. IC 741, an 8-pin Dual In-line
Package (DIP)op-amp, is an example of Linear IC.
Digital Integrated Circuits
If the integrated circuits operate only at a few pre-defined levels instead of

operating for an entire range of continuous values of the signal amplitude, then
those are called as Digital Integrated Circuits.
Following are the difference between linear integrated circuits and digital integrated
circuits:
Linear ICs Digital ICs

Linear integrated circuits inputs and
outputs can take on a continuous Digitals ICs contain circuits whose
range of values and the outputs are inputs and outputs voltage are limited
generally proportional to the inputs. to two possible levels low or high.
Its used in microprocessor,
It is used in aircraft, space, vehicles, computers, clocks, digital watches,
radars, PLL, Oscilloscopes etc. calculator etc.
The design requirements are more The design requirement as less
drastic as compared to digital ICs. drastic as compare To linear ICs.
Its commercially available as
It is commercially available as microprocessor chips, memory chips,
operational amplifiers, voltage analogue to digital chips , digitals to
multipliers, voltage comparator, analogue chips, logic gates, flip
regulators, microwave amplifiers Etc. flops, counters, registers etc.
Its consist of very less number of It consists of more number of
Page 18
transistor as compared to digital ICs.. transistors as compared to linear ICs.
Analysis.

Week No.2 Day 5- Electronic circuit diagrams and commonly used symbols.
THEORY
Circuit diagrams show how electronic components are connected together. Each
component is represented by a symbol and a few are shown below.
Page 19
Circuit diagrams and component layouts
Circuit diagrams show the connections as clearly as possible with all wires drawn
neatly as straight lines. The actual layout of the components is usually quite
different from the circuit diagram and this can be confusing for the beginner. The
secret is to concentrate on the connections, not the actual positions of components.
The circuit diagram and strip board layout for the timer project are shown below -
the circuit diagram is clearly different from the layout on strip board.
A circuit diagram is useful when testing a circuit and for understanding how it
works. That is why instructions for projects usually include a circuit diagram as
well as the strip board or printed circuit board layout which you need to build the
circuit.
PRACTICAL
Use an Electronic Circuit diagram to make a simple circuit and learn more about
circuit reading and troubleshooting techniques.
Page 20
Unit No. 2:- Fundamentals for the Maintenance of Electrical and Electronics
Systems.
Module No. 3: - Batteries and DC Circuits. DC power supply.
Week No.3 Day 1- Introduction to Batteries and Maintenance Procedures.
THEORY
In MOD’s environment, we use a variety of industrial batteries for different

applications.
Some of the Applications are
1. Uninterruptible Power Supply.

2. D.C regulated Voltage Power Supply.
3. PCB mounted applications.
Batteries for Uninterruptible Power Supply Application.
Critical and sensitive equipment are provided with Uninterruptible Power Supplies.
We use UPS for Medical Equipment, Communication equipment, Data Center etc.
UPS system is one of the most crucial components in our critical power
infrastructure, and for our UPS, the batteries are really the “heart” of that system.
There are three main types of UPS batteries.
Valve Regulated Lead Acid (VRLA)
Flooded Cell LA batteries
Nickel Cadmium batteries.
Valve Regulated Lead Acid (VRLA)
This battery type is the type most often found in UPS units today. The term valve
regulated relates to the way gas is released from the battery. If the gas pressure
becomes too great in the battery, a valve will vent when the gas reaches a certain
pressure. Water can’t be added to VRLA batteries, so factors that increase
evaporation, like ambient temperature and heat from charging current, reduces
battery life.
Page 21
Flooded Cell LA batteries.
Flooded cells, or VLA (Vented Lead Acid) batteries, are very reliable. The battery
is composed of thick, lead-based plates flooded with electrolyte acid. There are
more safety measures needed with this type of battery than with VRLA, and they
need their own separate battery room due to potential chemical hazards they pose.
They also have additional maintenance requirements that need to be adhered to,
such as being filled only with distilled water, keeping water levels filled correctly.
Nickel Cadmium batteries.
Nickel Cadmium batteries have matured significantly in their design for a number
of uses, such as being used in electric vehicles and, of course, UPS storage. These
batteries have the advantage of being both small in size and light weight.
Nickel Cadmium batteries also have high charge and discharge times, as well as
high recharge times. This makes them attractive in non-traditional UPS
applications, such as grid sharing and industrial process control support. These
batteries also have lower operational expense costs, as they need less frequent
replacement, and can operate at higher ambient temperatures.
D.C Power Supply Batteries

We use a number of 110VDC supply in our Power Houses and Primary Substations.
Most of them are fitted with Lithium-Ion batteries.
Circuit board mounted batteries.
Apart from the above heavy duty batteries, we use a number of small batteries in
Printed Circuit Boards and PLCs. The purpose is to store the program and keep
running the real time clock. If the battery is damaged, there is a chance that the
program can get corrupt.
These batteries come in the 3V ranges with a few hundred mAh rating.
Page 22
Systems.
Week No.3 Day 2- Introduction to Power Supplies, Voltage Regulator, SMPS.
THEORY
We know that every electronic equipment work on electric supply. The normal
power supply available in Oman is 230VAC, 50Hz.
But this power supply cannot be directly fed in to the electronic circuit devices.
Electronic circuit works on low voltage dc supply. So there is a component which
makes it possible. This is known as the Power Supply.
A power supply is an electrical device that supplies electric power to an electrical

load. The primary function of a power supply is to convert electric current from a
source to the correct voltage, current, and frequency to power the load and in our
case it is the PCB.
There are some independent power supplies used for laboratory purpose and all.
The following is the picture of such power supply.
It has got an input supply terminals marked as L and N and many output terminals
marked as V- and V+. The above one is a 10A power supply.
Power supplies are categorized in various ways, depending on their Page 23

functional
features.
A regulated power supply is one that maintains constant output voltage or current
despite variations in load current or input voltage.
In the other way, the output of an unregulated power supply can change
significantly when its input voltage or load current changes.
Few images of power supplies used in our laboratory

There are some other power supplies which allow the output voltage or current to
be programmed by mechanical controls like knobs on the power supply front panel.
An adjustable regulated power supply is one that is both adjustable and regulated.
Power supplies can be broadly divided into linear and switching types. Linear
power converters process the input power directly, with all active power conversion
components operating in their linear operating regions.
In switching power converters, the input power is converted to AC or to DC pulses

before processing, by components that operate predominantly in non-linear modes
(e.g transistors). Power is "lost" (converted to heat) when components operate in
their linear regions.
Switching converters are usually more efficient than linear converters because their
components spend less time in linear operating regions.
Laboratory operated power supplies are bench type. Bench power supply is a stand-
alone desktop unit used in applications such as circuit troubleshooting, voltage
injection, test and development.
Page 24
Systems.
Week No.3 Day 3- Rectifiers, Filters and Voltage Regulators.
THEORY
Introduction:
For the operation of most of the electronics devices and circuits, a DC source is
required. So it is advantageous to convert domestic AC supply into DC voltages.
The process of converting AC voltage into DC voltage is called as rectification.
There are three components involved in this process. They are..
a) Step-down Transformer
b) Rectifier
c) Filter and
d) Voltage regulator circuits.
These elements constitute DC regulated power supply shown in the figure below.
If the output of a regulator circuit is a AC voltage then it is termed as voltage

stabilizer, whereas if the output is a DC voltage then it is termed as voltage
regulator.
In a regulated power supply, the first item is the ‘Transformer’. Page 25
A transformer is a static device which transfers the energy from primary winding to
secondary winding through the mutual induction principle, without changing the
frequency. The transformer winding to which the supply source is connected is
called the primary, while the winding connected to the load is called secondary
winding.
If N1, N2 are the number of turns of the primary and secondary of the transformer
then
α = N2/N1 is called the turns ratio of the transformer.
The different types of the transformers are
1) Step-Up Transformer
2) Step-Down Transformer
3) Center Tapped Transformer
RECTIFIER:
Any electrical device which offers a low resistance to the current in one direction
but a high resistance to the current in the opposite direction is called rectifier. Such
a device is capable of converting a sinusoidal input waveform, whose average value
is zero, into a unidirectional waveform, with a non-zero average component.
A rectifier is a device which converts AC voltage (bi-directional) to pulsating DC

voltage.
FILTERS
The output of a half-wave (or) full-wave rectifier circuit is not pure DC, but it
contains fluctuations (or) ripple, which are undesired. To minimize the ripple
content in the output, filter circuits are used.
These circuits are connected between the rectifier and load. Ideally, the output of
the filter should be pure DC practically, the filter circuit will try to minimize the
ripple at the output, as far as possible.
Definition of a Filter:
Filter is an electronic circuit composed of a capacitor, inductor (or) combination of

both and connected between the rectifier and the load so as to convert pulsating dc
to pure dc.
Page 26
Systems.
Week No.3 Day 4- DC Motors and control circuits.
THEORY
In MOD we use different types of dc motors and controls for various applications.
Be it in the valve actuators, dampers, governors of DG sets, special equipment etc..
One such application is for the operation of Neutral Earth Resistance knife switches
which is widely used for the Generators and Rotary Converters in Goat Island
Power House.
Neutral Earthing Resistors (NERs) are one of the commonest types of earthing
systems in medium-voltage AC distribution networks. Also called Neutral
Grounding Resistors, they limit the current that would flow through the neutral
point of a transformer or generator in the event of an earth fault.
Here the function of the DC motor is to connect and disconnect the NGR to the
Ground at the start command of the DG set.
The dc motor with a gear system opens or closes the circuit using a heavy duty
11kV insulated knife switch.
The circuit for reverse and forward of the DC motor is as follows. Page 27
Here the motor used is a permanent magnet DC motor. So by changing polarity of

the Armature voltage, the direction is changed. There are limit switches which
prevents the motor gear mechanism from overriding the limits.
DC motor testing methods
When a permanent magnet DC (PMDC) motor fails to operate properly, or fails to

run at all, one sensible troubleshooting step is to measure the winding resistance to
determine if there’s an open circuit or a short circuit, either between turns of the
same winding, between two windings in the same motor, or between a winding and
ground.
PRACTICAL
Conduct testing procedures for a DC motor.
Page 28
Systems.
Week No.3 Day 5- DC Circuit Troubleshooting example.
THEORY
Full wave rectifier circuit
Bridge Rectifier
The full-wave rectifier circuit with two diodes requires a centre tapped transformer
where only one half of the total ac voltage of the transformer secondary winding is
utilized to convert into dc output.
The need of the centre tapped transformer in a Full-wave rectifier is eliminated in
the bridge rectifier.
The bridge rectifier circuit has four diodes connected to form a bridge. The ac input
voltage is applied to diagonally opposite ends of the bridge. The load resistance is
connected between the other two ends of the bridge. The bridge rectifier circuits
and its waveforms are shown in figure.
Operation Page 29
For the positive half cycle of the input ac voltage diodes D1 and D3conduct,
whereas diodes D2 and D4 do not conduct.
The conducting diodes will be in series through the load resistance RL, so the
Load current flows through the RL.
During the negative half cycle of the input ac voltage diodes D2 and D4 conduct,
whereas diodes D1 and D3 do not conduct.
The conducting diodes D2 and D4 will be in series through the load resistance RL
and the current flows through the RL, in the same direction as in the previous half
cycle.
Thus a bidirectional wave is converted into a unidirectional wave.
PRACTICAL
Make a full wave rectifier using 4 diodes and connect it to a load and troubleshoot
problems by simulating some faults.

Fundamentals for the Maintenance of Electrical and Electronics
Systems.
Module No. 4: - Transformers and AC circuits. Single Phase and Three phase
system.
Week No.4 Day 1- Principle of Alternating Current. Impedance, Reactance
THEORY
Alternating Current (AC)

Alternating current describes the flow of charge that changes direction periodically.
As a result, the voltage level also reverses along with the current. AC is used to
deliver power to houses, office buildings, etc.
Generating AC:- AC can be produced using a device called an alternator. This
device is a special type of electrical generator designed to produce alternating
current.
A loop of wire is spun inside of a magnetic field, which induces a current along the
wire. The rotation of the wire can come from any number of means: a wind turbine,
a steam turbine, flowing water, and so on.
Because of the reason that the wire spins enters a different magnetic polarity
periodically, the voltage and current alternates on the wire.
Waveforms
AC can come in a number of forms, as long as the voltage and current are
alternating. If we hook up an oscilloscope to a circuit with AC and plot its voltage
over time, we might see a number of different waveforms.
The most common type of AC is the sine wave. The AC in most homes and offices
has an oscillating voltage that produces a sine wave.
Impedance Page 31
Impedance is the amount of resistance that a component offers to current flow in a

circuit at a specific frequency. It is resistance in a sense, but not exactly.
Impedance, just like resistance, is a value which shows the amount of resistance
that a component has to the flow of electrical current. The unit is ohms (Ω).
However, unlike resistance, impedance differs in that the amount of resistance that
a component has to a signal varies with the signal's frequency.
Resistance is a value and measure which is independent of frequency.
However, reactive components change the amount of resistance they offer in a

circuit depending on the input signal's frequency. But impedance varies according
to the frequency of the signal entering it. This is the difference between resistance
and impedance.
Two main reactive components are capacitors and inductors. They change
resistance values based on the frequency of the signal entering into them.
Capacitors are reactive devices which have high impedance at low frequencies and
low impedance at higher frequencies. As the frequency increase, the reactance
decreases.
Inductors are devices that have low impedance at low frequencies and higher
impedance at higher frequencies. As the frequency increases, the impedance
increases. These are referred to as inductive reactance and capacitive reactance.
Impedance is a crucial concept to understand as most electronic circuits utilize

capacitors and inductors. The main point to understand is that they are frequency
dependent.
Applications of Alternating Current

Home and office outlets are almost always use equipment working on Alternating
Current. This is because generating and transporting AC across long distances is
relatively easy.
At high voltages (over 220kV), less energy is lost in electrical power transmission.
Higher voltages mean lower currents, and lower currents mean less heat generated
in the power line due to resistance. AC can be converted to and from high voltages
easily using transformers.
Page 32
Systems.
system.
Week No.4 Day 2- Principle of Transformers, Types and Applications.
THEORY
In the previous class we have seen that we transmit Alternating Current at extra
high voltages in the ranges 220kV and 400kV and so on.
But in any of the generating stations voltages are not produced in these ranges. So
here comes the application of Transformers.
Transformer
Definition:-
Transformer is a static device which converts electrical power from one circuit to
another without changing its frequency. It Step up (or Step down) the level of AC
Voltage and Current.
Working principle:-
It works on the principle of mutual induction of two coils or Faraday’s Law Of

Electromagnetic induction. When current in the primary coil is changed the flux
linked to the secondary coil also changes. Hence an EMF is induced in the
secondary coil due to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction.
Types of Transformers
There are various types of transformer used in the electrical power system for
different purposes, like generation, distribution and transmission and utilization of
electrical power.
Page 33
The different types of transformer are Step up and Step down Transformer, Power
Transformer, Distribution Transformer, Instrument transformer comprising current
and Potential Transformer, Single phase and Three phase transformer, Auto
transformer, etc.
Step up and Step down Transformer
Step-up transformer transforms a low voltage, high current AC into a high voltage,
low current AC system. In this type of transformer the number of turns in the
secondary winding is greater than the number of turns in the primary winding.
Step down transformer converts a high primary voltage associated with the low
current into a low voltage, high current. With this type of transformer, the number
of turns in the primary winding is greater than the number of turns in the secondary
winding.
Power Transformer
The power transformers are used in the transmission networks of higher voltages.
The ratings of the power transformer are as follows 400 KV, 200 KV, 110 KV, 66
KV, 33 KV. They are mainly rated above 200 MVA.
Distribution Transformer
This type of transformer has lower ratings like 11 KV, 6.6 KV, 3.3 KV, 440 V and
230 V. They are rated less than 20 MVA and used in the distribution network to
provide voltage transformation in the power system by stepping down the voltage
level where the electrical energy is distributed and utilized at the consumer end.
Instrument Transformer
Instrument transformer is an electrical device used to transform current as well as a

voltage level. The most common use of instrument transformer is to safely isolate
the secondary winding when the primary has high voltage and high current supply
so that the measuring instrument, energy meters or relays which are connected to
the secondary side of the transformer will not get damaged. The instrument
transformer is further divided into two types
Current Transformer (CT)
Potential Transformer (PT)

Systems.
system.
Week No.4 Day 3- Single Phase and Three-Phase Circuits. Application and
Usage.
THEORY
The system of the power supply is categorized into two type’s namely single phase
power supply, as well as three phase power supply. For most industrial and
businesses settings, three-phase supply is used to run the high loads, whereas homes
are generally supplied by a single phase, because home appliances require less
power.
Single-phase power is a two-wire alternating current (ac) power circuit. Typically,
there is one power wire—the phase wire—and one neutral wire, with current
flowing between the power wire (through the load) and the neutral wire. Three-
phase power is a three-wire ac power circuit with each phase ac signal 120
electrical degrees apart.
Single-phase power supplies are most commonly used when typical loads are
lighting or heating, rather than large electric motors.
The benefits of choosing a single phase supply include the following.
 The design is less complex

 Design cost is less
 Most efficient AC power supply for up to 1000 watts
 Single Phase AC Power Supply is most competent for up to 1000 watts.
 Wide-range of application uses
Three Phase Supply Benefits
 Copper Utilization Reduction

 Lessening of Security Risks for Employees
 The efficiency of the Conductor is Greater
 Facility to Run High Power Loads
The following table shows the comparison of single and three phase supply.
Page 35
Basis For
Single Phase Three Phase
Comparison
Definition The power supply through one The power supply through three
conductor. conductors.
Wave Shape
Number of wire. Require two wires for Requires four wires for
completing the circuit. completing the circuit.
Voltage Carry 230V Carry 415V

Basis For
Single Phase Three Phase
Comparison
Phase Name Split phase No other name
Power Transfer Minimum Maximum

Capability
Network Simple Complicated
Power Failure Occurs Do not occur
Loss Maximum Minimum
Power Supply
Connection
Efficiency Less High
Economical Less More
Uses For home appliances. In large industries and for

running heavy loads.
From the above information and chart, it is clear that choosing a single phase (or)
three-phase system mainly depends on the power requirements of a particular
application.

Systems.
system.
Week No.4 Day 4- Fundamentals of single-phase and three-phase motors.
THEORY
We use a vast number of electrical motors for our applications. Some are in power
houses, Air-conditioning, R.O plant, STP etc.. driving different mechanical
components like pumps, blowers, compressors, fans etc..
The squirrel cage induction motor is probably the most widely used motor in MOD
today. Traditional applications for AC induction motors include fans and pumps
and are widely accepted because less maintenance is required.
All AC motors can be classified into single-phase and three-phase. Because 3-phase
motors are the most commonly used in industrial applications, we will take a closer
look at the construction of these units. The three-phase motor will operate at a
higher efficiency compared with the single-phase motor.
Keep in mind that there are also single-phase AC motors in use for applications
such as small appliances, residential fans, furnaces, and many other low-
horsepower applications.
What are the basic parts of an Induction Motor?
An induction motor has basically two parts: Stator and Rotor.
Stator:
The stator is made up of various stampings with slots to carry three phase windings.
It is wound for a distinct number of poles. The windings are geometrically divided
120 degrees separated.
Rotor:
The rotor is the rotating part of the electromagnetic circuit. The most common type
of rotor is the squirrel cage rotor.
Page 37
Two Types of Induction Motors
Single phase induction motor: The single-phase induction motor is not self-starting.
Capacitor motors are capacitor start, capacitor run and permanent capacitor motors.
Permanent capacitor motor is shown below.
Applications of Single Phase Induction Motor
These are used in low power applications and widely used in domestic applications
as well as industrial. And some of those are mentioned below
 Pumps
 Compressors
 Small fans
 Mixers
 Toys
 High speed vacuum cleaners
 Electric shavers
 Drilling machines
Three-Phase Induction Motor: These motors are self-starting.
Three-phase AC induction motors are widely used in industrial and commercial
applications. These are of two types, squirrel cage and slip ring motors. Squirrel
cage motors are widely used due to their rugged construction and simple design.
Slip ring motors require external resistors to have high starting torque.
Applications of Three Phase Induction Motor in MOD are..

 Lifts
 Cranes
 Hoists
 Large capacity exhaust fans
 Driving lathe machines
 STP, RO Plant and Power Houses etc..
Page 38
Systems.
system.
Week No.4 Day 5- Maintenance of AC motors, Starting methods, Circuit
diagrams.
THEORY
Maintenance of Induction Motors
Though Induction motors do not require much attention, the following steps will
ensure a reliable service and long life of Induction motors.
Frequent checks
1. Clean motor of any dust or oil.
2. Check oil rings turn with shaft.
3. Check oil level in bearings.
4. Visually check for oil and grease from bearings.
5. Technician to examine the starter switch fuses and tighten loose connections.
Every 6 months
1. Clean motor, blowing out dirt from windings.
2. Remove, clean out, and replace oil in sleeve bearings.
3. Check grease in ball or roller bearings.
4. Check operating speed or speeds.
5. Technician to examine and tighten loose connections.
6. Test current input and compare it with normal.
7. Visually check drive, for smooth running, absence of vibration.
8. Check motor foot bolts.
Annually
1. Remove and renew grease in ball or roller bearing.
2. Test insulation.
3. Clean out magnetic dirt that may be attached to poles.
4. Check clearance between shaft and journal boxes of sleeve bearing motors.
Page 39
3-Phase Motor Starting Methods
The most common starting methods of 3-phase induction motors are
1. Direct On Line Starter.

2. Star/Delta Starter.
DOL Starter Power Diagram DOL Starter Control Diagram
Y/Delta Starter Power Diagram Y/Delta Starter Control Diagram
Page 40
Systems.
Module No. 5: - Importance of Electrical Safety and Protection. Protection and

Grounding methods of Electrical equipment.
Week No.5 Day 1- Electrical Safety procedures for Electrical Equipment.
Significance of Electrical Grounding.
THEORY
What is Electrical Safety?
Electrical safety is a general practice of Technicians who are exposed to handling

and maintaining electrically powered equipment. It is a set of guidelines they follow
to mitigate electrical hazards and prevent its dangerous effects in case of an
incident. Unable to adhere to electrical safety can lead to accidents, near misses, or
even fatalities.
On the job site, working around electricity can be very safe when Technicians
properly identify and control hazards. But, inadequate training, lack of experience
and failure to recognize potential hazards could result in electric shock or death.
Engineers, Electricians, and Technicians working in the overhead lines are at the
top of the list of professionals who are most exposed to electrical hazards. Common
tasks that put these workers at risk include electrical installation and repairs, testing
of fixtures and equipment and inspection and maintenance activities.
Here are 7 common electrical hazards in the workplace and tips on what you can do
to mitigate these risks:
1. Overhead Power Lines

Overhead powered and energized electrical lines have high voltages which can
cause major burns and electrocution to workers. Remember to maintain a minimum
distance of 10 feet from overhead power lines and nearby equipment.
2. Damaged Tools and Equipment

Exposure to damaged electrical tools and equipment can be very dangerous.
Thoroughly check for cracks, cuts or abrasions on cables, wires, and cords. Lock
out Tag out (LOTO) procedures should be performed at all times.
3. Inadequate Wiring and Overloaded Circuits

Page 41
Using wires with inappropriate size for the current can cause overheating and fires
to occur. Use the correct wire suitable for the operation and the electrical load to
work on.
4. Exposed Electrical Parts

Examples of exposed electrical parts include temporary lighting, open power
distribution units, and detached insulation parts on electrical cords. These hazards
can cause potential shocks and burns.
5. Damaged Insulation
Defective or inadequate insulation is a hazard. Be aware of damaged insulation and
report it immediately. Turn off all power sources before replacing damaged
insulation and never attempt to cover them with electrical tape.
6. Wet Conditions
Never operate electrical equipment in wet locations. Water greatly increases the risk
of electrocution especially if the equipment has damaged insulation.
7. Improper Grounding
The most common electrical violation is the improper grounding of equipment.
Proper grounding can eliminate unwanted voltage and reduce the risk of
electrocution. Never remove the metallic ground pin as it is responsible for
returning unwanted voltage to the ground.
Electrical Grounding
Electrical grounding is a backup pathway that provides an alternating route for the
current to flow back to the ground if there is a fault in the wiring system. It
facilitates a physical connection between the ground and the electrical equipment
and appliances in your work place and at home.
Electricity always looks for the shortest path to the earth, therefore if there is any
problem where the neutral wire is broken or interrupted; it is the grounding wire
that provides a direct path to the ground. This direct physical connection allows the
earth to act as a path of least resistance and prevent an appliance or a person from
becoming the shortest path.
The Standard Ground Resistance shall be below 3Ω for industrial installations.

Systems.

Week No.5 Day 2- Methods of different Electrical Earthing Systems and their
Applications.
THEORY
To connect the metallic (conductive) Parts of an Electric appliance or installations

to the earth (ground) is called Earthing or Grounding.
In other words, to connect the metallic parts of electric machinery and devices to
the earth plate or earth electrode (which is buried in the moisture earth) through a
thick conductor wire (which has very low resistance) for safety purpose is known as
Earthing or grounding.
Common Methods for Electrical Earthing Systems:
1. Pipe Earthing.
In this type of Earthing, the earthed component is a perforatedPageGI 43

pipe
around 40mm diameter and 2M minimum in length in size. The pipe is
immersed in the pit in alternative layers of charcoal and salt as shown in
picture.
2. Rod Earthing.
Here the only difference is that the pipe is being replaced with copper rod of
15mm diameter and at least 2500 mm length. All other materials remain the
same.
3. Plate Earthing
Grounding plates are made up of copper or Galvanized Iron (GI) and placed
vertically into the ground in a pit (filled with charcoal and salt layers) over 10
feet deep. For a higher electrical grounding system, the earth moisture
condition must be maintained around the grounding plate system.
This is better than the pipe electrode, with higher contact area and better
dissipation.
4. Mesh Earthing.
An earth mesh is a common grounding system for (usually) several power
systems that optimally reference the same ground. Usually power stations
and primary substations are earthed like this for larger voltage level system.
Page 44
Systems.
Week No.5 Day 3- Motor protection methods. Circuit breakers and Overload
Protection.
THEORY
In our professional life we come across many type of motors which are being used
in all our Camps and buildings. Each motor is started and run according to the size
and application. So naturally there are many components which protect it from
damage. We will see what those components are.
The motor protection devices can be classified into mainly 6 categories depending
upon the operation of the motor. They are
1. Motor instantaneous Overcurrent Protection:
Instantaneous over-current is usually the result of fault conditions (phase to phase,

phase to ground), in which current flow will greatly exceed normal values.
2. Motor Timed Over-Current Protection
Continuous operation of an electric motor at currents marginally above its

rated value can result in thermal damage to the motor.
To protect against motor damage, we must ensure that this condition is not
reached; hence we must trip the motor before the overload limit (service
factor) is reached.
3. Thermal Overload Relay.
Page 45
As the materials are heated, one side will lengthen more than the other,
causing bending. Normal operating currents or short duration overload
conditions will not cause the bimetallic element to bend enough to change the
relay contact positions.
4. Motor Ground Fault Protection.

In a motor, insulation damaged by heat (from extended overload operation),
brittleness of insulation (due to aging), wet insulation or mechanically
damaged insulation can cause ground faults.
Ground fault protection schemes use differential protection to detect and

clear the faulted equipment. For motors, the common method is to use a
Core-Balance CT as illustrated in following figure. The output of the core-
balance CT will be the difference or imbalance of current between the three
phases.
5. Voltage imbalance and single phasing protection.

For this protection, a phase failure / sequence check relay is used.
6. Motor winding thermal protectors.

In this case, inbuilt thermal protection sensors are coming with motor
windings. They may be PTC type of NTC type.
Page 46
Systems.
Week No.5 Day 4- Protection of Motors. Selection of overload relays, setting

Methods. Reading wiring diagrams.
THEORY
The three-phase induction motor has a very wide range of applications in both
industrial and commercial settings. The following are just a few examples of its
applications:
Air conditioners – In MOD it is a widely used application.
Compressors – In all our mechanical workshops air compressors are used.
Other areas in MOD are Fans / Air-handling units, Pumps, STP and Power Houses.
Given their wide range of applications, it is critical to protect induction motors

adequately.
An electrical fault occurs whenever there is an abnormally high electric current.

Some of the most common causes of fault currents are:
 Short circuits
 Line-to-ground faults
 Line-to-line faults
In the specific case of motors, failure to start due to a locked rotor may also cause a
fault current: motors draw from 500% to 800% of their rated current during start up.
This has a very short duration if the motor starts normally, but will be extended if
the motor fails to start.
Fault protection is accomplished with circuit breakers which have a magnetic

tripping mechanism: they are equipped with a solenoid coil which induces a strong
magnetic field, which in turn causes the electric contacts to open and interrupt the
supply of electric power to the motor. The magnetic tripping mechanism is
instantaneous.
Page 47
Overload protection can be accomplished with either thermal or electronic devices:
Thermal protection is typically based on expanding and contracting contacts,
calibrated to interrupt the circuit when the rated current is exceeded.
Electronic protection achieves the same effect, but through measurement and the
use of a contactor.
Unlike fault protection, overload protection has a time delay. This has the purpose
of allowing short-duration overcurrent conditions, which are normal in the
operation of some types of equipment.
Under-voltage / Over-voltage Protection, Phase sequence Relay.
If two of the lines supplying power to a three-phase motor are reversed, it will cause
the motor to reverse the direction of rotation. This can be a serious problem with
some types of equipment. It can't only cause dam age to equipment but also injury
to operators or personnel in the vicinity of the machine.
The phase failure relay monitors phase sequence, phase break and under voltage.
The output relay is energized when all three phase voltages are present and the
phase conditions (voltage and phase sequence) are correct and within the set values.
Page 48
Systems.

Week No.5 Day 5- Motor Control Centres, General Layout, Single Line Diagrams
and Control Diagrams, Reading and understanding methods.
THEORY
Motor Control Center
A Motor Control Center (MCC) is an assembly of switchgears to control some or

all electric motors in a central location. It consists of multiple enclosed sections
having a common power bus and with each section containing a combination
starter. This type of arrangement is called a Form IV construction.
A typical motor starter segment consists of a Contactor, motor overload raly, fuses
or circuit breaker, and power disconnect. A motor control centre can also include
push buttons, indicator lights, variable-frequency drives (VFD), programmable
logic controllers (PLC) and metering equipment.
In MOD, MCC's are typically found in large Chillers or Head Quarter buildings
where there are many electric motors that need to be controlled from a central
location.
Major parts of an MCC
A motor control centre consists of one or more vertical metal cabinet sections with
power bus and provision for plug-in mounting of individual motor controllers. Very
large controllers may be bolted in place but smaller controllers can be unplugged
from the cabinet for testing or maintenance.
Each motor controller contains a contactor or a solid-state motor controller;

overload relays to protect the motor, fuses or a circuit breaker to provide short-
circuit protection, and a disconnecting switch to isolate the motor circuit.
The motor is wired to terminals in the controller. Motor control centres provide
wire ways for field control and power cables. This is the point where PLCs and
BMS are connected.
Page 49
Layout of an MCC A typical Terminal wiring.
MCC electrical drawings are mainly classified into two categories.
1. Single Line Diagram

An electrical Single Line Diagram is a representation of a complicated
electrical distribution system into a simplified description using a single line,
which represents the conductors, to connect the components. Main
components such as transformers, switches, and breakers are indicated by
their standard graphic symbol.
2. Control wiring Diagram
All the wiring that you see in the panel is done based on the wiring diagram. Each
page of the wiring diagram shows the exact wiring for different sections of the
control panel. Each of the wires in the wiring diagram has a tag number. These tags
can be found in the panel as well. Using the page numbers and the sections, in the
wiring diagram, you can easily follow the wires and see where each wire is coming
from.
Page 50
Systems.
Module No. 6: - Repair and Maintenance of Variable Frequency Drives and

Soft Starters.
Week No.6 Day 1- Variable Frequency Drive fundamentals, Pulse Width

Modulation.
THEORY
What is a VFD?
A Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) is a type of motor controller that drives an

electric motor by varying the frequency and voltage supplied to the electric motor.
Other names for a VFD are variable speed drive, adjustable speed drive, adjustable
frequency drive, AC drive, micro drive, and inverter.
Frequency (or hertz) is directly related to the motor’s speed (RPMs). In other
words, the faster the frequency, the faster the RPMs go. If an application does not
require an electric motor to run at full speed, the VFD can be used to ramp down
the frequency and voltage to meet the requirements of the electric motor’s load. As
the application’s motor speed requirements change, the VFD can simply turn up or
down the motor speed to meet the speed requirement.
How does a Variable Frequency Drive work?
The block diagram of a typical VFD can be divided into three major sections:
 the power-conversion section

 the microprocessor control section (CPU) and the control section that
includes the external switches an signals to control the VFD operations
 the power section where AC voltage is converted to DC and then DC is
inverted back to 3-phase AC voltage
A VFD works on the principle of Pulse Width Modulation (PWM).
The block diagram below contains three separate sections to indicate the basic
working principle of a VFD:
 the rectifier
Page 51
 the filter
 the switching section that uses regular transistors, Darlington pair transistors,
or insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBT) to invert the DC voltage back to
AC voltage with the proper frequency.
The VFD shown as three separate sections: rectifier (where AC is converted to

DC); the DC intermediate circuit which contains the capacitor and inductor for
filtering. The third section is the DC-to-AC inverter where DC is turned back to
three-phase AC.
The most common method used for adjusting the motor voltage is called pulse
width modulation (PWM). With PWM voltage control, the inverter switches are
used to divide the simulated sine-wave output waveform into a series of narrow
voltage pulses and modulate the width of the pulses.
Page 52
Systems.

Soft Starters.
Week No.6 Day 2- Soft Starter fundamentals, Working principle and areas of
application.
THEORY
An Induction motor can self-start owing to the interaction between the rotating
magnetic field flux and the rotor winding flux, causing a high rotor current as
torque is increased. As a result, the stator draws high current and by the time the
motor reaches to full speed, a large amount of current (greater than the rated
current) is drawn and this can cause heating up of the motor, eventually damaging
it. To prevent this, motor starters are needed.
Motor starting can be in 3 ways.
 Applying full load voltage at intervals of time: Direct On Line Starting

 Applying reduced voltage gradually: Star Delta Starter and Soft starter
 Applying part winding starting: Autotransformer starter
A soft starter is any device that reduces the torque applied to the electric motor. It
generally consists of solid-state devices like Thyristors to control the application of
supply voltage to the motor.
The starter works on the fact that the torque is proportional to the square of the
starting current, which in turn is proportional to the applied voltage. Thus the torque
and the current can be adjusted by reducing the voltage at the time of starting the
motor.
Applications of Soft starter.
These are main applications of Soft starters:

 RO plant pumps of bigger applications.
 Cement industries, Sugar plants, Paper and pulp, Rubber and plastic
 Textile industries, Machine tool applications, Power sector
 Water supply scheme, And various process control applications…
Page 53
Internal Workings of a Soft Starter.
Now that we have talked about some applications and how the soft starter is wired
into a system, let’s dive into the internal workings of the soft starter.
The main component of a soft starter is a Triac which is designed to limit the
applied voltage to the motor.
Triac consists of two back to back Thyristors or SCRs. When an internal pulse is
applied to its gate it allows current to flow which then sends current out to our
motor.
The pulses are sent based on ramp time so the current will be slowly applied to the
motor. This will allow our motor to start slowly reducing torque and inrush current.
Differences between and VFD and a Soft Starter
A VFD and a Soft Starter can do similar functions when it comes to ramp up or
down the speed of a motor to the rated speed.
The main difference between the two is that a VFD can vary the speed of a motor
while a soft starter only controls the starting and stopping of that motor.
When faced with an application, price and size are in the favour of a soft starter. A
VFD is the better choice if speed control is required.
PRACTICAL
Check the working of a Variable Frequency Drive and it’s connections from the
field.
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Systems.

Soft Starters.
Week No.6 Day 3- Preventive and breakdown Maintenance of Variable Frequency

Drives.
THEORY
Like any other Electro Mechanical Device, Variable Frequency Drives also require
constant attention while it is being in operation.
Since these applications are very critical and sensitive, the failure of these
equipment cannot be accepted for the smooth functioning of the system as a whole.
Therefore it is very important for any organization or department to device out a

strong preventive maintenance program from saving the equipment from
unexpected failures.
VFD preventive maintenance programme
Without preventive maintenance, the probability of VFD failure increases

drastically. The most common failures are due to component aging or operational
conditions, such as varying ambient temperature, high humidity, excessive and
heavy loads.
Signs of these failures typically start showing up after five to 10 years of operation.
A regular preventive maintenance programme of VFDs throughout their lifetime is

an absolute requirement to ensure maximum availability and minimum unplanned
repair costs.
With apt and timely preventive maintenance, reliability of VFDs can be ensured
and their lifetime extended.
Generally carry out the following steps as preventive maintenance steps for a VFD.
Keep it clean. Most VFDs fall into a NEMA 1 or NEMA 12 category. Side vents
in NEMA 1 drives make VFDs susceptible to dust contamination, which can reduce
airflow and diminish performance from heat sinks and circulating fans.
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Keep it dry. VFDs seldom offer condensation protection today. If you operate the
VFD all day, every day, the normal radiant heat from the heat sink should prevent
condensation. Unless the unit is in continuous operation, use a NEMA 12 enclosure
and a thermostatically controlled space heater if you place it where condensation is
likely.
Keep connections tight. This may seem obvious, but checking connections is a
step many people miss or do incorrectly — and the requirement applies even in
clean rooms. Heat cycles, mechanical vibration, and standard PM practices can lead
to substandard connections.
Bad connections eventually lead to arcing. Arcing at the VFD input could result in
nuisance overvoltage faults, clearing of input fuses, or damage to protective
components. Loose control wiring connections can cause erratic operation.
The following maintenance requirements complement a good PM program.
When conducting a mechanical inspection, don't overlook internal VFD

components. Check circulating fans for signs of bearing failure or foreign objects.
Inspect DC bus capacitors for bulging and leakage, which could be signs of
component stress or electrical misuse.
Take voltage measurements while the VFD is in operation. Fluctuations in DC bus

voltage measurements can indicate degradation of DC bus capacitors. One function
of the capacitor bank is to act as a filter section (smoothing out any AC ripple
voltage on the bus). Abnormal AC voltage on the DC bus indicates potential
capacitor failure.
With the VFD in START and at zero speed, you should read output voltage of
40VAC phase-to-phase or less. Higher voltages could indicate transistor leakage. At
zero speed, the power components should not be operating. Readings of 60VAC or
more can indicate power component failure.
Store spare VFDs in a clean, dry environment.
Place this unit in your PM system so you know to power it up every six months to
keep the DC bus capacitors at their peak performance capability. Otherwise, their
charging ability will diminish significantly.
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Systems.

Soft Starters.
Week No.6 Day 4- Preventive and breakdown Maintenance of Soft Starters.
THEORY
Preventive control and maintenance of soft starters and frequency controls extends
the working life while significantly reducing the number of failures and defects.
What is the preventive maintenance for Soft Starter?
Low Voltage Soft Starter preventive maintenance is best performed on a periodic

schedule, typically once per year.
Preventive Maintenance Schedule mainly consists of visual inspection, cleaning

with dry compressed air, checking connections for correct torque and setting up a
replacement schedule for those components with the shortest operational life cycles.
VFD cooling fans for example should be replaced every 3-5 years.
Same way main bus capacitors shall be replaced at every 7 years, otherwise the
micro punctures happens in the film can ultimately burst the capacitor leading into a
catastrophic failure of the whole Soft Starter.
Do not re-torque the connections. Use a thermal camera and check the Soft Starter
power connections under load.
If any connections show hot, THEN shut it down and check the torque with a torque
wrench/screwdriver.
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Many places we have seen problems caused by people cranking down too hard on
motor and power leads (and even control connections) than problems raised from
connections that have worked loose.
Also, DON'T disassemble the Soft Starter to perform the visual inspection.
Get a bright light source and look as deep as you can for components showing
excessive heating, for debris blown into the body of the drive by the cooling fans,
for dust accumulation, for discoloration or corrosion due to corrosive gasses, for oil
from leaking capacitors, etc.
Only disassemble the Soft Starter, if REQUIRED to access something that doesn't
appear right.
What Are Some Common Reasons for Soft Starts to Fail?
• Too much heat: As previously mentioned, an overheated machine can cause

all kinds of other problems. A machine with a soft start is less likely to
overheat than one with a conventional start, but it’s still possible.
• Too much voltage: Because the entire purpose of a soft start is to limit the
amount of electrical current at first, this isn’t likely to happen. However, if a
higher voltage than usual jolts into your motor during startup, it could lead to
problems.
• Too much current: This is a similar problem to the problem of too much
voltage. If too much current flows into your motor at first, it might overload
the circuits and cause a malfunction.
So avoid the above conditions in our panel areas and prevent Soft Starter un notice
failure.
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Unit No. 3:- Variable Frequency Drives and Soft Starters.

Soft Starters.
Week No.6 Day 5- Testing, Troubleshooting and repair of VFD and Soft Starters.
THEORY
Key concepts in troubleshooting a VFD and a Soft Starter.
Check the VFD or Soft Starter display first to determine whether the problem is
internal or external to the module.
Loose Power connections can cause a variety of problems — including VFD and
Soft Starter damage.
Contamination or bad environment is a preventable cause of VFD and Soft Starter

failure. So always keep your panels and equipment in clean and dry.
Many VFDs communicate using an LCD or LED display, or through an open

interlock or fault indication. In most applications, the VFD interacts with operator
controls, process control signals, and PLCs.
A problem with the interaction between the VFD and these external controls may
appear to be a drive issue, when actually the problem is with the process.
Discussing process and drive symptoms with the machine operators often can help
determine the problem area.
If the external controls are working correctly, use the VFD to identify problems
systematically. If the display status indicator does not operate, verify incoming ac
power. If the status indicator still does not display after verifying or restoring ac
power, then verify control power, and restore it if necessary.
If the VFD has been operating successfully, but suddenly fails to start, or if the
drive starts but does not run properly, check to see if the diagnostics status display
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indicates a fault. The instruction manual for the VFD should have a description of
faults and troubleshooting steps.
Use diagnostics or a keypad control to monitor variables such as incoming voltage,

dc bus, carrier frequency, output frequency, voltage, current, and I/O and control
status. These parameters are displayed on most common VFDs.
I/O status uses bits to monitor required start conditions to ensure they are enabled
and to determine what may be inhibiting start. Control status indicates the source of
the speed reference and can be used to verify incoming speed or direction signals.
High bus fault
High bus is a common fault caused by external factors. An instantaneous voltage

spike in the ac line or an “overhauling load” created by the inertia of the machine
can cause a high bus fault. The load continues to rotate faster than the motor’s
commanded speed. When this situation occurs, the VFD protects itself by tripping
on a high bus fault and shutting off the insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs).
Overcurrent fault
Another common fault is overcurrent. While troubleshooting overcurrent faults,

first check all power connections to ensure that they are properly attached. Loose
connections or broken conductors frequently are culprits when overcurrent and
control problems occur.
Loose power connections cause overvoltage and overcurrent conditions, blown

fuses, and VFD damage. Loose control wiring causes erratic drive performance,
resulting in unpredictable speed fluctuations or the inability to control the VFD.
All the above points hold true for a Soft Starter also, as both work with similar
power electronic components.
Unit No. 4:- Repair, Maintenance and Troubleshooting procedures for
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Various Electrical, Electronic and Mechatronic Equipment.
Module No. 7: - Overview of Electrical and Electronics Troubleshooting.
Week No.7 Day 1- Introduction to Troubleshooting Techniques. Importance of

troubleshooting. Steps involved.
THEORY
Introduction to Electronic Troubleshooting.
Troubleshooting of an electronic circuit is a process of having a special outlook on

components that comes out with remedies to repair it. The unexpected behaviour
exhibited by the circuit is due to improper locating or soldering of components,
component damage due to aging, faults, overheat, and so on. Such a type of
behaviour can cause undesired results or even circuit damage.
Therefore, these unexpected results of the electronic circuit may require some
troubleshooting and testing procedures for making it a ready to use project. It is
very common for the hobbyists and circuit designing learners to anticipate the
desired or actual results after completion of the circuit at once. The best way to
become proficient in troubleshooting even to tackle difficult electronic problems is
decided by hands-on experience with the electronic circuits.
Troubleshooting is the process that determines the cause of the problem in the
electronic circuit by examining the affected area of it, and then by taking
appropriate action.
For minor problems, troubleshooting requires a little knowledge about the circuit
and its components’ working because it involves checking the connections only.
However, the major problems of these circuits require a deeper knowledge of the
circuit operation and the way of using various troubleshooting tools.
As a general rule we can adopt the following 8 steps for troubleshooting

any electronic problems.
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Week No.7 Day 2- Tools, Tackles and other aids for Electronic troubleshooting.
THEORY
Tools and tackles are the main components in an Electronic troubleshooting job.
We should have the right kind of tool for each job in hand. And we should have
thorough knowledge of how to use them.
The following are the list of the most essential tools and tackles each electronic
technician shall have.
Multi meter
A multi meter is a measurement tool absolutely necessary. It helps you

troubleshooting your circuits. Sometimes your circuits may not work because of
faulty wires. Checking the connections with the multi meter can save a lot of time.
The one which you should have shall be an auto-range multi meter. The auto-
ranging is a great advantage, because it saves you of the hassle of having to guess
which range of value the electrical characteristic you’re measuring falls under.
Soldering Station
Having a soldering station in an electronics lab is absolutely necessary, even if you

don’t usually build permanent circuits. Many electronics components don’t come
with header pins or breadboard-friendly pins attached.
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Soldering Station with solder lead and Flux
In these cases, you’ll need to do some soldering work. If you don’t do a lot of
soldering, a simple soldering station will do the job. However, we really
recommend getting a good soldering station with enough wattage and adjustable
temperature. A good soldering station will last your entire life.
Soldering Accessories
Besides the soldering station you also need some soldering accessories:
Solder: the easiest type to work with is 60/40 lead/tin.

Solder wick: the wick soaks up molten solder, it’s useful to clean the excess of
solder.
Cleaning sponge: to clean the tip of your iron while soldering.
Tip tinner: used to clean the tip of the soldering iron.
Diagonal cutting pliers: useful to trim the leads after soldering.
Helping hand: to hold your components together while you solder.
Flux pen: the flux pen content aids the flowing of a lead-free solder.
Solder vacuum pump: this tool helps you removing the solder left when desoldering
components.
Bench Power Supply
A voltage supply may not be essential in simple and beginner projects, but it is a
really practical tool when it comes to circuits. It allows you to power your circuits
before they are finished, to test individual circuits, to experiment, etc.
Precision Screwdriver Set
There are components with really small screws and with specific shapes and so, at
some point in your projects, you’ll need a precision screwdriver. We recommend
you getting a set take comes with extension bits because you’ll need all of them
sooner or later.
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Week No.7 Day 3- Preparing for Electronic troubleshooting.
THEORY
Once we are ready with our essential tools and tackles in our test bench, we need to
collect other materials for our troubleshooting process. We should have the
maximum possible information about the job in our hand like technical
specification, working voltage, electrical and electronic drawings, required spare
parts etc..
Now, there are certain steps to be followed to prepare the job in hand ourselves
before we troubleshoot the actual problem. They are
Steps to Fix and Troubleshoot PCBs
Step #1. Clean the PCB
Use isopropyl alcohol to clean the affected part of the PCB. Once the area is clean,
dry away the alcohol with compressed air.
Step #2. Take off the Damaged Pad
Use an Exacto knife to gently peel off the damaged, pre-existing pad.
Step #3. Clear Away Laminate Around the Pad Page 65
If you see any burnt laminate on the area in question, be sure to remove it before
you proceed.
Step #4. Remove Old Solder Mask
Take a dental pick and use it to eliminate lingering solder mask on the conductor.
Step #5. Clean With Alcohol
With isopropyl alcohol, wipe the spot and blow it dry with compressed air.
Alternately, you can use a cloth as long as it has no lint.
Step #6. Prepare the Conductor
With proper solder alloy in hand, prepare the conductor area on the spot where the
replacement conductor will be affixed.
Step #7. Examine and Choose the Appropriate Circuit Frame
From the available choices on the circuit frame, choose your new conductor.
Remove your selection from the circuit frame with a small knife.
Step #8. Prepare the New Pad/Conductor
With a suitably alloyed solder, cover the spot on the new conductor that will face
the old trace. Next, prepare your epoxy. Given that the epoxy will only be good for
about 45 minutes, it is best to prepare only small portions at a time. Apply the
epoxy mixture to the printed circuit board. To speed up the bonding process, place
in open air. You can also cure the joined pieces in an oven.
Step #9. Solder the New Pad/Trace to the Old Conductor
Using Kapton™ tape, put the new conductor into place.
Step #10. Hold and Dry
Clamp the new pad in its spot for the duration of time that it takes to cure. Once
finished, take off the clamp. At this stage in the process, it is also wise to conduct a
brief inspection of the electrical continuity. It might also help to place solder mask
around the pad edges and allow it to dry for additional strength.
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Week No.7 Day 4- Essential Instruments for solving major industrial electrical
problems.
THEORY
Three Basic Measurement Tools for Industrial electrical Troubleshooting
Even if you are an expert in industrial electrical installations, many issues are
completely undetectable by humans unless the proper measurement equipment is
used. If you want to be an industrial troubleshooting ace, the following
measurement devices are a fundamental part of your toolkit:
 Infrared camera
 Power quality analyser – We have it in our Electronics Lab.
 Insulation tester (Megger) –We have it in our Winding section.
1) Infrared Camera
An infrared camera allows you to visualize industrial environments in a scale of

colours according to temperature, typically ranging from dark blue (cold) to bright
yellow (hot). Their basic principle is simple, but infrared cameras are extremely
useful in both troubleshooting and energy efficiency consulting. The following are
just a few possible uses of infrared cameras.
Detecting Overheated Wiring

Three-phase electrical installations do not show visual evidence of issues such
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phase imbalance or overheating. However, if you point an infrared camera at a
circuit, these problems can be noticed immediately.
Detecting Hot Spots in Protection and Control Equipment
Connections that are loose or dirty have a very high contact resistance, and the
localized heating often leads to premature failure and increased maintenance costs.
If you open a distribution board or control panel and scan it with the infrared
camera, hot spots are very easy to pinpoint.
Servicing Electric Motors
You can determine the operating temperature of an electric motor with an infrared
camera, and then compare the measured values with those specified by the
manufacturer. It is also possible to determine if specific motor components such as
bearings are overheating.
Thermal Insulation and Air Tightness Assessment
The building envelope performance is very important for areas that use HVAC or
refrigeration, such as offices and cold-storage rooms, where any type of heat
exchange with the surroundings represents an energy waste. A thermal imaging
camera can be used to scan the building envelope and detect spots where unwanted
heat flow is concentrated.
2) Power Quality Analyser
Power quality measurement is very useful for industrial clients who are suffering
from issues such as load imbalance, low power factor, harmonic distortion or
excessive demand charges. A power quality analyser can provide a snapshot of
energy consumption at an industrial facility, allowing you to deliver a concrete
solution for every issue detected.
3) Insulation Tester
Insulation plays a key role in industrial site safety, especially when dealing with
high-voltage equipment such as transformer banks, high-voltage circuits,
substations and generators. A ground fault occurs whenever insulation fails,
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potentially damaging equipment and causing downtime, and there is even a risk of
human life consequences.
Week No.7 Day 5- Basic steps for solving industrial electric/electronic problems.
THEORY
When we are tasked with solving any industrial electric/electronics related

problems, follow this seven-step process to simplify and solve the problem.
• Gather the information

• Understand the malfunction
• Identify which parameters need to be evaluated
• Identify the source of the problem
• Correct/repair the component
• Verify the repair
• Perform root cause analysis
1. Gather information
Gathering information is a logical first step in any troubleshooting endeavour. Ask
about or perform the following:
• What technical documentation about the equipment is available?
• How exactly is the equipment supposed to operate?
• Are there any previous lessons learned?
• Review any material history that exists for the equipment.
• Identify similar equipment to which you can compare the malfunctioning
equipment.
2. Understand the malfunction
Understanding the malfunction means that you understand how or what the process
is and what portion of the process is operating incorrectly. Answer these questions:
• How is the process supposed to work?
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• What is not functioning as it should?
• What would cause these results or malfunction?
3. Identify which parameters need to be evaluated
Identifying which parameters need to be evaluated requires a clear understanding of

the discrepancy and which signals affect the suspected component. Which input
signals control the component? What is the expected output from the suspect
circuit? Is there a timing delay, sequence, or set point that can be verified?
Identify the parameters that need to be recorded which could either confirm or
refute your suspicions regarding the problem. Identify the following:
• What parameters can you measure?

• What are the expected values for any measurements that are to be taken?
• What test equipment is needed?
• Is there access for the required readings?
• Is there an alternative method to gather the required readings?
• Could other components have been affected by this fault?
4. Identify the source of the problem
Identifying the source of the problem requires the technician to isolate components
and evaluate circuit parameters, to isolate the circuit by group when dealing with a
complicated circuit (half-step approach), and to identify the malfunctioning
component using the recorded data.
5. Correct/repair the component
Correct or repair the component identified as damaged based on the recorded data.
Perform the required repairs to the circuit. Completing step 5 can range from simple
adjustments to a complete component replacement.
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Module No. 8: - Repair, Maintenance and troubleshooting of Linear Power

Supply, Variable Power Supply and SMPS.
Week No.8 Day 1- Introduction to Linear power supply, Variable power supply
And Switched Mode Power Supply.
THEORY
In our Electronics Lab and in our industrial controls we use different types of power
supplies to power up the electronic cards. Each electronic card is designed to
perform some sort of logic or control operation for which it is designed and wired.
Now, to give life to these printed circuit boards, the first part is the power supply
part. Manufacturers use different technology power supply cards depending on the
application.
Basically there are three types of power supply modules to power up an electronic
system. They are
1. Linear Power Supply.

Linear power supplies are designed for low noise and are often considered
quiet since there is no high-frequency switching. They are used anywhere
that excellent regulation and/or low ripple is required as well as needing low
electromagnetic emissions and excellent transient response. Linear power
supplies can only step−down an input voltage to produce a lower output
voltage.
A linear power supply typically uses a large transformer to drop voltage from
an AC line to a much lower AC voltage, and then uses a series of rectifier
circuitry and filtering process to produce a very clean DC voltage. The
disadvantages are weight, size, and low efficiency.
Some examples of application that may require a linear power supply are
communication equipment; medical equipment, low noise amplifiers; signal
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processing; data acquisition including sensors, multiplexers, A/D converters,
sample & hold circuits, automatic test equipment; laboratory test equipment;
control circuits; computer and industrial applications.
2. Variable Power Supply.
A fixed power supply is the one that provides only one power signal.
A variable DC supply provides DC supply of different values. For example,

if you want 10 Volts DC, you select the setting. But if you need 15 volts DC,
then you can change the setting and use get 15 Volts DC.
A variable regulated power supply, also called a variable bench power

supply, is one where you can continuously adjust the output voltage to you
requirements. Varying the output of the power supply is the recommended
way to test a project after having double checked parts placement against
circuit drawings and the parts placement guide.
This type of regulation is ideal for having a simple variable bench power
supply. Actually I think this is quite important because one of the first
projects a hobbyist should undertake is the construction of a bench supply.
While a dedicated supply is quite handy e.g. 5V or 12V, it's much handier to
have a variable supply on hand, especially for testing.
3. Switched Mode Power Supply.

Switching power supplies are designed for high efficiency and small size.
They incorporate a switching regulator to convert electrical power efficiently.
Switching DC power supplies regulate the output voltage through a process
called pulse width modulation (PWM). Using a PWM allows various
topologies to be used such as buck, boost, forward converter, half bridge
rectifier, or fly back depending on the output power requirements.
The PWM process generates some high frequency noise, but enables the
switching power supplies to be built with very high power efficiency and a
small form factor. With a good design, a switching power supply can have
excellent load and line regulation. They can either step-up or step-down the
input voltage to get the desired output voltage. A switching power supply has
greater efficiency than linear regulators because the switching transistor
dissipates little power when acting as a switch. However, this switching can
generate noise which can be lowered by filtering.
We will learn more about these power supplies in the coming chapters.
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Week No.8 Day 2- Linear power supply, Construction, major components

And operational philosophy.
THEORY
The above figure shows the schematic block diagram of a linear power supply.
Usually regulated power supplies are coming in the range 5V to 12V in electronic
circuits.
Linear power supplies are widely used because of the advantages they offer in
terms of overall performance, and also the technology is very well established
because it has been available for very many years.
While linear power supplies may not be as efficient as switch mode power supplies,
they offer the best performance and are therefore used in many applications where
noise is of great importance.
Different linear power supplies will have different circuits and incorporate different
circuit blocks if additional capabilities are required, but they will always include the
basic blocks as well as some optional additional ones.
Transformer: As we can see from the block diagram, the first component is the
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input power transformer. The transformer is typically a relatively large electronic
component, especially if it is used in a higher power linear regulated power supply.
The transformer can add significant weight to the power supply.
Rectifier: As the input from an AC supply is alternating, this needs to be converted

to a DC format. Various forms of rectifier circuit are available.
The most popular way is to use a single winding on the power supply transformer
and to use a bridge rectifier with four diodes. As diodes are very cheap, and the cost
of providing a centre tapped transformer is more, the most common approach these
days is to use a bridge rectifier.
Filter: Once rectified from an AC signal, the DC needs to be smoothed to remove

the varying voltage level. Large reservoir capacitors are used for this.
Regulator: Most power supplies these days provide a regulated output. With
modern electronics it is quite easy and not too costly to include a linear voltage
regulator. This provides a constant voltage output regardless of the load - within the
specified limits.
With many electronic components and electronic devices, etc requiring accurately
maintained supplies, a regulated power supply is a necessity.
There are two main types of Regulators:
Shunt regulator: The shunt regulator is less widely used as the main element
within a linear voltage regulator. For this form of linear power supply, a variable
element is placed across the load. There is a source resistor placed in series with the
input, and the shunt regulator is varied to ensure that the voltage across the load
remains constant.
Series regulator: This is the most widely used format for a linear voltage regulator.
As the name implies a series element is placed in the circuit, and its resistance
varied via the control electronics to ensure that the correct output voltage is
generated for the current taken.
PRACTICAL
Familiarize with major components of a linear power supply. Note down its
identification numbers and voltage specifications.
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Week No.8 Day 3- Switched Mode power supply, Construction, major

Components and operational philosophy.
THEORY
Switch Mode Power Supply Block Diagram
The modern switch mode power supply, or SMPS, uses solid-state switches to
convert an unregulated DC input voltage to a regulated and smooth DC output
voltage at different voltage levels. The input supply can be a true DC voltage from a
battery or solar panel, or a rectified DC voltage from an AC supply using a diode
bridge along with some additional capacitive filtering.
In many power control applications, the power transistor, MOSFET or IGFET, is

operated in its switching mode were it is repeatedly turned “ON” and “OFF” at high
speed. The main advantage of this is that the power efficiency of the regulator can
be quite high because the transistor is either fully-on and conducting (saturated) or
full-off (cut-off).
There are several types of DC-to-DC converter (as opposed to a DC-to-AC
converter which is an inverter) configurations available, with the three basic
switching power supply topologies looked at here being the Buck, Boost, and the
Buck-Boost switching regulators. All three of these topologies are non-isolated, that
is their input and output voltages share a common ground line.
Regulation of the output voltage is achieved by the percentage control of Page 75

the time
that the switching transistor is in the “ON” state compared to the total ON/OFF
time. This ratio is called the duty cycle and by varying the duty cycle, (D the
magnitude of the output voltage, VOUT can be controlled.
The use of a single inductor and diode as well as fast switching solid-state switches
capable of operating at switching frequencies in the kilohertz range, within the
switch mode power supply design, allows for the size and weight of the power
supply to be greatly reduced.
This is because there would be no large and heavy step-down (or step-up) voltage
mains transformers within their design. However, if isolation is required between
the input and output terminals, a transformer must be included before the converter.
The two most popular non-isolated switching configurations are the buck
(subtractive) and the boost (additive) converters.
The buck converter is a type of switch-mode power supply that is designed to

convert electrical energy from one voltage to a lower one. The buck converter
operates with a series connected switching transistor. As the duty cycle, D < 1, the
output voltage of the buck is always smaller than the input voltage, VIN.
The boost converter is a type of switch-mode power supply that is designed to

convert electrical energy from one voltage to a higher one.
The boost converter operates with a parallel connected switching transistor which
results in a direct current path between VIN and VOUT via the inductor, L1 and
diode, D1. This means there is no protection against short-circuits on the output.
By varying the duty cycle, (D) of a boost converter, the output voltage can be
controlled and with D < 1, the DC output from the boost converter is greater than
input voltage VIN as a consequence of the inductors self-induced voltage.
Also, the output smoothing capacitors in Switch-mode Power Supplies is assumed
to be very large, which results in a constant output voltage from the switch mode
supply during the transistors switching action.
PRACTICAL: Familiarize with components of SMPS, note their specs.

Unit No. 4:- Repair, Maintenance and Troubleshooting procedures forPage 76

Week No.8 Day 4- Troubleshooting, Repair and Maintenance of Linear Power

Supply.
THEORY
In the previous classes we have seen that the major building blocks of a linear
regulate power supply is transformer, rectifier, smoothing capacitor and regulator.
If at all any problem occurs, it can be in any one of the above. Now we will see how
to check them one by one.
1. Without a power source your unit won't work. Check your AC cable, check
your fuse and check your power switch. This is the same for all types.
2. If you have power going in to the power supply but don't have power coming
out, start at the AC side and move inwards. Check for AC on the input legs of
your transformer. If it's not there then move backwards and check all the solder
joints while continuing to check each node for AC. Check for a short to
ground. Sometimes the MOVs and other protection circuits are meant to short
to ground and blow the fuse in their fault conditions.
3 If you have AC reaching your transformer's primary, check the secondary for the
correct AC voltage potential. If you see it, great move on to #4, if not then we
*might* have a bad transformer. Some Toroid transformers have temperature
fuses within the windings that blow when it overheats. Another possibility is
that the transformer winding is internally open.
Another possibility is that the problem is further down in the circuit and it is
grounding the output of the transformer. If this is the case, your transformer will
likely be hot and/or humming slightly. In any of these cases I suggest pulling the
leads of the secondary out of the circuit and testing them directly. If you have
voltage, the problem is elsewhere. If you don't have voltage output but you have
input, your transformer may be broken.
4. If you have an output from the transformer but it grounds when you put it back in
the circuit, a short is to be expected. This can come from many places that aren't
very easy to troubleshoot in circuit.
Next suggestion would be to disconnect the output of the power supply if you
can. A lot of times we troubleshoot the power supply only to find out that a part
somewhere else on the board has shorted and pulled the PSU to ground. If you
still get no output we will look at the power supply itself starting with the
regulator.
Next, look at the voltage regulator. If it is a general 3 pin V regulator, pull it out
of the circuit. Now you can ohm between the legs or you can ohm the board
itself to see if the short to ground has gone away. Check both the input and
output traces of the PCB.
If the problem is gone, great, buy a new regulator but chances are that it might
have started to fail by letting the full voltage on it's input come out of it's output
and there may be more problems down the line. If the problem is still there we
need to check the capacitors around the regulator.
Electrolytic capacitors that have shorted usually get "puffy" and leak but usually
explode or fail open internally. Tantalum caps are always a terrible idea for
power supplies as they always fail shorted before they explode. Ceramic caps
can fail either way, poly caps rarely short and can usually take some serious juice
before going bad. If there are tantalums, remove them but remember where they
go and how. The band on the tantalum cap is opposite that of a diode and other
parts that use bands to show the cathode, it shows the +anode side of the cap.
They will usually have a slight brown discoloration on their tops if they are bad.
Again, if the caps are good, move on to any other types of caps that bridge
between the voltage rail and ground. Without the supply hooked up to the
circuitry that it is supposed to power, you will have likely found the problem by
now if the problem was in the power supply to begin with.
If the short is still present you will need to likely start pulling any other parts that
could have shorted the voltage rail to ground. This could include various types of
Page 78
diodes, resistors and other protection devices. Check them and replace them if
found faulty.

Week No.8 Day 5- Troubleshooting, Repair and Maintenance of Switch Mode

Power Supply.
THEORY
Unlike the linear regulated power supply, SMPS is complicated, because the
number of electronic components is much more than a liner power supply and it
makes use of many ICs. The following steps can be adopted for troubleshooting.
1. Blown fuse
In general conditions, blown power fuse indicates problems in internal circuits. The
power supply operates under high voltage and current. Voltage fluctuations or
surges of power grid often give rise to instant increase of current, which may result
in blown power fuse. Users should check whether there is breakdown, open circuit
or damage on rectifier diode, HV filtering electrolytic capacitor, and inversion
power switch tube at the input end. If the power fuse is blown with no indication of
other problems, users need to check components on the circuit board to check
whether they are burned out with leaked electrolyte. If there is no such condition,
users should check whether there is breakdown or short circuit by multi meter.
Users shall not start up the equipment even after finding out and replacing the
damaged part, because HV components with malfunctions may damage the newly-
replaced part. When dealing with blown power fuse, users must check all HV
components on the circuit board before starting up the equipment.
2. No DC output or unstable voltage output
If the power fuse remains in perfect condition but there is no DC output at various
levels in loaded condition, it may be caused by open circuit, short circuit,
overvoltage, overcurrent, failure of auxiliary power supply, failure of oscillating
circuit, over load of power supply, breakdown of rectifier diode in high-frequency
rectification and smoothing circuit, or electric leakage of smoothing capacitor. If
voltage output remains zero after checking secondary components by multi meter
Page 79
and clearing breakdown, overload or short circuit of high-frequency rectifier diode,
it can be confirmed there is problem with control circuit of power supply.
If there is voltage output at some parts, that means the on board circuit works
properly and it is problem of high-frequency rectification and smoothing circuit.
High-frequency filtering circuit mainly uses rectifier diode and low-voltage filtering
capacitor to output DC. If the rectifier diode breaks down, the circuit will be unable
to output voltage. In addition, electric leakage of filtering capacitor results in
unstable voltage output. Damaged components can be found out by checking
relevant parts with a multi meter.
3. Poor loading ability.
Poor loading capacity is a common malfunction. It is often seen at traditional power

supplies or those which work for long hours. It is caused by aging components,
unstable switch tube, or poor cooling condition. Users shall check and confirm the
status of regulated diode, rectifier diode and HV smoothing capacitor etc.
Visual check: Open shell of the power supply to check whether the power fuse has
been blown. Check internal part of the power supply. If components on PCB are
burned out, we shall check surrounding components and relevant circuit
components.
Smelling: Check whether there is burnt smell in internal part of the power supply
and whether there is burnt-out component.
Asking: Ask the damaging process of the power supply and check whether there is
violated operation
Measuring: Use multi meter to measure voltage at both ends of the high-voltage
capacitor before powering on. If switching power supply fails to oscillate or
presents malfunctions caused by switch tube, in most cases the voltage at both ends
of HV filter capacitor is not released. As the voltage is really high, please be
careful! When measuring the forward and backward resistance at both ends of AC
power lines as well as charging status of capacitor, the resistance value should not
be too low, otherwise the internal part of the power supply would present short
circuit. In addition, the capacitor shall be confirmed to release and charge power.
Then, users need to measure resistance to ground of various output ends after
releasing load respectively. Normally, the indicator of the multi meter shall swing
for the power releasing or charging of capacitor. The indicator is supposed to
display resistance of the bleeder at last.
PRACTICAL:- Go through the circuit of SMPS and troubleshoot defects.

Analysis. Page 80
Module No. 9: - Understanding, Repairing, Maintenance and Troubleshooting

KARDEX Filing Cabinet.
Week No.9Day 1- Overview on Kardex filing cabinet system. System electrical

construction. Overview on KARDEX mechanical parts.
THEORY
Electric Lateral File Cabinet. This machine is also referred to as vertical filing
carousels, and powered filing cabinets. This unique filing system provides a
solution to companies facing a lack of file storage space and issues concerning
productivity.
In MOD Environment, we use KARDEX system in different administrative offices.

Kardex Filing Cabinets is a precision –engineered unit equipped with modern
electronic control. It is operating in “Paternoster” lift principle. A paternoster lift
system is a man sized continuously moving open box. Whereas conventional lifts
stop at each floor to give passengers time to either get on or get off, the paternoster
does not: it keeps on moving.
2
LEGEND:
9
3 1. Top cover aluminium sheet.
2. Revolving shelves.
4 3. Work station light.
5 4. Shelves sliding door.
5. Light Curtain( Security barrier Sensor)
6 6. Work counter.
7. Kardex Keypad and display Panel.
7 8. Front access panel (service door).
10 9. Carrier chain connection to the motor.
10. Three-phase Motor.
8
Fig. 1 KARDEX Filing Cabinet
construction overview.
Page 81
Fig. 3: KARDEX Keypad (T0)

Fig. 2: KARDEX Control and Display Panel.
Kardex filing cabinet is controlled by main control PCB called “Control module”
shown in Fig. 3. The Control module PCB is located behind the access panel. The
Control module receives and process the electrical signal coming from the keypad
inputs, proximity sensors and other electrical inputs. The output signals that
generated out of the control module is feed to a Motor Driver or Frequency inverter
to start and stop the motor rotation.
Kardex filing cabinets can contain up to 30 carrier or shelves. Each shelves are
connected to the motor through a drive chain located at the right side of the
machine. Carrier movement and selection is triggered by typing the designated
carrier number on the keypad or continuous pressing of the UP and DOWN button.
Proximity sensors are employed to detect the proper position of the carrier during
stops.
A number of safety devices provide maximum safety for the operator during
operation.
 Safety Light Curtain a photoelectric sensor, secure the working/ operating

area to prevent the unit to start when the extraction mechanism or drawers are
pulled-out or not properly lock.
 Lockable main switch as a main ON/OFF switch of the unit.
 Emergency STOP switch. In case of an emergency this switch will stop the
whole unit to be operated.
 Sliding Door limit switches detect the upper and lower end position of the
sliding door. If the sliding door is not fully open the machine cannot start.
 Front access panel(service door) is equipped with a safety switch(Limit
switch) to prevent operation of unit while the panel is open.
 Motor protection safety switches prevent machine operation during excessive
motor temperature and during hand crank operation.

Analysis. Page 82
Week No.9 Day -2: Operator keypad and display panel, main control PCB, CMOS
battery, Sensor; proximity sensor, limit switches and motor
thermal sensor
THEORY
Kardex File cabinet is a series of revolving shelves or carrier that by pressing the
control button on the keypad will rotate to automatically and bring requested files to
the work counter. The electrical components behind this automated machines are as
follows.
Main Control PCB or Control Module
As the name implies this Module is responsible for the electrical control of the unit.
Its act like the brain of the unit where all the electrical signal are being sent by the
field devices such as sensors, switches and etc. to be process and produce a
corresponding output signal to be passed on to the output devices such as motor
starter input signals, Status indicator light, buzzer and etc.
Fig. 4: KARDEX Control Module Diagram

Operator Keypad (T0) and Display Panel:
The Operator keypad function is to input carrier number during carrier selection or
to manually rotate the carousel in the selected direction using UP and DOWN key.
Three(3) 7-segment display that are connected to the keypad PCB are used to
display alpha-numeric character during carrier selection or display error codes
during machine fault condition.
CMOS Battery Page 83

CMOS or complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor is an on-board battery
powered semiconductor chip inside the control module PCB that stores information.
This information ranges from the system time and date to system hardware settings
for your KARDEX system. The picture shows an example of the most common
CMOS coin cell battery (Panasonic CR 2032 3V or Ni-MH 3.6V) used to power the
CMOS memory. Removing or dis-charge CMOS battery causes hardware setting
loss on KARDEX system.
Fig. 5: CMOS Battery Li-Ion/ 3.6V Fig. 6: CMOS Battery Ni-MH/
Proximity Sensing
Kardex filing cabinet employs two(2) type of proximity sensing device namely
inductive proximity sensor and photoelectric sensor. Inductive proximity sensor is a
non-contact electronic proximity sensor. It is used for positioning the carrier by
detecting the upper and lower metal part of the carrier while Photoelectric signal are
used as protection device to prevent the unit operation when the extraction
mechanism or files are pulled out.
Fig. 7: Inductive Proximity sensor Fig. 8: Photoelectric sensor

Motor Protection
Over temperature protection device or Thermistors are built into

the motor windings and protect the motor against locked-rotor conditions,
continuous overload and high ambient temperature. Limit switches are employed on
the crank switch of the motor to prevent unit operation during hand crank operation.
Page 84
Analysis.

Week No.9 Day -3: Relay, contactors, emergency stop button, motor and motor
driver.
THEORY
In the previous topic we focus more the electrical control components of the kardex
machine and learn about its functions. This module will focus more on mechanical
parts of the Kardex machine and how the motor is being driven.
The Kardex Machine carousel is driven by a mechanical system consist of motor
and motor drives. The detailed function and illustration of this two(2) major
component will be shown below.
Motor
The Kardex filing Cabinet Motor is a compact Bevel geared motor which is power
by a three-phase 440v ac nominal voltage. A gear motor is any electric motor
coupled with a geared train. the addition of a gear box is intended to limit the speed
of the motor's shaft, and increase the motor's ability to output torque. The amplitude
of the input voltage of the motor are varied by the frequency inverter module in
accordance with the requires speed.
Fig. 9: AC Geared Motor

Frequency inverter and motor starter.
To stop and start the motor of the Kardex filing cabinet efficiently the motor is
connected to a motor starter or a VFD. The VFD control signal are feed from the
output of Control Module.
A Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) is a type of motor controller that drives an 85
Page
electric motor by varying the frequency and voltage supplied to the electric motor.
Other names for a VFD are variable speed drive, adjustable speed drive, adjustable
frequency drive, AC drive, micro drive, and inverter. Detailed discussion on how
the VFD works can be found on Unit 3 module 6 discussion.
Fig. 9: Frequency Inverter
Relays and Contactor

The Kardex carousel rotate in forward or reverse direction according to the operator
input. In order for the machine to attain control of motor rotation direction a series
of relay and contactor are employed in the system.
Relay:
A relay is an electromagnetic switch operated by a relatively small electric current

that can turn on or off a much larger electric current. The heart of a relay is an
electromagnet (a coil of wire that becomes a temporary magnet when electricity
flows through it).
Contactor:
A contactor is an electrical device which is used for switching an electrical circuit

on or off. It is considered to be a special type of relay. However, the basic
difference between the relay and contactor is that the contactor is used in
applications with higher current carrying capacity, whereas the relay is used for
lower current applications.
Emergency switches
Emergency switch is a safety mechanism used to shut off machinery in an

emergency. It prevent the operation of the machine during abnormal situation.
Page 86
Analysis.

Week No.9 Day -4: Troubleshooting and repair.
THEORY
Kardex filing Cabinets are equipped with 7-segment display located in the keyboard
panel which Display an alpha-numeric error codes for trouble shooting and system
error diagnosis.
System Messages
The system Error indicator is activated after the interruption of any safety devices.
An Error code is shown in the carrier number and quantity number fields. This
allow an easy unequivocal locating of error.
Error code Error description

E - Safety error short break Any of the safety devices are interrupted for a short
time, the location of the error cannot clearly
identify.
E0 – Imbalance error Imbalance check state. Imbalance condition.
E1 – Photocell error The object protection light barrier (Photoelectric
sensor) has been permanently interrupted.
E? – Safety device error Any of the safety devices are interrupted.
E9 – Positioning error The current carrier is out normal stop posting
position.
EA- Malfunction of safety Please advise the technical service.
device.
EB – Motor –reaction time Please advise the technical service.
too long.
EC – Error stop monitoring Please advise the technical service.
Emergency service
In case of power failure, it is possible to use a hand crank to move the carrier
manually. The hand crank is located behind the front access panel. Ensure that the
main switch is off and secure from switching on again.
Troubleshooting Page 87
To locate problem preventing correct machine operation, check compliance with
below procedure.
Frequently Procedure
occurring Error
codes
E?- Safety error. 1. Verify that the Emergency switch is not engage or on.
2. Check that the sliding door are fully opened.
3. Check that there are no object interrupting the light barrier
or photoelectric sensor.
4. Reset the machine by turning off and on again.
5. Verify that the error is reset and the display is clear of error
messages.
6. Operate the machine by selecting carrier or by manually
turning the carousel by UP and DOWN button.
E1 – Photocell 1. Check for any object that may be blocking the photocell line
error. of sight. Check for misalign files that may be blocking the
sensor.
2. Clean the sensor plastic panel for any dirt and dust.
3. Check the sensor alignment.
4. Check the if the sensor is faulty.
5. Restart the machine and verify if the error is corrected and
gone.
E9 – Positioning 1. Turn off the machine by witching off the main switch.
error. 2. Open the front panel (service access) to gain access to the
motor crank switch.
3. Using the hand crank rotate the motor slowly until the
current carrier is within the upper and lower limit level.
4. Remove the hand crank and close the front panel access.
5. Turn on the machine and verify that the error has been
resolve and gone.
Practical
Practical demonstration on troubleshooting using simulated error on kardex filing

cabinet.
Analysis. Page 88

Week No.9 Day -5: Preventive maintenance procedure and spare parts planning
THEORY
To ensure that the power-operated shelves and cabinet must be checked for safety
as scheduled, at least once a year, by a qualified person. The result of the inspection
must be recorded.
Kardex filing cabinet is design for a year of trouble-free operation and requires
customary care and normal maintenance. These are the basic thing to be checked
during maintenance.
Mechanical inspection
1. Check and tighten motor drive chain. This has to be done regularly to ensure the
machine safety and to avoid any damage to the motor and the drive chain.
2. Check and retighten fixing screw of the main shaft. (Use Torque meter.)
3. Check carrier chain.
If you can determine any slack tighten carrier chain(check with hand crank).
Then adjust curved track again.
4. Check Motor-and drive sprocket for secure fastening. (check also for slack by
using the hand crank).
5. Check wear and tear of guide rollers.
6. Door.
 Check Function and running.
 Check ropes for wear. Replace if necessary.
7. If necessary apply grease on curve tracks and stabilizer tracks as well as door
tracks.
Page 89
8. Check brakes for function. The breaking distance of the carrier must be shorter
than the distance of the safety bars(Upper and lower door leaf.)
9. Check safety function. If a safety devices is found faulty the Unit is not supposed
to operate; instead, an error message must appear in the display.
10. Precaution must be observed during maintenance. In Case of security equipment
failure, there is an increased risk of injury due to hard crank rotation.
Electrical Inspection
1. Check the safety light curtain for function. A secure cut-off must be guaranteed
when insert or evacuation devices are not fully inserted.
2. Check alignment of proximity switches. The distance to the carrier arm should be
3-5mm.
3. Check if the ground conductor (Yellow green) is correctly connected to the
casing grounded earth rails on the frame.
4. Electrical inspection must be performed in accordance with the respective
national regulation.
PRACTICAL
Actual demonstration of Preventive maintenance procedure on a kardex filing

cabinet.
Page 90
Module No. 10: - Repair, Maintenance and troubleshooting of Window and Split
A/Cs electrical control circuit and printed circuit boards.
Week No.10 Day 1- Introduction to Air-conditioning, Window and Split A/Cs

functioning, major parts.
THEORY
INTRODUCTION TO REFRIGERATION
What is Refrigeration?:- Refrigeration is the process of removing heat from one

substance and transferring it to another substance.
Refrigeration Cycle
In a refrigeration cycle, there are four major components. They are

1. Compressor
2. Condenser (Hot coil)
3. Expansion Valve
4. Evaporator (Cold coil)
Page 91
Out of this, the major electrical part is Compressor. The function of the Compressor
is to compress the Refrigerant from low pressure gaseous form to high pressure
gaseous form at high temperature. Then it is passed through the Condenser coil
where the excess heat is being absorbed from the refrigerant with the help of
condenser fan.
Then it is allowed to expand suddenly causing sudden pressure drop. The

refrigerant changes its form to liquid at low temperature.
When this low temperature and refrigerant is passed through the Evaporator coil, it
absorbs heat from the air flow which is caused by the blower fan. This cool air is
used to cool down the room temperature.
Again the refrigerant enters the compressor and the cycle is repeated.
So, we observe that in a Window A/C the major parts are Compressor, Condenser
coil, expansion valve, Evaporator coil, Condenser fan and Evaporator blower.
The main type of Refrigerant being used is R22 (Refrigerant 22) which is going to
be phased out from use in the near future due to the damage it is causing to the
Ozone layer in the atmosphere.
PRACTICAL
Students can physically see the parts of a window A/C and identify the components.
Familiarize with design and construction, mounting of each part. Identify the
electrical parts and identify the mechanical parts. Check the compressor name plate
data, starting and running capacitor ratings. Know more about electrical controlling
components. Note down their specifications.
Page 92
Week No.10 Day 2- Introduction to Window A/Cs functioning, major

Parts and repairing methods.
THEORY
Normally window A/Cs are available in the range 1Ton, 1.5Ton or 2Ton cooling
capacity.
They work on 1-phase supply, ie 230Vac. The following figure shows the wiring
diagram of a typical window A/C.
Page 93
As we can see from the diagram, the major electrical parts are
1. Compressor motor
2. Fan/Blower motor
3. Oscillator motor
4. Thermostat
5. Rocker switch
6. Rotary switch
7. Capacitor
The above picture shows a typical name plate data of a window A/C. Usually it
shows the rated voltage, rated power, rated current, type of refrigerant used etc..
The approximate ratio of cooling capacity in Ton of Refrigeration (TR) with

cooling capacity in watts is 1TR = 3500W, so the above A/C is 1.5TR.
PRACTICAL
Students can see the working of a window A/C in the workshop and observe the
components. Check the compressor name plate and measure the actual running load
and compare with the name plate data.
Page 94
Week No.10 Day 3- Introduction to Split A/Cs functioning, major

Parts working methods.
THEORY
In window A/C we have seen that the Compressor, Condenser, Evaporator, Fan all
are fitted in the same casing. But in case of a split A/C, they are divided into two
major sections.
1. Outdoor Unit - This comprises of Compressor, Condenser coil and

Condensor Fan.
2. Indoor Unit – This part holds the Evaporator coil and Evaporator blower.
The following picture shows a typical arrangement of a split A/C.
Electrical wiring diagram of a Split A/C unit.

Page 95
Page 96
Week No.10 Day 4- Details of Split A/Cs Control cards, working methods.
THEORY
As we have seen earlier, split A/C is divided mainly into two parts.
1. Outdoor Unit.
Outdoor Unit comprises of the Compressor, Condenser coil & Condenser fan
along with the electrical isolator.
Compressor: It is recognized as the engine of the air conditioning system.

The compressor functions together with refrigerant that can easily transform
from gas into a liquid. The main task of the compressor is to convert low-
pressure gas into a high pressure gas, which also has high temperature. The
refrigerant comes out of the compressor to enter into the condenser.
Condenser Coil: There is a fan fitted into the condenser coil which cools
down the high pressure gas and converts it back into a liquid. This product is
now taken to the next part or the component of the air conditioner called the
evaporator. We can see compressor and condenser located always on the
outside of the building and that is why they are called outdoor unit.
2. Indoor Unit.
Evaporator: Located inside the room. The high pressure gas which is now
transformed into the low pressure liquid reaches this section of the air
conditioning system. The decreasing pressure in this section turns the liquid
into a gas again. In this process, the working fluid or refrigerant takes away
the heat from the air and cools it off. Next, the working fluid comes out of
the evaporator in the form of a gas to again get compressed by the
compressor.
Blower fan: These are the two parts of the system which work together to
draw room air to the evaporator and disseminate the cool air all over your
house.
Thermostat: This component helps you maintain the temperature of your
Page 97 air
conditioning system. The thermostat can be set manually or automatically,
depending on its features.
Printed Circuit Board Troubleshooting
An air conditioner circuit board operate in both voltage AC and DC voltages.

Whenever there is a current surge, the circuitry may be damaged by sudden
introduction of higher voltage that is beyond its operating range.
Repairing of circuit boards should be carried out in a workshop environment where

all test equipment are readily available. Upon repair, circuit board operation must
be tested for a period of time to determine if it is operational again.
PRACTICAL
Students can thoroughly learn about the components of a split A/C indoor and
outdoor units. Check the indoor and outdoor unit specifications.
Observe practical working of indoor and outdoor units, thermostat and electrical
isolator ratings etc..
Do practical tests on PCB and troubleshoot various problems component wise.

Page 98
Week No.10 Day 5- Details of Split A/Cs Control cards troubleshooting

Techniques.
THEORY
Main Control Printed Circuit Board
The main control board can be divided into input power supply, a microcomputer
controller integrated circuit, temperature sensor inputs and outputs to control the
compressor, indoor fan speed, outdoor fan speed and air swing. The AC input from
the mains has to be converted to DC voltage where it can be used to power the
integrated circuits and drivers in the electronics circuit.
There are two ways to do this. One is by using a step down transformer where the
AC voltage is stepped down to voltage such as 25V AC or 12V AC. This voltage is
then converted to DC by the use of diode bridge as rectifier and electrolytic
capacitor to smoothen the rectified voltage.
A 3-pin voltage regulator is used to get a fixed 5V DC or 12V DC power supply.

This low voltages are used to power the microcomputer, DC relays and other
integrated circuits in the circuit.
Page 99
The other method is to use switched mode power supply or SMPS which makes the
dimension of the printed circuit board smaller as the bulky transformer can now be
replaced with a smaller transformer. This design is becoming more common as the
quest for smaller space is becoming more critical.
There is usually a surge absorber or a Varistor connected across the input of the
power supply. This device acts to protect the internal circuit in the event of
lightning or power surge.
When the power input to the device exceeded its voltage rating, it will clamp the
voltage by bypassing it to the input source.
This is one device that can be easily damaged if the power surge or lightning
occurred beyond its maximum rating.
A fuse is placed in series with the input power supply to cut-off any overcurrent or
short circuit that happened in the circuit.
This is another protective device used in most electronics circuit. It has to be

replaced once it is blown.
Infra-Red Receiver Board

In order for the handheld remote control to send the settings to the controller at the
air conditioner unit, there is at least an infra-red receiver printed circuit board that
receives the signals from the handset.
Handheld Remote Control

With remote you can control the air conditioner settings remotely by pointing your
handset towards the air conditioning unit. All functions of the unit is controlled by
this remote.
PRACTICAL: Troubleshoot various electronic PCBs and Remote set.
Unit No. 4:- Repair, Maintenance and Troubleshooting procedures Page
for 100
Module No. 11: - Understanding, Repair, Maintenance and troubleshooting of
Dosing Pump, Water Pump control panels, Flow Meters,
Telemetry system and
Week No.11 Day 1- Dosing pump basics, Parts, Control and Power PCB,
Troubleshooting techniques.
THEORY
What is a Dosing Pump?
A dosing pump, which is a positive displacement pump, is designed to inject a

chemical or another substance into the flow of water, gas or steam. Dosing pumps,
which are typically small, provide an extremely precise flow rate for maximum
control.
They are the central part of an integrated dosing system designed for automatic
dispersion of chemicals. This dosing definition applies to a wide range of
applications and industries, from waste water treatment to food processing.
In MOD we use dosing pumps mainly in the RO plant and Chilled water circuit to
control the pH value of the treated water.
To protect the membrane, the pH of alkaline raw water should be adjusted down to
neutral (approximately 7). This is accomplished by injecting precise amounts of
acids, such as hydrochloric acid, to lower the pH.
To deliver the best water quality possible for consumption, the pH should be
adjusted once again using caustics, or chemicals such as sodium bicarbonate, to
Page 101
raise the alkalinity to a neutral pH. Once again, metering pumps are used to inject
the precise amounts of the caustics needed for the process.
Types of Dosing Pumps
Diaphragm (constant injection) pumps use a diaphragm, piston and valves on

both the inlet and outlet to fill and empty its chamber. Drawing in the piston fills
the chamber, and a specific amount of chemical is injected at a pre-set speed,
usually a percentage of the maximum flow rate. Certain pump models are capable
of variable dosing rates.
Diaphragm (pulse injection) pumps also uses the diaphragm mechanism, but instead
of a constant flow rate, a solenoid coil takes in the chemical and injects it in pulses.
The flow rate is the length of time between pulses. The flow rate is generally in the
range of 6 – 250 l/hr. In MOD we use these types of pumps.
Lobe pumps let a certain volume of fluid through meshing gear impellors. It is not
as accurate as a diaphragm pump.
Parts of a Dosing pump.
The diaphragm type dosing pumps work on the principle of a pulsating diaphragm
activated by the solenoid coils. The injection rate and stroke length is being
controlled through a printed circuit board with electronic control.
PRACTICAL
Dismantle the parts of a dosing pump. Inspect the control mechanism. Familiarize
with the electronic PCB, identify various components and learn how to check them.
Unit No. 4:- Repair, Maintenance and Troubleshooting proceduresPage

for 102
Week No.11 Day 2- Water pump control MCCs, Starters, Control wiring, Auto
operation And Troubleshooting techniques.
THEORY
Pump Control Panel basics
Pump Control Panels control electric motors that power mechanical pumps. A
Pump Control Panel includes power components to control the pump motor, sensors
to protect the pump, and pilot devices for operator control. Additional sensors are
used to monitor the process for automatic pump operation.
Some pump controls are simple and pre-packaged with the pump in the ready to
install configuration.
Others are pump control systems designed for specific applications and specific
customer requirements.
In MOD we have such panels in the fresh water pumping station, RO plant and
STPs. Some of them work with float type level controllers, some with conductive
probe level controllers.
Protecting the pump and the pump motor are priorities because a pump failure can
have serious consequences. At a minimum make sure the motor and pump don’t
overheat and the pump doesn’t run dry. Design the pump control panel based on the
application and customer requirements.
A Pump Control Panel has to know the status of process variables required to
control and protect the pump. This means it has to connect to devices that are
monitoring the process.
Pump panels are normally fitted with the following protections and control devices.
Motor Overloads – Pump Protection for when the pump motor current is above its
Full Load Amp rating.
Temperature Sensors – Pump Protection when the pump or motor are above their
Temperature rating.
Level Sensors – Pump control and protection to insure the pump doesn’t Page
run dry.
103
Flow Sensors – Used to verify the pump is moving fluid.
Pressure Sensors – Used for pump control and to adjust speed according to the pre-
set value.
In the top figure, the pump is being controlled with the level switches.
A Pump Control Panel may be designed to control one pump or multiple pumps
(Duty / Standby, Lead / Lag, etc.) as needed and generally operate as follows.
Start and Stop pumps based on the following
Level Sensors, or
Pressure Sensors, or
Flow Sensors
Control pumps using the following
Fixed Speed (Small) – Use an Across the Line Motor Starter
Fixed Speed (Large) – Use a Solid State Soft Starter (Prevent Water Hammer)
Variable Speed – Use a Variable Frequency Drive (Pressure or Flow control)
A Pump Control Panel has to give an Operator the ability to turn the power on and
off, control the process, and monitor the process and status of all alarms as needed.
Main Power, Main Power Disconnect, Pump Controls, System Off-On Selector
Manual-Off-Auto Selector, if used
Level or Pressure Set point, if used
Speed, if used and other features like Monitoring, Running Status light, and
Alarm Status lights, Level or Pressure, if used and Speed, if used.
PRACTICAL
Familiarize with a water pumping panel control scheme, learn troubleshooting.
Page 104
Week No.11 Day 3- Level controllers, Level probes, different technologies –
operation and working principle. Troubleshooting techniques.
THEORY
Level Controllers
For controlling the level of water in an overhead tank or ground level tank, we use
different types of level controllers.
Usually these controllers are coming with a control circuit suitably mounted in side
an enclosure with connecting terminals. Each controller is also provided with
sensing probes. These sensors may be conductive, capacitive, ultrasonic etc.
Conductivity Systems
An electrode (metallic rod or tube) is placed in a conductive liquid (e.g.water, acid,

sewage & other aqueous solutions) at the point where switching is required.
When the liquid touches or leaves the tip of the electrode, an electrical circuit
between it and earth is completed. This causes a switch to operate in the control
unit. This is a very simple, accurate and economical method of controlling levels in
liquids and covers up to 70% of applications.
Capacitive Systems
When the liquid (or free flowing powders) is non-conducting (e.g. oil products,
viscous & granular materials) the conductivity method does not work, Page 105
and a
different type of electrode containing electronic
circuitry is required. This relies on the capacitive change as the liquid
(powder) leaves or touches the tip of the electrode.
Float Systems
A small magnetic float slides on a tubular shaft in which reed switches are mounted
at intervals. The float follows the rise and falls of the liquid and actuates the
switches to produce a continuous level indication. In our DG set base tank, this
sensors are used.
Ultrasonic Systems
A non-contact system which comprises an Ultrasonic Transducer which contains a

crystal and associated electronic circuitry. The crystal is activated electrically to
produce an ultrasonic sound wave or pulse, which is focused on the liquid whose
depth is to be measured. The ultrasonic pulse is reflected back to the transducer, and
the time for transmission and return, corrected for temperature variation, is a
function of depth. Bursts of pulses are transmitted at frequent intervals. Spurious
pulses outside a "Dynamic Window" based on the transducer frequency, are
rejected and the average taken of the remainder. This is converted into a 4/20mA
signal, proportional to the depth or distance from the transducer, whichever is
selected. The 4/20mA signal may be passed to a PLC, Digital/Analogue meter etc.
PRACTICAL
Explore a few types of level controllers with drawing and familiarize connections.
Page 106
Week No.11 Day 4- Flow meters – Different technologies.
Operation and working principle. Troubleshooting techniques.
THEORY
In MOD we are measuring the flow of many liquids for different application. It may
be fuel for Diesel Generator, Gas Turbine etc or water flow measurement in STP or
RO plant.
In a piped flow system, the flow rate depends mainly on the pressure difference
between the ends, the distance between the ends, the area of the conduit and the
hydraulic properties of the conduit - like the shape, roughness and restrictions like
bends.
Flow Metering Principals
 Differential Pressure Flow meters

 Velocity Flow meters
 Positive Displacement Flow meters
 Mass Flow meters
For Open Channel Flow meters - weirs, flumes, submerged orifices , current meters,
acoustic flow meters and more.
Differential Pressure Flow Meters
In a differential pressure drop device, the flow is calculated by measuring the

pressure drop over obstructions inserted in the flow. The differential pressure flow
meter is based on the Bernoulli Equation where the pressure drop and the further
measured signal is a function of the square flow speed.
Common types of differential pressure flow meters are:
Orifice Plates, Flow Nozzles and Venturi Tubes

Variable Area Flow meter or Rotameter
The Rotameter consists of a vertically oriented glass (or plastic) tube with a larger
end at the top, and a metering float which is free to move within the tube. Fluid
flow causes the float to rise in the tube as the upward pressure differential and
buoyancy of the fluid overcome the effect of gravity. Page 107
This type of Rotameters are widely used in our RO plants to see the flow rate.
Other accurate type flow meters
Electromagnetic Flowmeter.
An electromagnetic flowmeter operate on Faraday's law of electromagnetic

induction that states that a voltage will be induced when a conductor moves through
a magnetic field. The liquid serves as the conductor and the magnetic field is
created by energized coils outside the flow tube.
The voltage produced is directly proportional to the flow rate. Two electrodes
mounted in the pipe wall detect the voltage which is measured by a secondary
element.
Electromagnetic flow meters can measure difficult and corrosive liquids and
slurries, and they can measure flow in both directions with equal accuracy.
Electromagnetic flow meters have a relatively high power consumption and can
only be used for electrical conductive fluids like water.
Ultrasonic Doppler Flowmeter
The effect of motion of a sound source and its effect on the frequency of the sound
was observed and described by Christian Johann Doppler.
The frequency of the reflected signal is modified by the velocity and direction of
the fluid flow
If a fluid is moving towards a transducer, the frequency of the returning signal will
increase. As fluid moves away from a transducer, the frequency of the returning
signal decrease.

Repair, Maintenance and Troubleshooting procedures for
Week No.11 Day 5- Pressure Gauges, Pressure switches and pressure transmitters.
- Types. working principle. Troubleshooting techniques.
THEORY
What is the difference between a pressure gauge, pressure switch and pressure
transducers?
A pressure gauge is a pressure indicating device that provides a local readout of

pressure to monitor the operation or condition of a process by locally indicating a
quantity of pressure. There are many types of pressure gauges, but the most
common is the analogue indicating bourdon tube type.
A pressure switch is a device that, after the deviation of a physical pressure, opens
or closes a set of contacts. The pressure setting can typically be adjusted and is used
to open or close a valve or turn a pump on or off based on the physical pressure.
In HVAC chilled water circuits and DG fuel and lube oil lines we use this.
A pressure transducer or transmitter is an electronic device used in combination

with a pressure sensor and voltage-to-current signal conditioner to generate a
proportional output to the pressure it is reading, such as 4–20 mA or 1-5 volt (or
other type) output signal.
This proportional pressure signal can be fed to a distributed control system or other
control to continuously manage the operation of a pumping system.
A typical application for control with a pressure transmitter and controls system is
the modulation of a control valve or modulation of pump speed through a variable
speed drive to maintain system pressure set point.
Pressure gauges, switches and transducers can read, indicate and/or control based
on positive, negative (vacuum) or differential pressures.
Pressure Switches Page 109
A pressure switch is a form of switch that closes or opens an electrical contact when
a certain fluid pressure has been reached on its input. The switch may be designed
to make contact either on pressure rise or on pressure fall. Pressure switches are
widely used in industry to as an interlock in control systems.
Pressure Transmitters or Transducers
A pressure transducer often called a pressure transmitter, is a transducer that

converts pressure into an analogue electrical signal. Although there are various
types of pressure transducers, one of the most common is the strain-gage base
transducer.
The conversion of pressure into an electrical signal, is achieved by the physical
deformation of strain gauges, which are bonded into the diaphragm of the pressure
transducer, and wired into a Wheatstone bridge configuration. Pressure applied to
the pressure transducer produces a deflection of the diaphragm, which introduces
strain to the gages. The strain will produce an electrical resistance change
proportional to the pressure.

Page 110
Diesel Generator panels, AMF panels, Automatic Voltage
Regulator (AVR), Generator Battery Charger.
Week No.12 Day 1- Diesel Generator operating principle. Construction and main
parts.
THEORY
We operate and maintain a large number of DG sets all over Oman in our camps.
The application in border locations are for prime application whereas in major
camps it works as standby for supporting critical loads at the time of a power
outage.
We all know that Diesel Generator is a combination of diesel run mechanical

engine coupled with a electricity generating alternator. The size varies from 10kVA
to a few MVA.
A simple explanation how a DG set works is that diesel generators operate as an

electrical machine that convert one source of energy into another form of energy. In
this case, a power generator works by taking mechanical energy and converting it
into electrical energy.
Two or more Generators can be electrically connected together through the process
of synchronization. Synchronization involves matching voltage, frequency and
phase before connecting the generator to the system.
Failure to synchronize before connection could cause a high short circuit current or
wear and tear on the generator or its switchgear. The synchronization process can
be done automatically by an auto-synchronizer module, or manually by the
instructed operator.
The auto-synchronizer will read the voltage, frequency and phase parameters from
the generator and bus-bar voltages, while regulating the speed through the engine
governor or ECM (Engine Control Module).
Every diesel generator is made up of at least nine different - but equally important -
parts. These are the:
Diesel Engine, Alternator, Fuel System, Voltage Regulator, Cooling Page 111&
System
Exhaust System, Lubrication System, Battery Charger, Control Panel, Main
Assembly Frame or Skid etc..
Alternator
An alternator is made up of many complex components, but one of the most crucial
aspects is the rotor. This is a shaft that rotates - driven by the mechanical energy
supplied by the engine - with multiple permanent magnets fixed around it. In doing
so, this creates a magnetic field.
This magnetic field created continuously rotates around another critical part of the
alternator: the stator. Simply put, this is a variation of different electrical conductors
that are tightly wound over an iron core. This is where things start to become
slightly more scientific. According to the principle of electromagnetic induction, if
an electrical conductor remains stationary and a magnetic field moves around it,
then an electrical current is induced.
The alternator takes mechanical energy created by the diesel engine, which drives
the rotor to create a magnetic field that moves inside the stator, which in turn
generates an alternating current.
Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR)Here, we have the most complex part of an

electric generator. The AVR is to regulate the voltage output. In simple terms, it
ensures that the generator produces electricity at a nice steady voltage. We will
discuss more about AVR in separate class.
Battery Charger- All diesel engines need a tiny little electrical motor to help kick
it into action. This small motor requires a battery, which needs to be charged. The
battery charger keeps it nice and full of charge, either by an external source of the
generator itself.
Control Panel
This is the part with which the generator is being controlled and operated. On an
electric start (or auto start) generator you will find a whole host of controls here that
allow you to do different things or check certain figures. This could include
anything from the start button and a frequency switch, to an engine fuel indicator,
coolant temperature indicator and much more.

Week No.12 Day 2- Generator Control Panel, functions and interfacing with
sensors and protection devices.
THEORY
Generator Control Panel
A generator control panel is a display parameter that presents various details and
parameters, such as current, voltage, and frequency. While some control panels
have built-in displays so that operators could visually review a generator’s function,
many other control panels have meters and gauges that will display information.
Whether the control panel has a built-in display, meters, or gauges, they are usually
constructed in a metal weather proof housing and mounted on the generator, along
with vibration proof padding to help insulate the control panel from shocks.
A generator’s control panel connects to several sensors throughout the unit to bring
you vital information regarding system efficiency, voltage and run hours; triggering
alarms and display warnings if something is wrong. Used in conjunction with an
Automatic Transfer Switch (ATS); the control panel can start the generator the
instant that a power outage is detected. Page 113
Fully utilizing your control panel helps to protect your generator engine from low
oil pressure, high oil temperatures, coolant level fluctuations and dangerous engine
speed variants. It also helps to protect the alternator from circuit breaker failure and
system overloads. With the addition of upgradable aftermarket control panels, users
can pinpoint the parameters to be monitored as well as customize automation
requirements and alerts; fine-tuning the information provided to best fit your
application.
How Does A Generator Control Panel Work?
Generator control panels contain a microprocessor that can process and manipulate
input from sensors to help provide feedback to the Genset to monitor itself and
manage any processes that come about. A common feedback setting would be
temperature. When the generator engine begins to reach temperatures meet or
exceed to temperature sensor setting, the generator could be prompted to shutdown
automatically to prevent damage.
Generator control panels are often paired together with an Automatic Transfer
Switch (ATS). An ATS will prompt the generator to kick in seconds within the
event of power loss due to power outage. Once power is restored from the main
power grid, the generator will be prompted to shut off, as service from the main
grid will resume. This is simply due to the fact that because the ATS is connected to
the main grid, the ATS can detect an outage and signal the control panel to start the
generator without the need to manually start the generator.
Without an ATS (Automatic Transfer Switch), you will need staff on-site to
manually flip the switch on the generator controls to run the generator in the event
of a power outage and must also manually turn off the generator once power is
restored. Failure to turn off the generator after power to the main grid is restored
can cause an effect called back feeding, which can be lethal to any electricians that
are working on the power lines.
PRACTICAL
Students can go to the site where a Genset along with ATS panel is connected.
Familiarize with the connection set up, go through the drawings, understand
functions of each component.

Week No.12 Day 3- Generator sensors and protection devices. Monitoring and
Control philosophy.
THEORY
Generator Protection
A generator is subjected to electrical stresses imposed on the insulation of the

machine, mechanical forces acting on the various parts of the machine, and
temperature rise. These are the main factors which make protection necessary for
the generator or alternator.
Even when properly used, a machine in its perfect running condition does not only
maintain its specified rated performance for many years, but it does also repeatedly
withstand certain excess of overload.
The devices used in generator protection, ensure that when a fault arises, it is
eliminated as quickly as possible.
The generators are normally connected to an electrical power system, hence any
fault occurred in the power system should also be cleared from the generator as
soon as possible otherwise it may create permanent damage in the generator.
Types of Generator Protection
The various forms of protection applied to the generator can be categorized into two
manners,
1. Protective relays to detect faults occurring outside the generator.

2. Protective relays to detect faults occurring inside the generator.
Protection against Lubrication Oil Failure
This protection is considered essential since the lubrication oil is very important for
the Generator mechanical parts to function smoothly. So always lube oil pressure is
being monitored by the engine control and in case any fall happens engine will go
to shut down.
Page 115
Over Speed Protection
While it is the general practice to provide mechanical over speed devices on DG

sets to cut down the speed, it is again a common practice to install speed sensors to
shut down the DG if it goes above certain per cent of the set speed using relays and
control circuitry
When the DG set is running healthy we should monitor the coolant temperature,
engine rpm, lube oil pressure etc. The following picture shows the healthy
conditions of a DG set while it is running.
In new generation engines, the control and protection functions are carried out by
the Electronic Control Module (ECM). The following picture shows its functions.
Page 116
Week No.12 Day4 – Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR), Charging Alternator.
THEORY
Automatic Voltage Regulator
As the name implies, an Automatic Voltage Regulator is an electronic device for

automatically maintaining generator output terminal voltage at a set value under
varying load and operating temperature.
The principle of voltage generation requires a source of magnet which is in a

relative motion with conductors. When magnetic lines of forces cut the conductors,
current is produced. The magnet here is not a permanent magnet but an electro
magnet which draws a small current from produced current which induces the
electromagnet. Greater the amount of current drawn from circuit , greater the
electromagnetic power will be produced, and so a greater voltage will be produced
at the generator output. So something should be responsible for regulating the
amount of current given to electromagnet to produce a particular set voltage, say
440 V. This particular thing is known as AVR. As you switch on a heavier load say
a motor, a voltage dip occurs (you can notice this by watching light bulbs going dim
for a short period, 1–4 seconds). The AVR senses this drop in voltage and increases
the feed current through an electronic circuit into the electromagnet present on the
rotor of the generator, so as to reach the set voltage i.e. 440V again and power is
regulated.
Working Principle of Voltage Regulator Page 117
It works on the principle of detection of errors. The output voltage of an AC

generator obtained through a potential transformer and then it is rectified, filtered
and compared with a reference. The difference between the actual voltage and the
reference voltage is known as the error voltage. This error voltage is amplified by
an amplifier and then supplied to the main exciter or pilot exciter.
Charging Alternator
In a Generator, you will find two alternators. The main one is the alternator which
produces the main electricity required, in single phase or 3 phases.
The second Alternator is called the Charging Alternator.
When Generator is in the rest mode, batteries are charged with external battery
charger. But when the DG set is in running mode, battery is being charged with
charging alternator. The charging voltage should match with the voltage of the
battery in use like 12VDC or 24 VDC.
The alternator consists of a stator - a stationary set of wire coil windings, inside
which a rotor revolves.
The rotor is an electromagnet supplied with a small amount of electricity through

carbon or copper-carbon brushes (contacts) touching two revolving metal slip rings
on its shaft.
The electricity produced is alternating current. It has to be rectified - turned into a

one-way flow, or direct current.
The current from an alternator is rectified into direct current by a set of diodes that
allow current to flow through them in one direction only.
To charge the battery the voltage supplied to it must not be too low or too high.
The alternator has a transistor-operated control device that regulates the voltage by
supplying more or less current - as required - to the electromagnet.
The rectifier and regulator are usually inside the alternator housing, but on some
alternators they are outside, mounted on the alternator body.
Page 118

Week No.12 Day5 – Maintenance and Troubleshooting of DG Set Battery and
Battery Chargers.
THEORY
Keeping the battery of a DG set in good health condition is equally as important as

maintaining the DG set; otherwise at the time of an emergency, we will face
problem especially for Standby applications.
Battery condition indicators:
The following are a few of key signs of battery failures.
Idle discharge - A slow chemical reaction between a battery’s plates and trace
impurities will slowly discharge an idle battery.
It is recommended to keep charging any wet lead batteries three months before
installation to standby generator set to maintain a minimum float charge.
Cell voltage - Cell voltage is critical to correct battery operation. Any deterioration
from recommended levels in any cell should be recorded and tracked on battery
maintenance charts. Just one cell with low voltage will drop overall battery voltage,
which can harm equipment and result in too little power to start an engine.
Cell balance - One cell that fails to charge equally with others also indicates a
problem. An undercharging will cause gradual sulfation of negative plates and
reduce battery life or capacity of lead acid batteries.
Overcharging corrodes the grids of the positive plates. NiCd batteries are not
Specific gravity (SG) - SG indicates electrolyte weight. Heavier electrolyte means a

heavier charge. Low SG indicates plate sulfation, cell deterioration and reduced
battery capacity. So SG of a battery electrolyte shall be maintained at 1265.
Water top up – We must maintain the electrolyte level by adding distilled water.
Battery connections - Terminal connections over time can loosen causing excessive
heat. Connections shall be always tight. Page 119
Dirty battery: Dirt on the top of the battery can lead to conductivity between the
poles.
Battery Charger (BC)
In a standby application, the generator set is stationary most of the time, running
only for exercise periods or during a power outage.
To ensure the battery is adequately charged while the generator set is stationary, a
separate static battery charging system is always there in our AMF panels.
There are 12V, 6A Charger and 24V, 10A chargers are available for this purpose.
How does a Battery Charger Work?
A battery charger is basically a DC power supply source. Here a transformer is used

to step down the AC mains input voltage to the required level as per the rating of
the transformer.
This transformer is always a high power type and is able to produce a high current
output as required by most lead-acid batteries.
A bridge rectifier configuration is used to rectify the low voltage AC into DC and is
further smoothed by a high value electrolytic capacitor.
This DC is fed to an electronic circuit which regulates the voltage into a constant
level and is applied to the battery under charge, where the energy is stored through
an internal process of chemical reaction.
In automatic battery chargers a voltage sensor circuit is incorporated to sense the

voltage of the battery under charge. The charger is automatically switched OFF
when the battery voltage reaches the required optimum level.
Battery charger troubleshooting can be done following the circuit diagram and with
the knowledge we acquired from the DC power supply circuits.
PRACTICAL
Open a battery charger assembly and identify the different electronic components
and learn the methods of checking them.
Page 120

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MODES TRAINING CENTER

COURSE TITLE: - REPAIR AND TROUBLE SHOOTING OF

A Technical course which covers; Electrical and Electronics Maintenance,

DURATION OF COURSE – 12 WEEKS

Prepared by – Engr. Shibu Kuriakose

Occupational Health and Safety

What is meant by occupational health and safety? We work in an industrial

Occupational health has been defined as ‘enabling people to undertake their

Compliance with it enabled organizations to demonstrate that they had a system in

Prevention is better than cure.

General purpose PPE Kit Electricians PPE Kit

Electricity in the work place.

Being an Electrical or Electronic Technician, we always have to handle electricity.

The main hazards with electricity are:

Contact with live parts causing shock and burns

Faults which could cause fires;

Fire or explosion, where electricity could be the source of ignition in a potentially

 The level of voltage

Lock out / Tag out procedure (LOTO)

Lockout/ tag out is a specific set of procedures to safeguard employees from

Tag out device is warning tag attached to energy-isolating devices to warn

Basic Electrical and Electronics concepts.

Voltage is one of the fundamental parameters associated with any electrical or

The operating voltage of an item of equipment is very important - it is necessary to

Voltage shown within a simple circuit

An electric current is a flow of electric charge in a circuit. More specifically, the

Resistance is the hindrance to the flow of electrons in material. While a potential

In a simple circuit comprising of a battery or voltage source and a resistor, then

In this mathematical relationship the unit of resistance is measured in Ohms.

Ohm's law can be expressed in a mathematical form:

V = voltage expressed in Volts

I = current expressed in Amps

R = resistance expressed in Ohms

Week No.1Day 5- Safety of Tools. Soldering and De-Soldering Stations.

In an Electronics Lab, we use a number of measuring instruments and

Measurement category is a method of classification by the International Electro-

Schematic representation of measurement categories

This is an important tool for working on Printed Circuit Boards.

We use Analogue and Digital Soldering stations.

Analogue stations have a temperature stabilization that operates as follows: The

An important part of the de-soldering station is the de-soldering pump. A de

Unit No. 1:- Fundamentals of Electrical safety. Electronics and Circuit

Module No. 2: - Schematic Diagrams and Electronic Symbols. Electronic

Week No.2 Day 1- Principle of Electrical Parameter measurements.

Method of Voltage Measurement.

Unit No. 1:- Page 12

Module No. 2: - Schematic Diagrams and Electronic Symbols. Electronic

Week No.2 Day 2- Oscilloscope and Function Generators.

We use Oscilloscope in our laboratory to display and analyse the waveform of

A function generator is a specific form of signal generator that is able to generate

In particular it can be made to become a sine wave generator, square wave

Module No. 2: - Schematic Diagrams and Electronic Symbols. Electronic

Week No.2 Day 3- Active and Passive Components.

Electronic components are categorized as active or passive depending on the

Unlike active components, passive components either consume or store energy. A

Active components and their functions

Active components require a source of energy, typically in the form of a direct

Transistor: Mostly used for amplifying electrical signals or as switching devices

Diode: Permits electricity to flow in one direction only

Integrated circuit (chips or microchips): multiple complex circuits on a circuit

Display devices such as LCD, LED and CRT displays

Passive components and their functions

The most common components and their functions: