Short review of

English
grammar
M. Driksna
Topics:
 Narrative tenses
 Conditionals
 Reported speech
 Phrasal verbs
 Verb patterns
 Articles
 Comma rules
 Essay writing
 Speaking part
 Narrative tenses (past tenses)
 Subject + past tense
He went to the station.
 Subject + be (past) + verb -ing
He was going to the station.
 Subject + had + past participle
He had gone to the station.
 Subject + had + been + verb -ing
He had been going to the station.
 Conditionals
 The Zero Conditional:
(if + present simple, ... present simple)
If you heat water to 100 degrees, it boils.
 The First Conditional:
(if + present simple, ... will + infinitive)
If it rains tomorrow, we'll go to the cinema.
 The Second Conditional:
(if + past simple, ... would + infinitive)
If I had a lot of money, I would travel around the world.
 The Third Conditional
(if + past perfect, ... would + have + past participle)
If I had gone to bed early, I would have caught the train.
 Mixed conditionals
 Past Condition / Present Result:
If + past perfect, would (could, might) + infinitive.
If we hadn't missed our flight, we'd be in Spain now.
 Present Condition / Past Result
if + past simple, would (could, might) have + past participle.
if I was more diligent, I would've finished my degree at university.
 Reported speech
Tense Direct Speech Reported Speech

present simple I like ice cream She said (that) she liked ice cream.

present continuous I am living in London She said (that) she was living in London.

past simple I bought a car She said (that) she had bought a car OR She said (that) she bought a car.

past continuous I was walking along the street She said (that) she had been walking along the street.

present perfect I haven't seen Julie She said (that) she hadn't seen Julie.

past perfect* I had taken English lessons before She said (that) she had taken English lessons before.

will I'll see you later She said (that) she would see me later.

would* I would help, but..” She said (that) she would help but...

can I can speak perfect English She said (that) she could speak perfect English.

could* I could swim when I was four She said (that) she could swim when she was four.

shall I shall come later She said (that) she would come later.

should* I should call my mother She said (that) she should call her mother

might* I might be late She said (that) she might be late

must I must study at the weekend She said (that) she must study at the weekend OR She said she had to study at the weekend
 Reporting verbs
 1: SAY - say + (that) + clause
She said (that) she had already eaten.
 2: TELL - tell + someone + (that) + clause
I told John (that) I had seen the new film.
When we are reporting orders, we can also use another pattern with 'tell':

tell + someone + to + infinitive

She told the children to go to bed.
 3: ASK - ask + someone + if / question word + clause
I asked my boss if I could leave early.
She asked them where the station was.
For requests we use the pattern:

ask + someone + to + infinitive

I asked Lucy to pass me the salt.
 4: ADVISE - Advise + someone + to + infinitive
She advised him to see a doctor.
Advise + (that) + clause
The staff advise that you carry water at all times.
Advise + against + verb-ing
I'd advise against leaving early.
 5: AGREE - Agree + to + infinitive
We agreed to meet the following day.
Agree + (that) + clause
I agreed that the children could do their homework later.
 6: APOLOGISE - Apologise + (to + someone) + for + verb-ing
They apologised to us for being late.
She apologised for forgetting the book.
Apologise (+ to + someone) + for + noun
She apologised for the delay.
 7: DECIDE - Decide + to + infinitive
They decided to go to the cinema.
Decide + (that) + clause
They decided that they would go to the cinema.
 8: ENCOURAGE - Encourage + someone + to + infinitive
She encouraged him to take the exam again.
The teacher encouraged the students to ask questions.
 9: EXPLAIN - Explain + (that) + clause
The teacher explained that the course was finished.
Explain + noun + to + someone
She explained the grammar to the students.
Explain + question word + to + infinitive
They explained how to buy a train ticket on the internet.
John explained where to find the restaurant.
Explain + question word + clause
We explained what the exams would cover.
 10: INSIST - Insist + on + verb-ing
He insisted on paying.
Insist + (that) + clause
He insisted that we sit down.
 11: PROMISE - Promise + to + infinitive
He promised to arrive early.
Promise + (someone) + (that) + clause
I promised him that I wouldn't do it again.
 12: RECOMMEND - Recommend + verb-ing
I recommend visiting the British Museum while you're in London.
Recommend + (that) + clause
I recommend that you visit the British Museum.
 13: REMIND - Remind + someone + to + infinitive
She reminded him to take his keys.
Remind + someone + (that) + clause
They reminded me that there is a party tonight.
 14: SUGGEST - Suggest + verb-ing
I suggest leaving soon
Suggest + (that) + clause
I suggest that you come as soon as you can.
 15: WARN - Warn + someone + (not) + to + infinitive
I warned them not to go in the water.
Warn + someone + about + something
She warned us about the dangerous roads.
Warn + against + verb-ing
 Phrasal Verbs
 Phrasal verbs combine verbs with adverbs or prepositions (or both) to create new
meaning.​
 What is a preposition and an adverb?​
 Preposition is a short word that is usually used in front of the noun or after verbs to
create phrasal verbs. ​
 Adverb is a word that modifies a verb.​
 Examples: (to, in, under, of, out, etc.)
Literal, Figurative and Idiomatic Meanings​
Phrasal Verbs and equivalent Single-word
verbs​
 Verb Patterns
 Verbs patterns refer to what follows a verb. For example, some verbs can stand
alone, (They laughed). Others have to be followed by an object (They loved it).
Other verbs are followed by objects + prepositions (Put it on the table), or verbs in
other forms (I hate waiting, I prefer to walk), or by a clause (They told us to wait.
He told us (that) we were wrong. She agreed to come. We agreed (that) it was
better). The meaning of the verb is often in the whole pattern, not just in the verb.
 COUNT NON-
NOUNS COUNT
NOUNS

Rule #1 a, an (no article)

Specific identity
not known

Rule #2 the the

Articles Specific identity
known

Rule #3 (no article) (no article)

All
things or things
in general
Another way to identify articles
 Indefinite article (a/an)
 If the noun is singular and countable, and this is the first time you have mentioned
it, then you will usually need the indefinite article:
 I bought a book – we do not know which book.
 There is a bird outside – we do not know anything about the bird.
 Measurements and rates also take the indefinite article: Three times a week
 If the noun starts with a vowel sound, then the article “an” is used: an ear, an
uncle, an hour
 If the noun starts with a consonant sound, then the article “a” is used: a school, a
university
 Definite article (the)
 Decades – He was born in the 1920s.
 Currencies –The dollar is getting stronger against the pound.
 Superlatives and ordinals – The second book in the series is the best.
 Oceans, seas and many rivers –The Nile flows into the Mediterranean.
 Plural or ‘united’ countries – The Maldives are much smaller than the United States of America.
 Adjectives used as nouns – The poor will always be a challenge for the rich in any country.
 Many organisations –The World Health Organization has a detailed definition of health.
 A scientific categorisation – The zebra is native to Africa.
 A symbol – The Merlion is a symbol of Singapore.
 Unique people, places or things – The prime minister said she would call a conference on changes
affecting the earth’s climate.
 Unique adjectives – The same people always take the only parking spaces available.
 Other word patterns which take ‘the’:
 Specific nouns modified by a relative clause – The paintings (which are) in the
gallery
 Specific nouns followed by ‘of’. This is a very common pattern - The use of this
procedure
 Plural nouns preceded by ‘of’ – e.g. Some of the paintings were interesting.

No article
 We do not need an article if a noun is plural or uncountable and it is not definite.
 Women generally live longer than men.
 Articles are difficult to use.
 Paint is hard to remove
 Quick Guide to Commas
 Use commas to separate independent clauses when they are joined by any of these
seven coordinating conjunctions: and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet.
 Use commas after introductory a) clauses, b) phrases, or c) words that come before
the main clause.
 Use a pair of commas in the middle of a sentence to set off clauses, phrases, and
words that are not essential to the meaning of the sentence. Use one comma before
to indicate the beginning of the pause and one at the end to indicate the end of the
pause.
 Do not use commas to set off essential elements of the sentence, such as clauses
beginning with that (relative clauses). That clauses after nouns are always
essential. That clauses following a verb expressing mental action are always
essential.
 Use commas to separate three or more words, phrases, or clauses written in a series.
 Use commas to separate two or more coordinate adjectives that describe the same
noun. Be sure never to add an extra comma between the final adjective and the
noun itself or to use commas with non-coordinate adjectives.
 Use a comma near the end of a sentence to separate contrasted coordinate elements
or to indicate a distinct pause or shift.
 Use commas to set off phrases at the end of the sentence that refer back to the
beginning or middle of the sentence. Such phrases are free modifiers that can be
placed anywhere in the sentence without causing confusion.
 Use commas to set off all geographical names, items in dates (except the month and
day), addresses (except the street number and name), and titles in names.
 Use a comma to shift between the main discourse and a quotation.
 Use commas wherever necessary to prevent possible confusion or misreading.
Good luck!