A Course material for the course Basic Writing Skills (EnLa 211)

Prepared for Management Section 5 students

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 Unit I: Sentence Writing

1.1 Types of sentences: Functional category/sentence kinds (Declarative, Interrogative,

Imperative, and Exclamatory)

Structural category/ Sentence types (simple, compound, complex, compound complex)

Functional Category:

1. Declarative sentence…makes a statement/ gives information. E.g. It was a delicious food.

2. Interrogative sentence.. asks a question. Ends with a question mark E.g. Was the food
delicious?
3. Imperative sentence… gives order/ makes a command.. E.g. Make the food delicious.
4. Exclamatory sentence.. expresses emotions(surprise, shock, etc.). Ends with exclamation
mark. E.g. What a delicious food!

A simple sentence consists of an independent clause, so it contains a subject & a verb. It does
NOT contain either a dependent clause or another simple sentence. Examples of simple
sentences- short simple sentence: The dog barked.
long simple sentence: Leaning first this way and then that, the large tan dog barked
loudly at the full moon last night in the shadow of the north side of the house.

The simple sentence may have a compound subject: The dog and the cat howled.
It may have a compound predicate: The dog howled and
barked.
It may have a compound subject and a compound
predicate: The dog and the cat howled and yowled,
respectively.

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A compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses (simple
sentences) joined by
(1). a comma followed by a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so): The dog
barked, and the cat yowled.
(2). a semicolon: The dog barked; the cat yowled.
(3). a comma, but ONLY when the simple sentences are being treated as items in a series:
The dog barked, the cat yowled, and the rabbit chewed.
A complex sentence consists of a combination of an independent clause and a dependent
clause (One independent, and one or more dependent clauses).
The following sentences are examples with a relative clause in the middle of each sentence:

The dog that was in the street howled loudly.

A student who is hungry would never pass up a bread.
An example with a subordinating conjunction creating the dependent clause (note the various
positions of the dependent clause- it could come at the beginning, middle and end of the
sentence.):
End: The dog howled although he was well fed.
Front: Because the dog howled so loudly, the student couldn't eat his hamburger.
Middle: The dog, although he was well fed, howled loudly.

A compound-complex sentence consists of a combination of a compound sentence and a

complex sentence. It shares the characteristics of both compound and complex sentences.
(at least two independent clauses, and at least one dependent clauses) .
As the dog howled, one cat sat on the fence, and the other licked its paws.

The kid went out to the gate when he came, but they did not meet each other.

**A ‘comma’ should be used to separate the dependent clause from the independent one only if
the dependent clause comes first in the cases of complex & compound complex sentences.
However, a ‘comma’ should not be used when independent clauses come first.

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EXERCISE

Read the following sentences and identify whether each of them is simple,
compound, complex, compound-complex. Then write the answer on the space
provided.
_______1. Bekele dislikes sitting on the beach; he always gets a nasty sunburn.
_______2. Although they are 250 miles apart, they keep in constant contact on the
internet.
________3.Those students who live in the area often find the local college boring, but
students from out of the area seem to like it.
_______4.After a lengthy and noisy debate, they decided to take separate vacations.
_______5.Ronaldiniho dribbled past two defenders and made a good shot, but the
goalkeeper easily saved.
_______6. A gentle man of wealth and position has been found guilty of theft.
_______7. The life which seems so fair is like a bubble blown in the air.
_______8. There is nothing either good or bad, but thinking makes it bad
_______9. Those who seek faultless friends remain friendless.
_______10. Reading a novel after work is a pleasant way of spending leisure
_______11. If you really want me to help you wash your floors, please give me a
week’s notice for I am busy this month.
_______12. The people of Addis Ababa are throwing garbage anywhere
in the city; consequently, the air is becoming polluted.
________13. My brother who used to give me money whenever I want has been
fired out of his work, and I am in a financial problem now.

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1.2 Faulty Sentences

1.2.1 Fragments

Fragments do not express a complete thought. Therefore they do not convey meaning clearly.

(Sentence =Subject +Verb as a minimum requirement). However, just because a sentence is

short does not mean that it is a fragment if it expresses a complete idea. In other words, a
sentence is not a fragment if the reader is not left waiting for another word.

Fragments Types

1. Missing Verbs- In this class of fragments, verbs are missing. Most often the omission
of is/are.
Examples:

Basic education of great importance to everyone. (is)

People with disabilities the right to be treated equally. (have)

Health and happiness more important than money. (are)
We can correct these fragments by adding the appropriate verbs.
2. Missing Subject Fragments—these are fragments that occur as a result of the
omission of the Subject in the sentence.- e.g Came back yesterday. (He, they, she, I)

Have done the homework properly.

3. Prepositional Phrase fragments- start with prepositions- e.g to the east of Ethiopia.
After working on the settlement.
4. Infinitive fragments- start with the infinitive with ‘to’. –e.g to cut the cake.
To play the game, to eat his lunch
5. Participle phrases
Normally these fragments end in-'ing', or '-ed'. They are based on a verb and express
action or state of being. They function as ADJECTIVES and describe nouns or
pronouns.
Examples:
Facing university standards. (,....the new students have to work hard.)

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 Motivated by her good grades. (.....She decide to continue her studies.)

6. Dependent clause Fragments

Dependent clause fragment begins with a subordinating conjunction. It does not stand
alone. The dependent clause might take one of the following forms:
 Time clause- She answered her mobile phone ...when it rang.
 Reason clause- Exercise is very important ....because it helps students to
improve their skills.
 Place clause- Ethiopia is a place... where there are many attractive tourist
sites.
 Result clause- Most students study hard ..so that they achieve good grades.
 Relative cause- Counseling services help people.....who have different
problems.

Most types of fragments can be corrected by adding an independent clause to stand alone.

1.2.2 Run-On Sentence

Run-ons occur when you join two/more complete sentences without any punctuation mark at
in between at all:

I have completed my essay I have not submitted it yet. X

1.3.3 Comma splice

1. COMMA SPLICE occurs when you use a comma to join two complete sentences
without placing an appropriate joining word between them.

Example: I have completed my essay, I have not submitted it yet. X

Note: Fixing a run-on sentence is no different from fixing a comma splice.

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How to Fix a Comma Splice and Run-on Sentences

Solution 1: Use a period in between.

The simplest way to fix a comma splice is to separate the two improperly joined sentences.
Simply replace the comma with a period.

I completed my essay. I have not submitted it.

Solution 2: Use a semi-colon.

If you want a simple solution to the comma splice, but you prefer to encapsulate your two ideas
in one sentence rather than two, then use a semi-colon rather than a period.

I completed my essay; I have not submitted it.

A semi-colon is probably the most appropriate remedy for your comma splice when the
following two conditions hold:

(1) the logical connection between the two independent clauses is already clear, and

(2) the ideas represented in the two clauses are very closely related.

I completed my English essay; next I will tackle my History

essay.

Solution 3: Use a comma and a coordinating conjunction.

Like the semi-colon, a conjunction allows you to combine your two ideas in a single sentence.
But it has the added advantage of allowing you to indicate the logical relationship between the
two ideas.

The coordinating conjunction but compactly conveys this sense of a contradictory meaning:

I completed my essay, but I have not submitted it.

Solution 4: Use a subordinating conjunction.

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Subordinating conjunctions are similar to coordinating conjunctions in that they allow you to
indicate the logical relationship between two independent clauses.

I completed my essay although I have not submitted it.

Although I completed my essay, I have not submitted it.

NOTE: Never try to join two sentences with a comma followed by a conjunctive adverb. The
most common form of this error involves joining two sentences with the word ‘however’:

X I completed my essay, however I have not submitted it.

1.2.4. DANGLING MODIFIERS

Dangling modifiers refer to a noun which is not mentioned/ stated. This results in confusion of
sentence meaning when the word that a modifier describes is missing entirely from the sentence.
To prevent confusion of dangling modifiers, the noun must be clearly stated.

Example1: When studying for exams, notes are made from many sources. Here it is not clear
who studies for exams and make notes.

o Fix a dangling modifier by adding a logical word (person, concept, idea) that the
modifier should describe.

Ways of fixing dangling modifiers:

1. Place a subject in the introductory part of the sentence and use the correct tense:

When students are studying for exams, notes are made from many sources.

2. Place the noun immediately after the modifier and change the passive in to active (if there is
any).

When studying for exams, students make notes from many sources.

3. Use both the ways:

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When students are studying for exams, they make notes from many sources.

Example2:

1) Having submitted the conference registration form after the deadline, special permission
by the chairperson was needed before she could give her presentation.

Note: The example doesn't make sense as it is written. Someone must have submitted the form
late. According to the revision, Susan is the one who submitted the form late.

Revised: Having submitted the conference registration form after the deadline, Susan needed
special permission from the chairperson before she could give her presentation.

EXERCISE
INSTRUCTION: The following sentences have problems. Revise them as necessary. You
may have to change a word or two to make the sentence meaningful. Rewrite the
sentence on the line provided.

Example: Brushing the street, I saw the street sweeper go by.

Brushing the street, the street sweeper went by me

1. Blowing at 100 miles per hour, the roof was ripped off.

__________________________________________________________

2. Shaving in front of the steamy mirror, the razor nicked Edward's chin.

__________________________________________________________

3. Reading the newspaper, my dog sat with me on the front steps.

__________________________________________________________

4. Pitching his tent, a snake bit Tony on the ankle.

________________________________________________________________

5. Munching leaves from a tall tree, the children were fascinated by the giraffe.

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 ________________________________________________________________

6. Chopping the onions, the knife cut her finger.

________________________________________________________________

6. Turning over the bacon, hot grease splashed my arm.

__________________________________________________________________

9. Knowing the answer, my hand was raised.

_______________________________________________________________

10. Walking in the rain , my shoes got wet.

____________________________________________________________

11. Tired after work, a nap was what I wanted.

______________________________________________________________

1.2.5 MISPLACED MODIFIERS

Misplaced modifiers are words which refer to a wrong noun due to incorrect word order. It is
important that you place the modifying phrase or clause as close as possible to the word it
modifies:

o A word, phrase, or clause that acts as a modifier (adjective or adverb) can

unintentionally be misplaced in a sentence.
o To correct such, simply move the modifier that is misplaced closer to the word it
should logically modify. Some additional rewording may be necessary.
Examples: By accident, he poked the little girl with his finger in the eye. (Wrong)
By accident, he poked the little girl in the eye with his finger. (right)
Misplaced modifiers may appear either in the form of squinting, or split infinitives. A
squinting modifier is an ambiguously placed modifier that can modify either the word before it
or the word after it. In other words it is squinting in both directions at the same time.

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 Defining your terms clearly strengthens your argument. (wrong) In this sentence it is
not clear whether defining ''clearly strengthens’’ or "defining clearly" strengthens.
(Right) Defining your terms will clearly strengthen your argument. Or A clear
definition of your terms strengthens your argument.

Split Infinitives: The infinitive form of verbs consists of the word 'to' followed by the base form
of the verb. (e.g. to put, to cut, to sit, to chop, to serve,...). Thus inserting a word or words
between the "to", and the verb of an infinitive creates what is known as a split infinitive.
Examples: The marketing team voted to, before they launched the new software, run a
campaign. (wrong)
The marketing team voted to run a campaign before they launched the new software. (right)

How to Avoid Misplaced Modifiers

Here are some tips to help you to avoid misplacing your modifiers:

1. Check to see if your modifiers are close to the subject they are referring to.

2. Be careful with the placement of limiting modifiers ("almost," "even," "hardly," "just,"
"merely," "nearly," "scarcely," and "simply"). These modifiers must be placed right next
to the words they modify.

3. Similarly, check to see if modifiers that describe verbs are close to the verbs.

How to Correct Misplaced Modifiers

Follow these suggested steps when revising a misplaced modifier:

1. Determine who or what is being described in the modifying phrase.

2. Make sure that there is a word in the sentence to serve as the subject for the modifier.

3. Place the modifier next to the word or phrase (the subject) that it describes.

More examples:

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1) On July 20, 1969, American astronauts Neil Armstrong and Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin landed on
the moon, watched by nearly a fifth of the world's population.

Note: The world was not watching the moon; the world was watching the astronauts.)

Revised: Watched by nearly a fifth of the world's population, American astronauts Neil
Armstrong and Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin landed on the moon on July 20, 1969.

2) Cost-efficient and convenient, many of today's corporate employees are being trained through
computer-assisted instruction.

Note: To what word does the phrase ‘cost-efficient and convenient’ refer to?

Revised: Cost-efficient and convenient, computer-assisted instruction is being used by many

companies to train employees.

EXERCISE

INSTRUCTION: Underline the misplaced word or words in the following sentences.

Rewrite the sentences and place the misplaced modifiers next to the
words they describe.
1. Mr. Yassir Arafat was born in Jerusalem who was the first president of Palestine.

________________________________________________________________

2. The sweater was torn which I bought from Zefmesh Mall.

________________________________________________________________

3. The man is a company manager who invited us to dinner.

_______________________________________________________________

4. The girl is my sweetheart with a long hair.

________________________________________________________________

5. The woman is a medical doctor in a green coat.

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 ________________________________________________________________

6. Alula was a former Ethiopian fighter the most famous man at the Dogali.

________________________________________________________________

7. The bank robber pointed his gun at the teller in the ski mask.
______________________________________________________________

1.2.6. Wordiness

Wordiness is taking more words than necessary to make your point. It is using long words
when good short ones are available, using uncommon words when there are familiar ones,
etc. It may take the form of redundant expressions or phrases. Consistent elimination of
wordiness results in a stronger, more concise writing style that is easier to read and provides
fewer opportunities for misinterpretation. In contrast, a wordy style makes reading laborious
and, thus, encourages skimming and leads to inattention. There are various expressions that
make a sentence wordy.

Examples: absolutely essential -essential - Your arrival on Monday is absolutely essential.

the true fact is- the fact is- The true fact is that she is genius.

As a matter of fact- in fact- As a matter of fact I loved his lecture.

our country Ethiopia- (our country/ Ethiopia)

In the first place- Firstly.

To avoid wordiness look carefully at the sentence and check for unnecessary words ,
determine which are important and which are not, and then eliminate wordiness by deleting
the unnecessary ones or by using more concise expressions.

Exercise

Identify the following groups of words by writing S for sentence or F for fragment on the line before each.
Put periods at the end of all sentences.

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S 1. The polar bear is a large carnivore that does not fear humans.

1. Deliberately stalks and kills humans for food.

2. Has been called the "King of the North"

3. When wounded, the polar bear can be a deadly adversary.

4. Covered 60 yards in a charge after being shot through the heart several times.

5. On the other hand, this bear can bring delight to its viewers.

6. Once a coast guard vessel in the Canadian Arctic received a visit from an adult male polar bear.

7. The bear, traveling a top a drifting ice floe.

8. The crew, who did not know better, decided to feed the curious critter floating alongside the boat.

9. Soon the bear and the ice floe were black and sticky with the sweet stuff.

10. After the molasses came the apples.

UNIT TWO: PARAGRAPH WRITING

2.1. The Concept of a paragraph

A paragraph is a piece of writing that deals with one main topic. It can be a section of a
longer piece of writing or a short piece of writing which stands alone. It normally contains
several sentences dealing with a single subject which is the topic of the paragraph.

2.2. Structure of a paragraph

A paragraph should- have a topic sentence, contain topic materials, be coherent, and finish
with an effective conclusion.

Topic sentence- This sentence makes the general subject of the paragraph clear by stating
the main idea. All information in the paragraph should relate to the topic sentence.

 A topic sentence is a complete sentence and usually a general sentence.

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  It provides the reader with a clear understanding of what the paragraph is about.
 It is a broad statement that carries the idea of the supporting sentences.
 It leaves the reader with the feeling that more information will follow.

It is normally located at the beginning of the paragraph.

 Topic materials are facts, figures, examples, and statements that develop the topic.
 Concluding sentence restates the topic sentence with new words at the end of the
paragraph. The purpose of the concluding sentence is to wrap up the paragraph and
bring all the ideas back together.

2.3. Qualities of a Good Paragraph

2.3.1 Unity

Paragraph unity is the most important characteristic of a good paragraph. It is about ideal
oneness/togetherness. A paragraph is unified if all the sentences in it speak about one single idea
or one main subject. This is, to mean the topic sentence, the supporting details, and the
concluding sentence should focus on only one idea. A paragraph should develop only one main
idea. The supporting ideas (details) should revolve around the main topic. A paragraph with
unity develops a single idea thoroughly and links it to the rest of the paper.

Therefore To ensure your Paragraph unity:

Develop a paragraph around a major idea. Express this idea in the topic sentence.
Make the relationship between the main idea of the paragraph and the details. Support the main
idea of the paragraph with details.
If there are sentences that do not support the main idea, they should be eliminated.

A paragraph has three main parts; an introduction (a topic sentence) a body (supporting
sentences) and a conclusion (a concluding sentence). In short, a unified paragraph presents a
thought, supports it with adequate details and completes it with a conclusion. Further, paragraphs
should also be coherent.

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 2.3.2. Coherence
Coherence is about the smooth logical flow of ideas from one to the other.
Coherence is all about establishing a relationship between the ideas presented in a paragraph. It
brings about a rationale in the arrangement of the paragraph. This quality (coherence) makes the
idea of the paragraph clear and easily understandable.

Therefore a coherent paragraph is one, which has a clear structure and logical, well-organized,
ideas, thoughts and arguments.
Both unity and coherence of a paragraph can be achieved by connecting all parts of the
paragraph in a way, which is easy to understand by using various cohesive devices. This process
is what we call cohesion. Cohesion can be achieved by using:
 Transition words- Words that are used to connect the first idea with the
next one(s). These are words such as 'first of all', 'secondly', 'finally', 'for
example', 'therefore', 'in addition', 'consequently', 'although', 'accordingly'
,'because'..etc.
 Pronouns- pronouns are used to avoid repetition of nouns in the text.
These pronouns include words such as 'it', 'they', 'this', 'their', etc
 Synonyms and antonyms -for variety of vocabulary in the text.
And we can achieve coherence putting the information by using various logical orders:
 Chronological order- putting ideas according to the order of time (their
order of occurrence). In this case the action that exists first in reality
appears first in the passage and, the last comes last. Chronological order
is mostly useful in writing narrative paragraphs.
 Spatial order - writing according to the order of space. This is stating
things one after the other according to their placement/position. This is
mainly helpful for descriptive writing.
 Emphatic (climatic order)- This is order of importance. It is used to
give emphasis. Here the ideas are presented in order of importance
(ascending/ increasing order). For this reason, the strongest point comes
at the end. This type of development mainly works well to present
reasons (argumentative writing).

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 2.3.3. Completeness
Paragraph Completeness means a paragraph is well-developed. If all the sentences clearly and
sufficiently support the main idea, and if they well explain the point raised in the topic sentence,
then your paragraph is complete. If there are not enough sentences or enough information to
develop your main point, then the paragraph is incomplete. Usually three supporting sentences,
in addition to a topic sentence and concluding sentence, are needed for a paragraph to be
complete.

2.4. Basic Types of Paragraphs

2.4.1 Expository Paragraph

2.4.2 Descriptive Paragraph

2.4.3 Argumentative Paragraph

2.4.4 Narrative Paragraph

2.4.1 Expository Paragraph

The expository writing presents facts/information about a topic. Expository paragraph

explains, or discusses a point, and acquaints readers with a body of knowledge. It is aimed to
create (improve) awareness. By explaining a topic to the reader, the writer demonstrates
his/her knowledge about the topic under consideration. The facts about the topic are provided
with no any position (no supporting/opposing). Writing this type of paragraphs needs to
follow the proper topic, support, conclusion model as it is for all paragraphs.

Sample Expository paragraph1.

The importance of reading.

Reading is a very effective way for students to improve language skills and cultural
knowledge. First of all it can give students the opportunity to read authentic language written
by a native speaker. This can then be learned and used in speech and writing. In addition,
students can find out a lot of facts about the countries where the language is spoken; for
example information about their history, geography, food and drink, dress and customs.

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 Therefore, reading is an essential means of developing students' awareness of language in use
as well as of traditions in different countries.

Sample Paragraph 2

The Cost of Going to College:

Going to college can be expensive. College tuition and room and board can cost anywhere from
$2,000 to more than $10,000 per semester, but other expenses make going to college even more
expensive. For example, books typically cost between $100 and $500 each term. Materials are
also very expensive. Paper, notebooks, writing utensils, and other supplies required often cost
more at the college bookstore than at any local discount department store. For instance, a
package of notepaper costing $2 at a discount store might cost $5 at a college bookstore. In
addition, there are all kinds of special fees added onto the bill at registration time. A college
student might have to pay a $50 insurance fee, a $20 activity fee, a $15 fee to the student
government association and anywhere from $500 to $100 for parking. There is still another fee if
a student decides to add or drop classes after registration. Therefore fees never seem to end.

In the paragraphs above, the writer simply gives information about each topic to inform readers.

2.4.2. Descriptive paragraph

Descriptive writing creates a clear and vivid impression of the topic. Description translates your
experience of a person, place, or thing into words, often by appealing to the physical senses. The
writer creates a mental visual image about his/ her topic. It is simply drawing a picture of an
object, place, or person just by using words. The description usually follows spatial order.

Good description:

1. Creates a main impression-an overall effect, feeling, or image-about the topic.

2. Uses concrete, specific details to support the main impression.

3. Uses details that appeal to the five senses.

Descriptive language- It uses colorful language mostly adjectives and adverbs. We use various
vocabularies when we describe a person, place, or objects.

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Language for Describing a person:

General Height Build Eyes Nose Hair personality/

appearance character interests/
likes

Beautiful Slim Big straight Long lively -Talking

Pretty Medium- Average- Brown Pointed short outgoing to other
Attractive height build Blue Braided Smiles when people
Hand some tall Fat Small Dark s/he is happy -Listening
Smart short Thin Helpful to music
Stylish small Supports her -Watching
Athletic friend when TV
s/he has -Reading
problems books
Confident -Going to
Quiet church/
Studious mosque
Caring
Shy
Practical
Active
Affectionate
Approachable
Sensitive
Talkative
Intelligent

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In describing a place- the location, climate, facilities, crops/ produces, culture, atmosphere etc.
should be described. Specifically the following vocabularies can be used when describing a
place.

Location Climate Amenities/facilitie Crops/produce Culture/ Atmosphere

s language
In the- Hot There are........ The ----------- The
North _______________ Influence is atmosphere
South Cool Markets, strong, is.................
East Restaurants, Lively,
West Humid Is/are grown there friendly,
At-m. busy,
altitude temperate quiet....
People
moderate communicate
in the ---------
language,

________is
spoken there
dominantly

When you describe an object state its type ,size, color, origin, additional information.)

Sample descriptive paragraph (for a person).

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 My best friend

My best friend, Mekdes, is beautiful and has a lively, outgoing personality. I have known her
since I was 3 years old because her family live in the same community as mine and we grew up
together. First of all, she is very pretty, medium height, slim, and has long, braided dark hair and
big brown eyes. Her smile lights up her face when she is happy. In addition, Mekdes is very
friendly. She loves talking to other people and likes listening to music and watching TV in her
free time. Most importantly, she is helpful and always supports me when I have problems. I try
to help her too. I am very lucky to have a best friend who has such great characteristics.

2.4.3 Argumentative paragraph

Argumentation takes a position on an issue and offers reasons and supporting evidence to
persuade someone else to accept or at least consider the position. Good argumentative
paragraphs:

1. Take a strong and definite position on an issue or advises a particular action.

2. Give good reasons and supporting evidence to defend a position or recommended action.

3. Consider opposing views.

4. Have enthusiasm and energy from start to finish.

When you do argument first state the opposite stand, then their evidence, then establish your
stand, after that present your evidence and deconstruct the opposite idea.

Argumentation Paragraph Example

Some people argue that school uniforms should not be mandatory to give closing
alternatives for students. But I believe that school uniforms should be mandatory for all
students for a number of reasons. First, they make everyone equal. In this way, the “rich” kids
are on the same level as the poor ones. In addition, getting ready for school can be much faster
and easier. Many kids waste time choosing what to wear to school, and they are often unhappy
with their final choices. Most important, some studies show that school uniforms make students

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perform better. However others might say that uniforms take away from personal freedom,
I believe that the benefits are stronger than the drawbacks.

2.4.4. Narrative Paragraph

Narration: Is writing that tells a story with a moral value. The story might be fictional or factual
(event/experience). Good narration:

1. Reveals something of importance.

2. Includes all the important events of the story.

3. Brings the story to life with a detailed account of what happened.

4. Presents events in a clear chronological order.

Narrative Paragraph Example

My most embarrassing moment happened when I was working in a Mexican restaurant. I was a
hostess working on a busy Friday night. As usual, I was wearing a blouse and a long Mexican
skirt. While I was taking some menus to a table, one of the waiters accidentally stepped on the
hem of my skirt. I didn’t even feel it fall off, and I walked through the whole dining room in my
slip! Almost every customer in the restaurant saw me without my skirt on!

UNIT THREE: ESSAY WRITING

3.1. The Concept of an Essay

An essay is simply a collection of paragraphs which discusses one major topic in focus.

3.2. Basic structure of an Essay

Academic essay has three basic parts:

3.2.1. Introductory paragraph,

3.2.2. Body paragraph (s), and
3.2.3. Concluding paragraph.

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3.2.1. Writing a good introduction for an Essay

The introductory paragraph opens with a very general statement (in the sample essay at the end
of this handout, the following sentence opens the introductory paragraph: Throughout human
history, nature has often presented dangers to explorers, is a very general statement), which is
dangers in exploration) about the topic, and is often followed by some supporting examples(For
example, when primitive humans left their tribal villages to search for food and water, they
risked death or injury from dangerous animals. Later, when people sailed the oceans in search
of new lands for settlement or trade, many died in terrible storms), but the paragraph then
finishes with a narrow statement about the topic. This narrow statement is called the main thesis.
(Look at the last sentence in the introductory paragraph of the sample essay at the end of
this handout). This main thesis functions like the topic sentence of the paragraph. Notice how
the main thesis is worded. It includes the phrase, several unique challenges. This raises a
question in the reader's mind, namely: "What are these challenges?" The reader will find out
what some of the challenges are in the body of the essay, which we will study next.

The four basic functions that a good introduction performs are:

•engaging the reader’s interest,

•indicating in general what the essay is about, (presenting background information)

•indicating briefly the main ideas which are dealt with in the essay and

•providing a thesis statement.

3.2.2. Writing Body Paragraphs

The body portion of the essay is the largest portion. Typically, it has three paragraphs, but it
might have one or two paragraphs and of course it can have many more than three. Each of these
paragraphs usually has a topic sentence and several supporting sentences just like in a paragraph.
(Look at the three body paragraphs of the sample essay at the end of this handout).

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The body paragraphs are the stuff of your essay. They back up your thesis with evidence. Each
paragraph has a supporting point. These points are the little mini-thesis that support your big
thesis. You made a short list of these in the agenda part of your introduction. As you move from
one body paragraph to the next, don't forget your transitions. These show your reader how
each point relates to the next. Transitions help you establish logical connections between
sentences, paragraphs, and sections of your papers. (NB. Types of Transitions have been
discussed for you in detail at the end of this handout).

Remember that the main thesis statement of the sample essay said, Similarly, the ocean of outer
space has many dangers, but it also has several unique challenges for explorers. You can see
how the body of the essay is organized according to the challenges that are mentioned in the
main thesis. The first body paragraph discusses the dangers of space vacuum, the second body
paragraph gives information about meteors, and the third paragraph mentions the fact that
water is very difficult to find on other planets.

3.2.3. Writing a Conclusion for an Essay

The conclusion of an essay performs the following functions: restate the thesis (don't reuse the
same exact sentence, but make the same exact point); recaps the most important ideas; draws
the essay to a gentle close by reminding readers of the point you have just finished, remind them
why you are right, and remind them why your paper is relevant to their interests. In concluding
paragraphs, no new ideas must be added, but precisely present what has been discussed in the
body since conclusion is the short representation of the body. You can also add
recommendations, advice, and call for actions about your topic.

Sample Essay

Throughout human history, the physical universe has often presented dangers to explorers. For
example, when primitive humans left their tribal villages to search for food and water, they
risked death or injury from dangerous animals. Later, when people sailed the oceans in search of
new lands for settlement or trade, many died in terrible storms. Similarly, the ocean of outer
space has many dangers, but it also has several unique challenges for explorers.

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One of the challenges that is unique to space is the fact that space is a vacuum, which is a risk for
various reasons. First, in a vacuum there is no atmosphere and therefore no air pressure. Without
air pressure, the human body has no oxygen to sustain itself. After too many minutes without
oxygen, a person would lose consciousness and eventually die. Also, in a vacuum a person's
blood will gradually begin to boil. Finally, without an atmosphere, the rays of the Sun can cause
radiation poisoning.

Another difficulty that is unique to outer space is the presence of meteors and micrometeors.
These are pieces of rock and metal that are left over from the formation of the solar system.
Many of these objects travel at very high speeds. Under the Earth's blanket of air, people are
usually protected from meteor impacts. However, in space, people and spaceships are vulnerable
to collisions with meteors. It is true that the chance of meteor impacts is relatively small, but if
even a small micro meteor happens to collide with a spacecraft, it could cause serious damage.

A third special challenge involved with the environment of space involves the fact that it is very
difficult to find life-sustaining water off the Earth. For example, the planet Mercury, which is
closest to the Sun, is too hot to have water, so space travelers must take water from Earth if they
want to visit Mercury. A similar situation exists on the planet Venus, second from the Sun. This
planet is likewise too hot for water to exist. Similarly, the fourth planet, Mars, is too cold and
dry, although there may be some water frozen at the north and south poles of the planet.

There are other difficulties involved with space exploration, but these are three of the most
important ones. In summary, without adequate air pressure, the unprotected human body may be
seriously harmed in a vacuum. In addition, meteors can threaten human life and damage
spacecraft. Finally, the lack of water in space means that human life may have a difficult time
surviving on other planets. As one can see, the challenges of space travel are rather different
from terrestrial dangers.

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 Types of transitions (cohesive devices)

Let us briefly discuss the types of transitions your writing will use.

The types of transitions available to you are as diverse as the circumstances in which you need to

use them. A transition can be a single word, a phrase, a sentence, or an entire paragraph. In
each case, it functions the same way: first, the transition either directly summarizes the content
of a preceding sentence, paragraph, or section, or it implies that summary. Then it helps the
reader anticipate or comprehend the new information that you wish to present.

1. Transitions between sections—Particularly in longer works, it may be necessary to include

transitional paragraphs that summarize for the reader the information just covered and specify
the relevance of this information to the discussion in the following section.

2. Transitions between paragraphs—If you have done a good job of arranging paragraphs so
that the content of one leads logically to the next, the transition will highlight a relationship that
already exists by summarizing the previous paragraph and suggesting something of the content
of the paragraph that follows. A transition between paragraphs can be a word or two (however,
for example, similarly), a phrase, or a sentence.

Transitions can be at the end of the first paragraph, at the beginning of the second paragraph, or
in both places.

3. Transitions within paragraphs—As with transitions between sections and paragraphs,

transitions within paragraphs act as cues by helping readers to anticipate what is coming before
they read it. Within paragraphs, transitions tend to be single words or short phrases.

Remember: The transition may occur as the last sentence of the paragraph or the first sentence
of the next paragraph. Whichever method you choose, your topic sentence would be the next
sentence you write.

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 Exercise
I. Complete the following essay by filling the appropriate words given below in the
blank spaces. (One word may be used more than once.)
1. or 2. also 3. for instance 4. and 5. first 6. even though 7. however
8. on the other hand 9. but 10. such as

1. Every day we hear about the problem of hunger in Africa. Many authorities state causes,
(1) ______________________drought and over population. They 2)______________
suggest solutions, like food aid and population control.

2. It is true that such realities as drought and overpopulation worsen the problem of hunger
in Africa. (3) ______________________, these realities are not the real cause of Africa’s
famine. The real culprit is poverty, (4) ______________________ only by doing
something about poverty itself can we solve the hunger problem in Africa.
3. I am not suggesting that we ignore the problems of drought and over population. On the
contrary, I believe we should study them carefully in order to learn what lies behind
them. Let us look, (5) ______________________, at drought.

4. Insufficient rainfall is a problem for farmers all over the world, (6) _______________ it
is only the truly poor who die from it. How, (7) ______________________, did Africans
become so poor? In the past several hundred years, with the help of European colonizers,
the best farm lands were taken and planted in cash crops for export , with profits going to
a few of the wealthy. (8) _____________________, there has not been enough food
produced for the poor majority, (9) ______________________it is these already hungry
people who are so affected by drought. Since food aid treats symptoms, not causes, I
suggest that the only long- lasting solution to this problem lies, not in food aid, (10)
______________________ in revising Africa’s farming practices.

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 II. Read the following scrambled sentences of a narrative paragraph and rearrange
the sentences so that they make sense.
1. After my bike went through the transformation, I was now ready for the big
moment.
2. Learning how to ride a bike for the first time was a nerve racking independent
moment.
3. The next step I remember, I was lying on the ground, yet I did not care because of
the adrenaline rush.
4. With butterflies in my stomach, I slowly got on the bike, and with my shaky
hands, I gripped the handles tightly.
5. That was the time I decided not to depend on them anymore.
6. Finally I looked back nervously and noticed that my sister let go of my bike a
long time ago.
7. Even though I had some doubt, my sister and I went outside and started to take
the little wheels off my bike.
8. Meanwhile my sister was holding on to me to help keep my balance.
9. I was about five years old when my sister informed me that I was too old to still
be riding a bike with training wheels.
10. Next with a little push from her, I started to peddle.

III. Read the Following paragraph and answer the questions bellow by writing
ONLY THE NUMBERS of the sentences in the spaces provided.

How to stop yourself snoring.

1. Snoring is caused when the airway at the back of the nose and throat becomes partially
obstructed. 2.This is usually due to the loosening of the surrounding or pharyngeal muscles, but
the reasons why this should occur are varied. 3.The most common are smoking, obesity and the
consumption of relaxants such as alcohol and sleeping pills. 4. As with any common ailment,
there are a host of "miracle" cures advertised - but you should first try a few simple steps to see if
you can halt the snoring before adopting more drastic measures. 5. Lifestyle changes can be the
most effective. 6.If you are overweight, a loss of weight will help to reduce the pressure on your

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neck. 7.You should also stop smoking and try not to drink alcohol at least four hours before you
go to bed. 8. Beyond this, try to change your regular sleeping position. 9. Raise the head of your
bed with a brick, or tie something uncomfortable into the back of your pyjamas to encourage you
to sleep on your side. 10. Both of these will help to alter the angle of your throat as you sleep,
and may thus make breathing easier for you. 11. It is also important to keep your nasal passage
clear and unblocked. 12.Allergies, colds and hay fever can temporarily cause you to snore; nasal
decongestants may help, but you are not advised to use such remedies for long periods. 13. Nasal
strips, as worn by sportspeople, have been proven to reduce nasal airway resistance by up to 30
per cent, so consider these as a long-term alternative. 14.If this fails, then you may wish to look
at the varied snoring aids that are on the market. 15.They range from neck collars that stop your
neck tilting, through to mandibular-advancement devices (such as gumshields) which reduce
upper airway resistance, and tongue-retaining devices. 16.You can also buy essential-oil products
that are added to warm water and infused or consumed before bedtime. 17.They claim to tone up
your palate and unblock your nasal passage.19. Finally if your symptoms persist after taking
these measures, you better visit a doctor to get help for solution.

Topic sentence _______________

Major supports ________________
Minor supports ______________
Concluding sentence ____________

V. Read the following paragraph and write an appropriate topic sentence for it.

_______________________________________________. Since many of them bring to prison a

commitment to criminal subcultures, education can challenge their belief structure and provide
alternate choices that are acceptable to society. In order to choose between positive and negative
social norms, prisoners must first identify and understand them. Providing inmates with
workshops that focus on such issues can help them understand proper social morality. This
understanding gives them the ability to distinguish civilized from uncivilized behavior and
responsible from irresponsible conduct. Similarly, active involvement in courses on peace,

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human rights, and non-violence can positively adjust a prisoner's view of himself and the world
by promoting self-esteem, empathy, and solidarity, all of which are essential to achieving social
competence. Such learning experiences help prisoners to change their way of thinking, give new
meaning to their lives, and allow them to see themselves as part of the larger society.

VI. Write an appropriate concluding sentence for the following paragraph.

Thousands of new people are born on our planet every day. The number of inhabitants in the
world has already reached over six billion. If the present growth rate remains unchecked, the
world may soon face widespread starvation, poverty, and serious health problems.
____________________________________________________________________.
VII. Read the following scrambled paragraphs and put them into logical order (re
order them), then they will make an essay.
A/ Perhaps the least serious camping troubles are equipment failures; these troubles often
plague families camping for the first time. They arrive at the campsite at night and haphazardly
set up their nine-person tent. They then settle down for a peaceful night's rest. Sometime during
the night the family is awakened by a huge crash. The tent has fallen down. Sleepily, they awake
and proceed to set up the tent in the rain. In the morning, everyone emerges from the tent, except
for two. Their sleeping bag zippers have gotten caught. Finally, after fifteen minutes of
struggling, they free themselves, only to realize another problem. Each family member's sleeping
bag has been touching the sides of the tent. A tent is only waterproof if the sides are not touched.
The sleeping bags and clothing are all drenched. Totally disillusioned with the "vacation," the
frustrated family packs up immediately and drives home. Equipment failures may not seem very
serious, but after campers encounter bad weather and annoying pests or wild animals, these
failures can end any remaining hope for a peaceful vacation.

B/ Another problem likely to be faced during a camping trip is run-ins with wildlife, which can
range from mildly annoying to dangerous. Minor inconveniences include mosquitoes and ants.
The swarming of mosquitoes can literally drive annoyed campers indoors. If an effective
repellant is not used, the camper can spend an interminable night scratching, which will only
worsen the itch. Ants do not usually attack campers, but keeping them out of the food can be
quite an inconvenience. Extreme care must be taken not to leave food out before or after meals.
If food is stored inside the tent, the tent must never be left open. In addition to swarming the

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food, ants inside a tent can crawl into sleeping bags and clothing. Although these insects cause
minor discomfort, some wildlife encounters are potentially dangerous. There are many poisonous
snakes in the United States, such as the water moccasin and the diamond-back rattlesnake. When
hiking in the woods, the camper must be careful where he steps. Also, the tent must never be left
open. Snakes, searching for either shade from the sun or shelter from the rain, can enter a tent.
An encounter between an unwary camper and a surprised snake can prove to be fatal. Run-ins
can range from unpleasant to dangerous, but the camper must realize that they are sometimes
inevitable

C/ Nothing can dampen the excited anticipation of camping more than a dark, rainy day. Even
the most adventurous campers can lose some of their enthusiasm on the drive to the campsite if
the skies are dreary and damp. After reaching their destination, campers must then "set up camp"
in the downpour. This includes keeping the inside of the tent dry and free from mud, getting the
sleeping bags situated dryly, and protecting food from the downpour. If the sleeping bags happen
to get wet, the cold also becomes a major factor. A sleeping bag usually provides warmth on a
camping trip; a wet sleeping bag provides none. Combining wind with rain can cause frigid
temperatures, causing any outside activities to be delayed. Even inside the tent problems may
arise due to heavy winds. More than a few campers have had their tents blown down because of
the wind, which once again begins the frustrating task of "setting up camp" in the downpour. It is
wise to check the weather forecast before embarking on camping trips; however, mother nature
is often unpredictable and there is no guarantee bad weather will be eluded.

D/ These three types of camping troubles can strike campers almost anywhere. Until some
brilliant scientist invents a weather machine to control bad weather or a kind of wildlife
repellent, unlucky campers will continue to shake their fists in frustration. More than likely,
equipment will continue to malfunction. Even so, camping continues to be a favourite pastime of
people all across the United States. If you want camping to be a happy experience for you, learn
to laugh at leaky tents, bad weather, and bugs, or you will find yourself frustrated and unhappy.

E/ Each year, thousands of people throughout the United States choose to spend their vacations
camping in the great outdoors. Depending on an individual's sense of adventure, there are

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various types of camping to choose from, including log cabin camping, recreational vehicle
camping, and tent camping. Of these, tent camping involves "roughing it" the most, and with
proper planning the experience can be gratifying. Even with the best planning, however, tent
camping can be an extremely frustrating experience due to uncontrolled factors such as bad
weather, wildlife encounters, and equipment failures.
1. The logical order is 1.____2._____3______4._______5.________
2. What is the thesis statement of the essay? (2pts)
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

XI. Write a coherent and a well-unified ARGUMENTATIVE paragraph on one of the

following topic sentences. (10pts)
1. Condom should / not be made available in the universities.
2. Television is one of the worst/ best inventions in this century.
3. Cigarette smoking and khat (chat) chewing should or should not be stopped.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________.

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