SENTENCES AND CLAUSES

I. Sentences
Traditional grammar defines a sentence in one of two ways:
By meaning, a sentence is a complete thought.
By function, a sentence consists of a subject and a predicate.
In this course, we follow a definition which includes both functional and formal
characteristics of a sentence: ‘a sentence is a full predication containing a subject plus a
predicate with a finite verb.’
Its arrangement may be symbolized by such formulas as S V O (subject + verb +
object) …
A sentence that cannot be subdivided into constituent sentences is known as
simple sentence. And a complicated sentence contains in it combined simple sentences. A
sentence within a sentence is sometime called in modern term an embedded sentence.
The traditional term is clause.
II. Clauses
Analyzing by structural type, we arrive at the three main clauses:
1. Finite clause: a clause whose verb element is a finite verb phrase.
E.g. John has visited New York. (1sentence = 1 finite clause)
Because John is working, he may not hear what you say. (1sentence = 2 finite
clauses)
The finite clause always contains a subject and a predicate, except in the case of
commands and ellipsis. The finite clause can be used independently or dependently.
2. Non-finite clause: a clause whose verb element is a non-finite verb phrase.
A. Structure of non-finite clause:
Non-finite clauses can be constructed without a subject and usually are. The four
classes of non-finite verb phrase serve to distinguish four classes of non-finite clause:
+ Infinitive without To
E.g. Without subject: The best thing would be tell everybody.
 With subject: The best thing would be for you tell everybody.
+ Infinitive with To
E.g. Without subject: The best thing would be to tell everybody.
With subject: The best thing would be for you to tell everybody.
+ ING participle
E.g. Without subject: Leaving the room, he tripped over the mat.
With subject: Her aunt having left the room, I declared my passionate
love for Celia.
+ ED Participle
E.g. Without subject: Covered with confusion, I left the room.
With subject: We left the room and went home, the job finished.
B. Functions of non-finite clauses
a. Non-finite clauses functioning as Subject:
E.g. To go out late at night is very dangerous.
Sitting in front of the computer for 4 hours tires her eyes.
It is a very educational experience to travel alone in a foreign country. (extraposed
S/real S)
b. Non-finite clauses functioning as Object:
E.g. She refused to show me where she lived.
We are considering organizing a barbecue.
Non-finite clauses as O can be infinite clauses (after verbs like want, expect, hope,
refuse, decide, attempt, intend, manage, fail, …) or ING clauses (after verbs like admit,
avoid, consider, deny, finish, imagine, mind, practice, risk, can’t stand, …)
c. Non-finite clauses functioning as subject complement:
E.g. His only good point is helping other people sincerely.
The aim of this course is to improve the students’ pronunciation.
d. Non-finite clauses functioning as object complement:
E.g. They would not allow us to interview the Vice-chancellor.
The headmaster asked that naughty boy to leave school immediately.
Non-finite clauses used with this structure are infinitive clauses after O and verbs like
advise, command, enable, encourage, order, tell, permit, persuade, allow, urge, ….
E.g. Don’t make him work too hard.
They never let their daughter go out alone at night.
Non-finite clauses used with this structure are bare infinitive clauses after O and verbs
like help, let, make, have, ….
E.g. Did you see anyone crawl under the bed?
I overheard them gossiping about the Ambassador’s illness.
Non-finite clauses used with this structure are bare infinitive clauses or –ING clauses
after O and verbs like see, hear, watch, feel, notice,,….
E.g. The young woman had her hair cut once a month.
We had the whole building repainted in pink.
Non-finite clauses used with this structure are –ED clauses after O and verbs like have,
get, like, get, ….
e. Non-finite clauses functioning as adverbial:
* To infinitive clauses as Adverbial of purpose
E.g. The little girl got up early to catch the first train to Tokyo.
He did it to relieve his anger.
* -ING clauses as Adverbial of attendant circumstance
E.g. The young couple strolled along the river bank, holding each other’s
hands.
Helped by favourable weather, the country produced a record harvest.
f. Non-finite clauses functioning as Post modifier in a Noun phrase
E.g. He is always the first person to come to work and the last one to leave the
office.
The new system suggested by the Prime Minister proves to be very successful.
Any driver not having a license should be arrested right away.
g. Non-finite clauses functioning as Adjectival and Prepositional complement
* Adjectival complement:
E.g. They are quite ready to take part in the election campaign.
The manager is eventually hesitant to agree on the staff training scheme.
* Prepositional complement:
E.g. Children are interested in throwing snow at each other.
They are talking about raising money to help people in the natural disaster-struck
areas.
3. Verbless clause: a clause containing no verb element.
E.g. Although always helpful, he can't help you now.
Too nervous to reply, he stared at the floor.
John, then in New York, was quite an ordinary man.

PRACTICE EXERCISES: 
1. Underline all nonfinite subordinate clauses. Identify their functions.
1. He's interested in learning Maths.
2. Flattering your boss doesn't ensure career advancement.
3. This is something for you to eat after your ballet lesson.
4. The old man stood silently, sipping his cappuccino.
5. She loves any dish involving cheese.
6. He wore a suit to please his parents.
7. She had no desire to flatter his parents.
8. Ms. Jacobs will be the best person to oversee the project.
9. She uses her computer to do all her banking.
10. His decision to use an all-female cast surprised all of us.
11. Any article left by students in this office will be taken to the Lost Property Office.
12. She stood in the middle of the shop, looking around with interest.
13. We didn't receive any instruction to open the gate.
14. He has been dieting these days to lose weight.
15. For a bridge to collapse like that is unbelievable.
16. She's very glad to help us with the housework.
17. His ambition, to become a famous writer, was never fulfilled.
18. The children were on the beach, busy building sand castles.
19. Discouraged by the failure, he became an alcoholic.
20. She opened the door for Gypsy to go out.
21. This will involve moving all the furniture.
22. He wrote Ms. Chew a friendly letter, thanking her for her help.
23. It won’t hurt you to eat more fruit.
24. I caught him reading your diary.
25. A test doesn’t always give you an opportunity to demonstrate your ability.
26. Older adults who are healthier and living longer than previous generations are
powerful societal forces shaping future employment practices.
27. We need the air-conditioner repaired in three hours.
28. She hopes to get a job within the next three weeks.
29. His advice has always been to consult an astrologer.
30. To put things off until the last minute is a mistake.
 CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES

SIMPLE SENTENCES -COMPOUND SENTENCES -COMPLEX

SENTENCES – COMPOUND COMPLEX SENTENCES
The traditional definition of a simple sentence is: “A group of words that contains
a finite verb and makes a complete sense."
Sentences may be simple, compound, complex and compound complex.
A. Simple Sentences
A simple sentence is the one that contains a finite verb (and only one finite verb).
A simple sentence is composed, usually, of two parts, the subject and the
predicate.
The basic sentence patterns of simple sentences:
1. S + V
2. S + V + C
3. S + V + A
4. S + V + O
5. S + V + O + O
6. S + V + O + C
7. S + V + O + A
B. Compound sentences
A compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses usually
connected by coordinating conjunctions (coordinators). In a compound sentence, all the
independent clauses are of equal rank.
E.g. John bought the tickets and Mary parked the car.
There was no moon that night and, as a result, they took the wrong turning.
The picture is not an original: in other words, it’s a forgery.
 Two simple sentences may be combined into one compound sentence without any
conjunction to link them together. In this case, they must be separated by a colon, a
comma or a semi-colon.
E.g. He is rich but he’s unhappy.
He is rich; he’s unhappy.
He is rich: he’s unhappy.
Sometimes, in order to avoid repetition, some parts of the compound sentence may
be omitted.
E.g. Man is guided by reason, beast (are guided) by instinct.
My father wanted me to be a doctor and my mother (wanted me to be) a teacher.
In a compound sentence, all the clauses are of equal importance and can stand on
their own.

 The following coordinative conjunctions (and adverbs) connect the clauses of a

compound sentence.
a) Copulative: and, not only... but also..., neither... nor..., now, then and others.
Copulative conjunctions express that two ideas are connected.
E.g. She drew up the curtain and the room was flooded with bright golden light.
Not only was he dissatisfied but also he was extremely indignant.
Neither the moon was visible in this dark night nor were the stars.
b) Disjunctive: or, otherwise, else, either... or, etc. Disjunctive conjunctions
indicate choices:
E.g. We must hurry or we will miss the train.
You must carry your raincoat along, otherwise you will get wet in the rain.
Either you speak clearly or I do not understand what you say.
c) Adversative: but, yet, still, nevertheless, however, etc. Adversative conjunctions
denote that two ideas contradict each other.
E.g. You can cross the river here, but be careful of the swift flow.
 I tried to persuade her to stay, still she would insist on leaving at such a late hour.
She repeated it three times, yet I could not understand what it meant.
d) Causal: for
E.g. I could not buy it, for it is impossible for me to afford it.
We cannot see the moon, for dark clouds cover the sky.
e) Resultative: so, therefore, accordingly, then...
E.g. It is getting late, then we had better go home.
She did not feel well for some days, so she decided to go and see her doctor.

C. Complex sentences
In traditional grammar, a complex sentence contains a main clause and one or more
subordinate clauses. The subordinate clause must be a finite clause and can be the Noun
clause, the Adjective clause or the Adverb clause.
E.g. He realises that he hasn't understood his father.
The man who knows no foreign language knows nothing about his mother
tongue. (Geothe)
When I was answering the telephone, he came back because he had forgotten his
hat.
D. Compound complex sentences:
A compound complex sentence consists of two or more independent clauses and at
least one dependent clause
E.g. You should leave early or you have to stay overnight because the gate will be
locked in ten minutes.

PRACTICE EXERCISES: 
Classify the following sentences according to structure. If the sentence is a complex
or a compound complex, pick out the finite subordinate clause(s).
1. I'm glad that my mother made me take piano lessons when I was a child.
2. Joe jumped into the river to rescue the little girl who was drowning even though he
wasn't a good swimmer.
3. I knew that I should get some sleep, but I just couldn't put my book down because I
was really enjoying it.
4. Thomas was thirsty yet he refused to drink the water that I offered him.
5. The Comedian made people laugh by telling jokes and making funny faces.
6. Most 15th century Europeans believed that the world was flat and that a ship could
conceivably sail off the end of the earth.
7. Please tell me soon whether you will go or not so that I can decide what I'm going to
do.
8. My sister can fall asleep under any conditions, but I can't get to sleep unless the light is
off and the room is perfectly quiet.
9. The cheapest way to get from an airport to a hotel is to take an airport bus, but I'm not
sure if River City has one.
10. I asked Angela to run the office while I 'm gone since I know I can depend on her.
11. You'd better give me your answer quickly, or else I 'll withdraw the invitation.
12. As long as you 're going to the fruit market, would you please pick up a few apples
for me?
13. Even though Jack hates going to the dentist, he should see his dentist soon because he
has a very bad toothache.
14. Robert is totally exhausted after playing tennis whereas Marge isn't even tired despite
the fact that she ran around a lot more during the game.
15. I'm sorry you 've decided not to go with us on the river trip, but if you change your
mind there will still be enough room on the boat for you.