CLAUSE TYPES

(SENTENCE STRUCTURES/ SENTENCE PATTERNS)

The various units that make up the structure of a clause or a simple sentence
are usually given functional labels, such as Subject (S), Verb (V), Complement
(C), Object (O), and Adverbial (A). A number of clause types can be identified in
this way, such as:
S+V The girl + is dancing.
S+V+O The girl + kissed + her dog.
S+V+C The girl + is + sick.
S+V+A The girl + lay + on the ground.
S+V+O+O The girl + gave + her dog + a bone.
S+V+O+C The girl + called + her dog + Honey.
S+V+O+A The girl + put + her dog + on the sofa.

Beside these seven basic sentence patterns for active sentences, there are
four patterns for passive sentences which in fact come from the patterns for active
sentences with O.
S + V pass The boy was hit by a car running at a very high speed.
S + V pass + O The girl was given a nice doll on her last birthday.
S + V pass + C His father has just been appointed Director.
S + V pass + A The wallet was laid under the blanket.
Notes: * Many verbs can be restricted to one clause type.
E.g. seem (type SVC), elect (type SVOC), sit (type SVA)
* Many other verbs may enter more than one clause type
E.g. find (types SVOC, SVO), put (type SVOA, SVOC), open (type SV, SVO)
* The verb get can belong to all types except SV
E.g. The manager is getting furious. (SVC)
The boy got through the window. (SVA)
 He has just got a $1.000 reward. (SVO)
She got her shoes and socks wet. (SVOC)
The man got himself into trouble. (SVOA)
She got her mother a nice present. (SVOO)
* Some clause types can be transformed into some other types.
E.g. She sent him a card. (SVOO) She sent a card to him. (SVOA)
He is jobless. (SVC) He is without a job. (SVA)
The baby is sleeping. (SV) The baby is asleep. (AVC)
He hurried. (SV) He ran fast. (SVA)

SENTENCES AND CLAUSES

I. Sentences
Traditional grammar defines a sentence in one of two ways:
By meaning, a sentence is a complete thought.
By function, a sentence consists of a subject and a predicate.
In this course, we follow a definition which includes both functional and
formal characteristics of a sentence: ‘a sentence is a full predication containing a
subject plus a predicate with a finite verb.’
Its arrangement may be symbolized by such formulas as S V O
(subject+verb+object)…
A sentence that cannot be subdivided into constituent sentences is known as
simple sentence. And a complicated sentence contains in it combined simple
sentences. A sentence within a sentence is sometime called in modern term an
embedded sentence. The traditional term is clause.

II. Clauses
Analyzing by structural type, we arrive at the three main clauses:
* Finite clause: a clause whose verb element is a finite verb phrase.
E.g. John has visited New York.(1sentence = 1finite clause)
Because John is working, he may not hear what you say. (1sentence= 2
finite clauses)
The finite clause always contains a subject and a predicate, except in the
case of commands and ellipsis. The finite clause can be used independently or
dependently.
** Non-finite clause: a clause whose verb element is a non-finite verb phrase.
A. Structure of non-finite clause:
Non-finite clauses can be constructed without a subject and usually are. The
four classes of non-finite verb phrase serve to distinguish four classes of non-finite
clause:
+ Infinitive without To
E.g. Without subject: The best thing would be tell everybody.
With subject: The best thing would be for you tell everybody.
+ Infinitive with To
E.g. Without subject: The best thing would be to tell everybody.
With subject: The best thing would be for you to tell everybody.
+ ING participle
E.g. Without subject: Leaving the room, he tripped over the mat.
With subject: Her aunt having left the room, I declared my passionate
love for Celia.
+ ED Participle
E.g. Without subject: Covered with confusion, I left the room.
With subject: We left the room and went home, the job finished.
B. Functions of non-finite clauses
a. Non-finite clauses functioning as Subject:
E.g. To go out late at night is very dangerous.
Sitting in front of the computer for 4 hours tires her eyes.
It is a very educational experience to travel alone in a foreign country.
(extraposed S/real S)
b. Non-finite clauses functioning as Object:
E.g. She refused to show me where she lived.
We are considering organizing a barbecue.
Non-finite clauses as O can be infinite clauses (after verbs like want, expect, hope,
refuse, decide, attempt, intend, manage, fail,…) or ING clauses (after verbs like
admit, avoid, consider, deny, finish, imagine, mind, practice, risk, can’t stand, …)
c. Non-finite clauses functioning as subject complement:
E.g. His only good point is helping other people sincerely.
The aim of this course is to improve the students’ pronunciation.
d. Non-finite clauses functioning as object complement:
E.g. They would not allow us to interview the Vice-chancellor.
The headmaster asked that naughty boy to leave school immediately.
Non-finite clauses used with this structure are infinitive clauses after O and verbs
like advise, command, enable, encourage, order, tell, permit, persuade, allow urge,
…
E.g. Don’t make him work too hard.
They never let their daughter go out alone at night.
Non-finite clauses used with this structure are bare infinitive clauses after O and
verbs like help, let, make, have,…
E.g. Did you see anyone crawl under the bed?
I overheard them gossiping about the Ambassador’s illness.
Non-finite clauses used with this structure are bare infinitive clauses or –ING
clauses after O and verbs like see, hear, watch, feel, notice,…
E.g. The young woman had her hair cut once a month.
We had the whole building repainted in pink.
Non-finite clauses used with this structure are –ED clauses after O and verbs like
have, get, like, get,…
e. Non-finite clauses functioning as adverbial:
* To infinitive clauses as Adverbial of purpose
E.g. The little girl got up early to catch the first train to Tokyo.
He did it to relieve his anger.
* -ING clauses as Adverbial of attendant circumstance
E.g. The young couple strolled along the river bank, holding each other’s
hands.
Helped by favourable weather, the country produced a record harvest.
f. Non-finite clauses functioning as Post modifier in a Noun phrase
E.g. He is always the first person to come to work and the last one to leave the
office.
The new system suggested by the Prime Minister proves to be very
successful.
Any driver not having a license should be arrested right away.
g. Non-finite clauses functioning as Adjectival and Prepositional complement
* Adjectival complement:
E.g. They are quite ready to take part in the election campaign.
The manager is eventually hesitant to agree on the staff training scheme.
* Prepositional complement:
E.g. Children are interested in throwing snow at each other.
 They are talking about raising money to help people in the natural disaster-
struck areas.

*** Verbless clause: a clause containing no verb element.

E.g. Although always helpful, he can't help you now.
Too nervous to reply, he stared at the floor.
John, then in New York, was quite an ordinary man.

CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES
SIMPLE SENTENCES -COMPOUND SENTENCES -COMPLEX SENTENCES –
COMPOUND COMPLEX SENTENCES

The traditional definition of a simple sentence is: “A group of words that

contains a finite verb and makes a complete sense."
Sentences may be simple, compound, complex.
A. Simple Sentences
A simple sentence is the one that contains a finite verb (and only one finite
verb).
A simple sentence is composed, usually, of two parts, the subject and the
predicate.
The basic sentence patterns of simple sentences:
1. S+V
2. S+V+ C
3. S+ V+ A
4. S+ V +O
5. S+V + O + O
6. S+V + O + C
 7. S + V + O + A
B. Compound sentences
A compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses usually
connected by coordinating conjunctions (coordinators). In a compound sentence,
all the independent clauses are of equal rank.
E.g. John bought the tickets and Mary parked the car.
There was no moon that night and, as a result, they took the wrong turning.
The picture is not an original: in other words, it’s a forgery.
Two simple sentences may be combined into one compound sentence
without any conjunction to link them together. In this case, they must be separated
by a colon, a comma or a semi-colon.
E.g. He is rich but he’s unhappy.
He is rich; he’s unhappy.
He is rich: he’s unhappy.
Sometimes, in order to avoid repetition, some parts of the compound
sentence may be omitted.
E.g. Man is guided by reason, beast (are guided) by instinct.
My father wanted me to be a doctor and my mother (wanted me to be) a
teacher.
In a compound sentence, all the clauses are of equal importance and can
stand on their own.
The following coordinative conjunctions (and adverbs) connect the clauses
of a compound sentence.
a) Copulative: and, not only... but also..., neither... nor..., now, then and
others. Copulative conjunctions express that two ideas are connected.
E.g. She drew up the curtain and the room was flooded with bright golden light.
Not only was he dissatisfied but also he was extremely indignant.
 Neither the moon was visible in this dark night nor were the stars.
b) Disjunctive: or, otherwise, else, either... or, etc. Disjunctive conjunctions
indicate choices:
E.g. We must hurry or we will miss the train.
You must carry your raincoat along, otherwise you will get wet in the rain.
Either you speak clearly or I do not understand what you say.
c) Adversative: but, yet, still, nevertheless, however, etc. Adversative
conjunctions denote that two ideas contradict each other.
E.g. You can cross the river here, but be careful of the swift flow.
I tried to persuade her to stay, still she would insist on leaving at such a late
hour.
She repeated it three times, yet I could not understand what it meant.
d) Causal: for
E.g. I could not buy it, for it is impossible for me to afford it.
We cannot see the moon, for dark clouds cover the sky.
e) Resultative: so, therefore, accordingly, then...
E.g. It is getting late, then we had better go home.
She did not feel well for some days, so she decided to go and see her doctor.
C. Complex sentences
In traditional grammar, a complex sentence contains a main clause and one
or more subordinate clauses. The subordinate clause must be a finite clause and
can be the Noun clause, the Adjective clause or the Adverb clause.
E.g. He realises that he hasn't understood his father.
The man who knows no foreign language knows nothing about his
mother tongue. (Geothe)
When I was answering the telephone, he came back because he had
forgotten his hat.
D. Compound complex sentences:
A compound complex sentence consists of two or more independent clauses
and at least one dependent clause
E.g. You should leave early or you have to stay overnight because the gate will
be locked in ten minutes.