Noun: grammatical representation of ANYTHING.

Ex: horse, unicorn, Esteban, contrast, abstraction, home, space, cloud.

Adjective: represents a quality for a noun.

Ex: blue, big, nice, Ecuadorian, wooden, round, practical.

Adverb: A modifier, a quality for:

- Noun
- Verb
- Adjective
- Adverb
- Time
- Reason
- Possibility
- Concession
- Frequency

Quantifier + noun
Ex: some, more, many, few, a little, a lot of.

Verb + adverb of manner

Ex: slowly, calmly, hard, roughly.

(To be) + Adverbs of frequency + (main verb)

Ex: always, sometimes, seldom, rarely, never.

Intensifier or Downtoner are used to increase or decrease, respectively, the

intensity of an adjective or adverb.
Ex: quite, rather, somewhat, very, really, extremely.

Adverb of time: when?

Ex: after, before, as soon as, by the time.

Adverbs of reason: why?

Ex: because, since.

Adverbs of concession: contrary to what is expected.

Ex: Although, though.

Adverbs of possibility: not a fact.

Ex: Maybe, perhaps.

Article: a/an/the
a/an + singular nouns (non-determinative)

the + noun (determinative)

Determiner: word that specifies.

Determining article: the
Demonstrative adjectives: this, that, these, those
Possessive adjectives: my, your, his, her, its, our, your, their.

Sentence: Complete Idea.

Clause: Subject + verb
Phrase: group of words working together for a KEY element that names the
phrase. However, it is NEVER: Main Subject + Main Verb.

Phrases:
Noun Phrase:

(Article) (quantifier) (adverb) (adjective) (noun) NOUN (defining relative clause) (prepositional phrase)
(Modifiers) NOUN (Modifiers)

The/Those two extremely expensive blue mountain bikes that you bought at the shop …

Gerund phrase:
Verb + ing + (adverbial phrase) (noun phrase) (prepositional phrase)
Ex: reading fast long novels at home.
Infinitive phrase:
To + verb + (adverbial phrase) (noun phrase) (prepositional phrase)
Ex: To establish promptly a successful business
Verb phrase:
(Auxiliaries) + (Negative) + Main verb + (verb ending) + (particle) + (preposition)
Ex: may have broken up with, could be, must not have practiced, is working, plan
ahead, take up on, see.
Prepositional phrase:
Preposition + noun phrase or gerund phrase.
Ex: about reading, for my family, until noon, in the morning, at running long
distances.

Remember: A preposition links or connects a noun phrase or a gerund phrase,

while an adverb connects a clause.

Before my class (prepositional phrase of time)

Before you leave (adverbial clause of time)

A sentence can be formed by phrases and clauses:

The beautiful tall woman who was talking on the phone may have been asking
about the train itinerary.
Clauses.
A Clause is a sentence or part of a sentence that always has a SUBJECT AND VERB.

There are two types of clauses:

1. Independent clause

2. Dependent clause

Independent clause:
 It can stand on itself
 It has one main idea
 There can be more than one independent clause in one sentence
 There must always be at least one independent clause in a sentence

Ex: Mary went shopping yesterday.

s + v
They have been married for 10 years.
s + v
Sandra likes dancing.
s + v

Dependent clause:
 It cannot stand on itself.
 It needs the help of an independent clause to complete the idea.

A dependent clause always starts with a SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION like:

AS SOON AS BEFORE ONCE

AFTER BECAUSE SINCE
BY THE TIME UNTIL THE MOMENT
WHEN WHILE UP TO THE MOMENT WHEN
AS IF/WHETHER ALTHOUGH
THOUGH EVEN THOUGH WHO
WHICH THAT WHOSE

EX:
Before I go to school, I have breakfast.
Dependent clause (D) Independent clause (IC)
When I go to work, I take the bus.
Dependent clause (D) Independent clause (IC)
It was raining while I was jogging.
Independent clause (ID) Dependent clause (D)
I’ll have a party as soon as I graduate.
Independent clause (ID) Dependent clause (D)

It doesn’t matter if a sentence starts with a dependent clause or an independent

clause.
Punctuation note: If a sentence starts with a dependent clause, use a comma!!
So, the easiest way to differ an independent or dependent clause is by finding the
adverbs in a sentence. Another way is by covering one of the clauses and checking
if the other one makes sense or not.

TYPES OF SENTENCES:
There are 3 types of sentences.

1. SIMPLE SENTENCE.
It is a sentence that consists of one independent clause.
Mary came home yesterday at 10pm.
I love extreme sports.
They will have been waiting for 2 hours by 8.

2. COMPLEX SENTENCE.
It is a sentence that consists of one independent clause and one dependent
clause or one dependent clause and one independent clause connected by
SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS.
I love extreme sports because they give me an adrenaline rush.
When I come home, I take a shower.
If I win the lottery, I’ll buy a house.
I’ll start my own business once I get my diploma.
The repairman that you called has been waiting outside since 7 am.

3. COMPOUND SENTENCES
It is a sentence that contains two independent clauses connected by
COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS like:
and (connecting similar options) positive meaning
but (connecting opposite options) negative meaning
yet (but, nevertheless)
or (presenting two possible choices)
nor (presenting two impossible choices)
so (therefore, as a result, introducing the consequence)
for (because or since, introducing the cause.)

Acronym: fanboys

The night was dark. It had just stopped raining.

The wind was blowing(,) and the leaves were rustling.
A tall dark figure was standing outside a window. But it had not been waiting for
long.
On the second floor, a woman rushed to pack her suitcase as she was speaking on
the phone.
The woman hadn’t closed her suitcase, nor had she put her phone down.
She ran down the stairs, so she could escape her confinement.
She thought to herself: I should just run through the door, or perhaps I should go
for the back door.
She managed to make it across the back yard, yet she felt something was wrong.
She stood still and then hid behind the fender of a car, for she was aware of what
was waiting in the bushes.
She sprinted forward leaving her bags behind, the dark silhouette jumping from
the bushes.
… to be continued

The three types of sentences:

I couldn’t travel due to the lack of money. (simple sentence)
I couldn’t travel because I didn’t have enough money (complex sentence)
I couldn’t travel for I didn’t have enough money (compound sentence)

Whenever we start a sentence with a negative word, we must do so by inverting

the position of the subject and the auxiliary.
Neither did we finish fixing the car, nor did we get the money.