Initially, Ethernet Can Be Designed To Run Over Coaxial Cables, Twisted Pair Cables, Fiber Optic Cable

What is an Ethernet Network?
As mentioned, Ethernet network is used to create local area network and connect multiple computers or
other devices such as printers, scanners, and so on. In a wired network, this is done with the help of
fiber optic cables, while in a wireless network, it is done through wireless network technology. An
Ethernet network uses various topologies such as star, bus, ring, and more.
WiredEthernet
Initially, ethernet can be designed to run over coaxial cables, twisted pair
cables,fiber optic cable.
Wired Ethernet network, devices are connected with the help of a fiber optic cable which connects the
devices within a distance of 10km. For this, we have to install a computer network interface card (NIC) in
each computer. A unique address is given to each computer that is connected. So, for sharing data and
resources like printers, computers, and other machines, Ethernet networking is used as it establishes a
communication system.
Ethernet is a shared medium network technology, where all the workstations are connected to the same
cable and must connect with one another to send signals over it. The algorithm used to resolve collisions
– that is, when two workstations try to speak at the same time – is called CSMA/CD, and works by
forcing both workstations to back off for random (and hence probably different) intervals before trying
again.
Advantages of using wired Ethernet network
• It is very reliable.
• Ethernet network makes use of firewalls for the security of the data.
• Data is transmitted and received at very high speed.
• It is very easy to use the wired network.
Disadvantages of using wired Ethernet network
• The wired Ethernet network is used only for short distances.
• The mobility is limited.
• Its maintenance is difficult.
• Ethernet cables, hubs, switches, routers increase the cost of installation.
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What is Ethernet? – Definition

By Dinesh Thakur
Definition: Ethernet (pronounced “eether net”) is a computer network technology

which is used in different area networks like LAN, MAN, WAN. Ethernet connecting
computers together with cable so the computers can share information. Within each
main branch of the network, “Ethernet” can connect up to 1,024 personal computers
and workstations.
Ethernet provides services on the Physical (Layers 1) and Data Link Layer (Layers 2)
of OSI reference model.The Data Link Layer is further divided into two sublayers that
are Logical Link Control (LLC) and Media Access Control (MAC),these sublayers can
be used to establish the transmission paths and format data before transmiting on the
same network segment.
Systems that use ethernet communication divide their data into packets, which are
also known as frames. These frames further contain source and destination address,
a mechanism which was used to detect errors in the data and retransmission
requests.
We’ll be covering the following topics in this tutorial:
• History of Ethernet
• Wired Ethernet
• Wireless Ethernet
• Types of Ethernet network
• Features of Ethernet
History of Ethernet
Ethernet was developed over several years in the early 1970s by group researchers
within the company Xerox Palo Alto Research Center (Xerox PARC) including, in
particular, Robert Metcalfe (who founded later 3Com company). The goal the
research project was to connect networked computers and laser printers. Xerox
Corporation filed a patent on this technology late 1977. In 1979, companies Digital
Equipment Corporation (DEC), Intel and Xerox combined to improve Ethernet and
together published the first standard in 1980: Ethernet Blue Book sometimes called
TEN (after the initials of the three companies). Finally, the IEEE this technology
became standard in 1983: 802.3 was born … well before the 802.11! A little abuse of
language, it is called Ethernet 802.3 standard. The format of DIX Ethernet packets is
slightly different from the 802.3 Ethernet packets, but the two can coexist on the same
network. The invention of single-chip Ethernet controllers has made Ethernet cards
very cheap, and many modern PCs have it built-in on the MOTHERBOARD.
Wired Ethernet
Initially, ethernet can be designed to run over coaxial cables, twisted pair cables,fiber
optic cable.
Wired Ethernet network, devices are connected with the help of a fiber optic cable
which connects the devices within a distance of 10km. For this, we have to install
a computer network interface card (NIC) in each computer. A unique address is given
to each computer that is connected. So, for sharing data and resources like printers,
computers, and other machines, Ethernet networking is used as it establishes a
communication system.
Ethernet is a shared medium network technology, where all the workstations are
connected to the same cable and must connect with one another to send signals over
it. The algorithm used to resolve collisions – that is, when two workstations try to
speak at the same time – is called CSMA/CD, and works by forcing both workstations
to back off for random (and hence probably different) intervals before trying again.
Advantages of using wired Ethernet network
• It is very reliable.
• Ethernet network makes use of firewalls for the security of the data.
• Data is transmitted and received at very high speed.
• It is very easy to use the wired network.
Disadvantages of using wired Ethernet network
• The wired Ethernet network is used only for short distances.

• The mobility is limited.
• Its maintenance is difficult.
• Ethernet cables, hubs, switches, routers increase the cost of installation.
Wireless Ethernet
In this, wireless NICs are used for connecting the computer instead of a cable and
these wireless NICs make use of radio waves for communicating between the
systems and furthers these NICs are connected with a wireless switch or hub.
This technology requires maintenance, but it is more easy to use.
Advantages of using wireless Ethernet
• These types of networks can handle a large number of users.

• It is less expensive than wired Ethernet network.
• In wireless Ethernet, we can easily add new devices to the network as no new cable
is needed for the connection.
• A wireless network allows laptops, tablets and other mobile devices to move freely
within a network without losing the connection in the network.
Disadvantages of using wireless Ethernet
• The speed of wireless Ethernet is slower than the wired Ethernet network.
• Wireless networks are less secure as compare to the wired Ethernet network.
• Wireless network connections get obstructed by the structure of the building like
walls, ceilings etc.
• Setting up of a wireless Ethernet network is difficult for the non-experienced users.
Types of Ethernet network
The maximum data rate of the original Ethernet technology is 10 megabits per second
(Mbps), but a second generation fast ethernet carries 100 Mbps, and the latest version
called gigabit ethernet works at 1000 Mbps. Ethernet network can be classified into 3
types:
Fast Ethernet
This type of Ethernet can transfer data at a rate of 100 Mbps. Fast Ethernet makes
use of twisted pair cable or fiber optic cable for communication.
There are three types of fast Ethernet, which are as follows:
• 100BASE-TX
• 100BASE-FX
• 100BASE-T4
Gigabit Ethernet
This type of Ethernet network can transfer data at a rate of 1000 Mbps. Gigabit
Ethernet also makes use of twisted pair cable or fiber optic cable. 48 bits used for
addressing in Gigabit Ethernet.
Nowadays gigabit Ethernet is very popular. The latest Gigabit Ethernet is a 10 Gigabit
Ethernet, which can transfer data at a rate of 10 Gbps.
Gigabit Ethernet was developed so that it can meet the needs of the user like faster
communication network, faster transfer of data etc.
Switch Ethernet
Switched Ethernet involves adding switches so that each workstation can have its
own dedicated 10 Mbps connection rather than sharing the medium, which can
improve network throughput – it has the advantage over rival switched technologies
such as asynchronous transfer mode that it employs the same low-level protocols,
cheap cabling, and network interface cards as ordinary Ethernet.
When we use a switch in a network, then we use a regular network cable rather than
using a crossover cable. The crossover cable is made up of a transmission pair at
one end and a receiving pair at the other end.
The main task of the switch in a network is to transfer the data from one device to
another device in the same network without affecting the other devices.
It supports different data transfer rates like 10Mbps to 100Mbps for fast Ethernet and
1000Mbps to 10 Gbps for the latest Ethernet.
This type of Ethernet makes use of star topology.
Features of Ethernet
The features of Ethernet are as follows:

• Through Ethernet network, data can be sent and received at very high speed.
• Ethernet network is less expensive.
• With the help of Ethernet networking, your data is secured as it protected your data.
Suppose that someone is attempting on your network, and then all of the devices in
your network stop processing instantly and wait until the user attempts to transmit it
again.
• Ethernet facilitates us to share our data and resources like printers, scanners,
computers etc.
• Ethernet network quickly transmits the data. That’s why, nowadays most of the
universities and college campuses make use of Ethernet technology, which is based
upon the Gigabit Ethernet.
Fundamentals of Fibre Channel
Fibre Channel is a high-speed network technology used to connect server to data storage area network.
It handles high performance of disk storage for applications on many corporate networks. It supports
data backup and replication.
Fibre Channel is needed, as it is very flexible and enables the transfer of data at a faster speed.
The topologies, that bring about the flexibility in the fibre channel are –
Point to point topology.
Fibre channel arbitrated loop.
Switched fabric topology.
NOTE –
Topology refers to the physical/logical arrangement of nodes or other devices in a network.
Basic port details, to know to understand the mentioned topologies –
Port Type Associated Topology
N_port Node Point to point or Fabric.
NL_port Node Node connected to an arbitrated loop.
F_port Fabric Fabric port.

FL_port Fabric Fabric connected to an arbitrated loop.
L_port Loop Hub port on an arbitrated loop.
Link Control Facility [L_C_F] is a hardware

facility that binds to each end of the link and
L_C_F Loop
governs transmission and reception of
information.
This inter-switch expansion port is used to

E_port Node connect to an E_port of another switch to build a
larger fabric.
A network switch that interconnects servers and

FC_switch Switch
storage ports.
Point to point topology :
•A single link connects two ports in this topology.

• This topology is inexpensive but it doesn’t require a hub.
• To create point to point configuration, you can provide multiple
‘N’ ports on each node.
• Each point to point connection provides the full bandwidth
supported by ‘N’ ports. Depending on the type of the link
(multi-mode or single-mode fiber), the two nodes can be
separated by up to 500m ( multi-mode fiber ) or 10km (single-
mode fiber).
Fibre channel arbitrated loop topology [FC-AL] :

It is a high-speed fibre channel [FC] topology in which fibre channel ports/hubs use arbitration to
establish a point-to-point circuit and prevent multiple ports/hubs from sending frames at the same time.
Here devices are connected in a one-way ring. So, when ports/hubs in a loop topology have information
to transmit, they must send out an arbitration signal to decide, which port/hub can use the channel. The
port in control of the channel then sends an ‘open’ arbitrated signal to the destination port and
transmits its information. Since all the ports in the loop are connected, every port will see and pass
along the data, but ignore the data unless it is addressed to that particular port.
FC-AL can join up to 126 ports on one controller.
It is still used internally in many fibre channel switches but rarely to connect hosts to storage these days.
FC- hubs provide bypass circuits that prevent the loop from breaking if one device fails or is removed.
NOTE –
A bypass circuit bypasses high-frequency components of power
supply.
Switched Fabric Topology :
• This is the topology, that is very much in use nowadays.

• The network of switches in a fibre channel habitat is referred to
as a fabric.
• Ports on one node can communicate with ports on other nodes
attached to the same fabric. With the fabric topology, many
connections can be alert at a time.
• The any-to-any connection service and peer-peer
communication service provided by a fabric is fundamental to
fibre channel architecture. Fibre channel can hold-up both
channel and network protocol simultaneously.
Layered Architecture
o The main aim of the layered architecture is to divide the design into small pieces.
o Each lower layer adds its services to the higher layer to provide a full set of services to
manage communications and run the applications.
o It provides modularity and clear interfaces, i.e., provides interaction between subsystems.
o It ensures the independence between layers by providing the services from lower to higher
layer without defining how the services are implemented. Therefore, any modification in a
layer will not affect the other layers.
o The number of layers, functions, contents of each layer will vary from network to network.
However, the purpose of each layer is to provide the service from lower to a higher layer
and hiding the details from the layers of how the services are implemented.
o The basic elements of layered architecture are services, protocols, and interfaces.
o Service: It is a set of actions that a layer provides to the higher layer.
o Protocol: It defines a set of rules that a layer uses to exchange the information
with peer entity. These rules mainly concern about both the contents and order of
the messages used.
o Interface: It is a way through which the message is transferred from one layer to
another layer.
o In a layer n architecture, layer n on one machine will have a communication with the layer
n on another machine and the rules used in a conversation are known as a layer-n protocol.
Let's take an example of the five-layered architecture.

o In case of layered architecture, no data is transferred from layer n of one machine to layer
n of another machine. Instead, each layer passes the data to the layer immediately just
below it, until the lowest layer is reached.
o Below layer 1 is the physical medium through which the actual communication takes place.
o In a layered architecture, unmanageable tasks are divided into several small and
manageable tasks.
o The data is passed from the upper layer to lower layer through an interface. A Layered
architecture provides a clean-cut interface so that minimum information is shared among
different layers. It also ensures that the implementation of one layer can be easily replaced
by another implementation.
o A set of layers and protocols is known as network architecture
Why do we require Layered architecture?

o Divide-and-conquer approach: Divide-and-conquer approach makes a design process
in such a way that the unmanageable tasks are divided into small and manageable tasks.
In short, we can say that this approach reduces the complexity of the design.
o Modularity: Layered architecture is more modular. Modularity provides the independence
of layers, which is easier to understand and implement.
o Easy to modify: It ensures the independence of layers so that implementation in one layer
can be changed without affecting other layers.
o Easy to test: Each layer of the layered architecture can be analyzed and tested individually.
Introduction
Class of Service (CoS) or Quality of Service (QoS) is a way to manage multiple traffic
profiles over a network by giving certain types of traffic priority over others. For example
you can give Voice traffic priority over email or http traffic. CoS is offered by service
providers normally within an MPLS (Multi Protocol Label Switching) offering.
Description:
CoS is the classification of specific traffic (at layer 2) by manipulating the class of service
bits (in the frame header). It effectively 'marks' the traffic so that QoS can use this
identification/classification as a means to actually manipulate the traffic according to your
policy. It is one way to identify traffic (along with ToS, ACLs, etc) so that QoS knows what to
manipulate and how to manipulate.
Unlike QoS (Quality of Service) CoS does not offer guarantees with bandwidth or delivery
time its based on a best effort basis.
There are three main CoS technologies:
802.1p Layer 2 Tagging
Type of Service (ToS)
Differentiated Services (DiffServ)
Frame Relay – What is Frame Relay?
Frame Relay (frame relay) is a packet switching technology that fragmented into transmission units
called frames and sent in high-speed bursts through a digital network. Establishes an exclusive
connection during the transmission period called virtual connection.
It uses a technology called fast packet in which error checking does not occur in any intermediate node
of the transmission but done at the ends. It makes it more efficient than X.25, and a higher process
speed achieved (it can transmit over 2,044 Mbps).
Various key features of this protocol are as follows:
1. The call control packets are used for setting up and clearing virtual circuits
2. In band signaling is used.
3. Multiplexing of virtual circuits takes place at layer 3.
4. Layer 2 and 3 include flow control and error control
Characteristics of Frame Relay
▪ Frame Relay service is a service that supports the transport of data

▪ Frame relay is a connectionless service, meaning that each data packet passing
through the network contains -address information
▪ Frame relay is a service that is provided with a variety of speeds from 56 Kbs up to
25 Mbs.
▪ Even though the most used speeds for the service are currently 56 Kbs and 1.544
Mbs
▪ Frames are variable in length and goes up to 4,096 bytes
▪ Frame Relay is considered to be a Broadband ISDN service
▪ One of the unique facets of frame relay service is that the service supports variable
size data packets.
Features of frame relay:
Some important features of frame relay are :

1. Frame relay operates at a high speed (1.544 Mbps to 44.376 Mbps).
2. Frame relay operates only in the physical and data link layers. So it can be easily used
in Internet.
3. It allows the bursty data.
4. It has a large frame size of 9000 bytes. So it can accommodate all local area network
frame sizes.
5. Frame relay can only detect errors (at the data link layer). But there is no flow control
or error control.
6. The damaged frame is simply dropped. There is no retransmission. This is to increase
the speed. So frame relay needs a reliable medium and protocols having flow and error
control.
Frame Format
The frame format used in frame relay.
• • The DLCI length is 10 bits

• • There are two EA locations. The value of the first one is fixed at 0 and the second
at
• • 1 is set in the DE (Discard Eligibility) for the part that can be discarded first when
congestion occurs
• • The data size may vary up to 4096 bytes.
Frame relay layers
• Frame relay has only two layers i.e. physical layer and data link layer.
Physical layer
• Frame relay supports ANSI standards.

• No specific protocol is defined for the physical layer. The user can use any protocol
which is recognized by ANSI.
Data link layer
• A simplified version of HDLC is employed by the frame relay at the data link layer.
• A simpler version is used because flow control and error correction is not needed in
frame relay.
Frame relay architecture:
• Frame relay can provide two types of virtual circuits.

1. Permanent Virtual Circuits (PVC).
2. Switched Virtual Circuits (SVC).
• Fig. Shows the frame relay network connected to internet. The routers connect LANs
and WANs in the Internet.
Virtual Circuits:
The virtual circuits in frame relay are called as Data Link Connection Identifier (DLCI).
This is actually a number which identifies a virtual circuit in frame relay.
Frame relay frame:
The structure of the Frame Relay frame shown in the figure. The Frame Relay package,
very similar to the X.25 package, has the following components:
• Figure Shows the frame relay frame format. This frame is very similar to the HDLC
frame except for the missing control field here.
• The control field is not needed because flow and error control are not needed.
• The Flag, FCS and information fields are same as those of HDLC.
• The address field defines the DLCI along with some other bits required for congestion
control and traffic control.
• Their description is as follows:
1. DLCI field:
The first part of DLCI is of 6 bits and the second part is of 4 bits. They together form a
10 bit data link connection identifier.
2. Command / Response (C / R):
The C/R bit allows the upper layers to identify a frame as either a command or response.
It is not used by the frame relay protocol.
3. Extended Address (EA):
• This bit indicates whether the current byte is the final byte of the address.
• If EA = 1 it indicates that the current byte is the final one but if EA = 0, then it tells that
another address byte is going to follow.
4. Forward Explicit Congestion Notification (FECN):
• This bit can be set by any switch to indicate that traffic is congested in the direction of
travel of the frame.
• The destination is informed about the congestion via this bit.
5. Backward Explicit Congestion Notification (BECN):
• This bit indicates the congestion in the direction opposite to the direction of frame travel.
• It informs the sender about the congestion.
6. Discard Eligibility (DE):
• The DE bit indicates the priority level of the frame. In the overload situations a frame
may have to be discarded.
• If DE = 1 then that frame can be discarded in the event of congestion.
• DE bit can be set by the sender or by any switch in the network.
Extended address (Frame Relay Assembler I Disassembler) :
The frame relay address has been extended from the original 2 byte address to 3 or 4
byte address, in order to increase the range of DLCIs.
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)

These are a set of communication standards for simultaneous
digital transmission of voice, video, data, and other network
services over the traditional circuits of the public switched
telephone network. Before Integrated Services Digital Network
(ISDN), the telephone system was seen as a way to transmit voice,
with some special services available for data. The main feature of
ISDN is that it can integrate speech and data on the same lines,
which were not available in the classic telephone system.
ISDN is a circuit-switched telephone network system, but it also

provides access to packet-switched networks that allows digital
transmission of voice and data. This results in potentially better
voice or data quality than an analog phone can provide. It provides
a packet-switched connection for data in increments of 64
kilobit/s. It provided a maximum of 128 kbit/s bandwidth in both
upstream and downstream directions. A greater data rate was
achieved through channel bonding. Generally, ISDN B-channels of
three or four BRIs (six to eight 64 kbit/s channels) are bonded.
In the context of the OSI model, ISDN is employed as the network

in data-link and physical layers but commonly ISDN is often
limited to usage to Q.931 and related protocols. These protocols
introduced in 1986 are a set of signaling protocols establishing
and breaking circuit-switched connections, and for advanced
calling features for the user. ISDN provides simultaneous voice,
video, and text transmission between individual desktop
videoconferencing systems and group videoconferencing
systems.
ISDN Interfaces:
The following are the interfaces of ISDN
1. Basic Rate Interface (BRI) –

There are two data-bearing channels (‘B’ channels) and one
signaling channel (‘D’ channel) in BRI to initiate connections.
The B channels operate at a maximum of 64 Kbps while the D
channel operates at a maximum of 16 Kbps. The two channels
are independent of each other. For example, one channel is
used as a TCP/IP connection to a location while the other
channel is used to send a fax to a remote location. In iSeries
ISDN supports a basic rate interface (BRl).
The basic rate interface (BRl) specifies a digital pipe consisting

of two B channels of 64 Kbps each and one D channel of 16
Kbps. This equals a speed of 144 Kbps. In addition, the BRl
service itself requires an operating overhead of 48 Kbps.
Therefore a digital pipe of 192 Kbps is required.
2. Primary Rate Interface (PRI) –

Primary Rate Interface service consists of a D channel and
either 23 or 30 B channels depending on the country you are in.
PRI is not supported on the iSeries. A digital pipe with 23 B
channels and one 64 Kbps D channel is present in the usual
Primary Rate Interface (PRI). Twenty-three B channels of 64
Kbps each and one D channel of 64 Kbps equals 1.536 Mbps.
The PRI service uses 8 Kbps of overhead also. Therefore PRI
requires a digital pipe of 1.544 Mbps.
3. Broadband-ISDN (B-ISDN) –
Narrowband ISDN has been designed to operate over the
current communications infrastructure, which is heavily
dependent on the copper cable however B-ISDN relies mainly
on the evolution of fiber optics. According to CCITT B-ISDN is
best described as ‘a service requiring transmission channels
capable of supporting rates greater than the primary rate.
ISDN Services:
ISDN provides a fully integrated digital service to users. These services
fall into 3 categories- bearer services, teleservices, and
supplementary services.
1. Bearer Services –
Transfer of information (voice, data, and video) between users
without the network manipulating the content of that
information is provided by the bearer network. There is no
need for the network to process the information and therefore
does not change the content. Bearer services belong to the first
three layers of the OSI model. They are well defined in the ISDN
standard. They can be provided using circuit-switched,
packet-switched, frame-switched, or cell-switched networks.
2. Teleservices –
In this, the network may change or process the contents of the
data. These services correspond to layers 4-7 of the OSI model.
Teleservices rely on the facilities of the bearer services and are
designed to accommodate complex user needs. The user need
not be aware of the details of the process. Teleservices include
telephony, teletex, telefax, videotex, telex, and
teleconferencing. Though the ISDN defines these services by
name yet they have not yet become standards.
3. Supplementary Service –
Additional functionality to the bearer services and teleservices
are provided by supplementary services. Reverse charging, call
waiting, and message handling are examples of supplementary
services which are all familiar with today’s telephone company
services
Principle of ISDN:
The ISDN works based on the standards defined by ITU-T (formerly
CCITT). The Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T)
coordinates standards for telecommunications on behalf of the
International Telecommunication Union (ITU) and is based in Geneva,
Switzerland. The various principles of ISDN as per ITU-T
recommendation are:
• To support switched and non-switched applications
• To support voice and non-voice applications
• Reliance on 64-kbps connections
• Intelligence in the network
• Layered protocol architecture
• Variety of configurations
Advantages of ISDN:
• ISDN channels have a reliable connection.

• ISDN is used to facilitate the user with multiple digital channels.
• It has faster data transfer rate.
Disadvantages of ISDN:
• ISDN lines costlier than the other telephone system.

• It requires specialized digital devices.
• It is less flexible.
What is BISDN
The B-ISDN (broadband integrated services digital network) is a virtual circuit-switched network that can
use high-speed packet switching services. The B-ISDN will use a flexible multiplexing format called ATM
(asynchronous transfer mode).
B-ISDN services are classified into interactive and distribution services. Interactive services contain the
bidirectional flow of user information between two subscribers or between a subscriber and a service
provider.
Interactive services
The interactive services are further divided into three sub-categories which are as follows−
Conversational
Conversational service involves the real-time exchange of information such as sound, video, data or
entire documents. Examples include video-telephony, video-conference, and high-speed data transfer.
Video-telephony is like the normal video telephony service but also has video capture, transmission and
display capabilities. Video-conference supports voice and video communication between two
conference rooms or between several individuals.
Messaging
Messaging service involves the non-real-time exchange of information between subscribers in a store-
and-forward fashion.
Retrieval
Retrieval services provide subscribers with retrieval access to centrally-stored public information.
Examples include broadband videotext (retrieval of video images/sequences with sound, text and
graphics), video retrieval (subscriber create to video libraries of movies) and return of high-resolution
pictures and records from multiple archives and data centers.
Distribution Services
Distribution services contain the unidirectional flow of user information from a service provider to a
subscriber.
Distribution services are divided into two sub-categories, which are as follows:
Distribution services without user presentation control involve the central broadcast of information to
many subscribers, where subscribers have no control over data display. Examples include the broadcast
of TV programs, electronic newspapers, and electronic publishing.
Distribution services with user presentation control are the same as the previous category. The
information is offered as cyclically repeated frames, thereby enabling the subscribers to control the start
and the order of the frames presentation. Examples include electronic newspaper and tele-advertising.
What is an ATM
ATM stands for Asynchronous Transfer Mode. It is a switching technique that uses time
division multiplexing (TDM) for data communications.
ATM networks are connection oriented networks for cell relay that supports voice, video
and data communications. It encodes data into small fixed - size cells so that they are
suitable for TDM and transmits them over a physical medium.
The size of an ATM cell is 53 bytes: 5 byte header and 48 byte payload. There are two
different cell formats - user-network interface (UNI) and network-network interface
(NNI). The below image represents the Functional Reference Model of the
Asynchronous Transfer Mode.
Benefits of ATM Networks are
• It provides the dynamic bandwidth that is particularly suited for bursty traffic.
• Since all data are encoded into identical cells, data transmission is simple,
uniform and predictable.
• Uniform packet size ensures that mixed traffic is handled efficiently.
• Small sized header reduces packet overload, thus ensuring effective
bandwidth usage.
• ATM networks are scalable both in size and speed.
ATM reference model comprises of three layers
• Physical Layer − This layer corresponds to physical layer of OSI model. At
this layer, the cells are converted into bit streams and transmitted over the
physical medium. This layer has two sub layers: PMD sub layer (Physical
Medium Dependent) and TC (Transmission Convergence) sub layer.
• ATM Layer −This layer is comparable to data link layer of OSI model. It
accepts the 48 byte segments from the upper layer, adds a 5 byte header to
each segment and converts into 53 byte cells. This layer is responsible for
routing of each cell, traffic management, multiplexing and switching.
• ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) −This layer corresponds to network layer of
OSI model. It provides facilities to the existing packet switched networks to
connect to ATM network and use its services. It accepts the data and
converts them into fixed sized segments. The transmissions can be of fixed or
variable data rate. This layer has two sub layers − Convergence sub layer
and Segmentation and Reassembly sub layer.
• ATM endpoints − It contains ATM network interface adaptor. Examples of
endpoints are workstations, routers, CODECs, LAN switches, etc.
• ATM switch −It transmits cells through the ATM networks. It accepts the
incoming cells from ATM endpoints (UNI) or another switch (NNI), updates
cell header and retransmits cell towards destination
ATM transfers data in fixed-size units are known as cells. Each cell includes 53 octets
or bytes, as shown in the figure. The first 5 bytes contain cell-header data, and the
remaining 48 include the payload (user information).
Small, fixed-length cells are well appropriated to transfer voice and video traffic due to
such traffic is biased to delays that result from having to wait for a huge data packet to
download, among other things.
Header Payload
5 Bytes 48 Bytes
ATM Cell Format

An ATM cell header can be two formats, such as User Network Interface (UNI) or
Network to Network Interface (NNI). The UNI header can be used for communication
between ATM endpoints and ATM switches in private ATM networks. The NNI header
can be used for communication between ATM switches.
The figure shows the ATM UNI cell header format and the ATM NNI cell header format.
Unlike the UNI, the NNI header does not contain the Generic Flow Control (GFC) field.
The NNI header has a Virtual Path Identifier (VPI) field that appears in the first 12 bits.
It is allowing for high trunks between public ATM switches.
ATM Cell Header Fields
The following definitions summarise the ATM cell header fields as shown in the figure
above −
• Generic Flow Control (GFC) − It supports local functions, such as
recognizing multiple stations that send a single ATM interface. This field is
generally not used and is set to its default value of 0 (binary 0000).
• Virtual Path Identifier (VPI) − In conjunction with the Virtual Channel
Identifier (VCI), it recognises the next destination of a cell as it transfers
through a series of ATM switches on the way to its destination.
• Virtual Channel Identifier (VCI) − In conjunction with the VPI, it recognizes
the next destination of a cell as it transfers through a series of ATM
switches on the way to its destination.
• Payload Type (PT) − It denotes in the first bit whether the cell includes
user data or control data. If the cell includes user data, the bit is set to 0. If
it includes control data, it is set to 1. The second bit denotes congestion (0
= no congestion, 1 = congestion), and the third bit denotes whether the cell
is the last in a sequence of cells that define a single AAL5 frame (1 = last
cell for the frame).
• Cell Loss Priority (CLP) − It denotes whether the cell should be removed
if it encounters extreme congestion as it transfers through the network.
Suppose the CLP bit similar is to 1, and the cell should be discarded in
preference to cells with the CLP bit equal to 0.
• Header Error Control (HEC) − It evaluates checksum only on the first 4
bytes of the header. It can be valid a single bit error in these bytes, thereby
preserving the cell instead of discarding it.
What are(Wireless LAN) IEEE 802.11 Networks in

Computer Network?
Wireless LAN is one of the fastest-growing technologies. IEEE 802.11 refers to the set
of standards that define communication for wireless LANs (wireless local area
networks, or WLANs). The technology behind 802.11 is branded to consumers as Wi-
Fi.
Wireless LAN can be found on college campuses, in office buildings, in hospitals, stock
exchanges and in many public areas. It has become popular due to the ease of
installation and location freedom with the gaining popularity of laptops.
Wi-Fi is now one of the major forms of communication for many devices, and with home
automation increasing, even more, devices are using it. Home Wi-Fi is a big area of
usage of technology, with most homes that use broadband connections to the Internet
using WiFi access as a key means of communication.
The core of any Wi-Fi system is known as the Access Point, AP. The Wi-Fi access point
is essentially the base station that communicates with the Wi-Fi enabled devices - data
can then be routed onto a local area network, normally via Ethernet and typically links
onto the Internet.
IEEE 802.11 Architecture

The components of an IEEE 802.11 architecture are as follows
1) Stations (STA) − Stations comprise all devices and equipments that are connected
to the wireless LAN. A station can be of two types:
• Wireless Access Pointz (WAP) − WAPs or simply access points (AP) are
generally wireless routers that form the base stations or access.
• Client. − Clients are workstations, computers, laptops, printers, smartphones,
etc.
Each station has a wireless network interface controller.
2) Basic Service Set (BSS) −A basic service set is a group of stations communicating at
physical layer level. BSS can be of two categories depending upon mode of operation:
• Infrastructure BSS − Here, the devices communicate with other devices

through access points.
• Independent BSS − Here, the devices communicate in peer-to-peer basis in
an ad hoc manner.
3) Extended Service Set (ESS) − It is a set of all connected BSS.
4) Distribution System (DS) − It connects access points in ESS.
Advantages of WLANs
• They provide clutter free homes, offices and other networked places.
• The LANs are scalable in nature, i.e. devices may be added or removed from
the network at a greater ease than wired LANs.
• The system is portable within the network coverage and access to the
network is not bounded by the length of the cables.
• Installation and setup is much easier than wired counterparts.
• The equipment and setup costs are reduced.
Disadvantages of WLANs
• Since radio waves are used for communications, the signals are noisier with
more interference from nearby systems.
• Greater care is needed for encrypting information. Also, they are more prone
to errors. So, they require greater bandwidth than the wired LANs.
• WLANs are slower than wired LANs.
The 802.16 Architecture

The IEEE 802.16 is a set of standards that lays down the specifications for wireless
broadband technology. It has been commercialized as Worldwide Interoperability for
Microwave Access (WiMAX) that is responsible for delivery of last mile wireless
broadband access.
The IEEE 802.16 architecture lays down the standards for both physical layer as well
as medium access control (MAC) layer for WiMAX. It initially provided data rates of 30
– 40 Mbps. The updated version that came in 2011 provides up to 1 Gbps data rates for
fixed stations. It operates in the frequency band of 2 GHz to 11 GHz. The bandwidth is
dynamically allocated as per user requirements.
Here, two types of user stations are there −
• Subscriber stations − They are stationary in some fixed location. For

example, broadband Internet for homes and offices.
• Mobile stations − They receive service while they are in motion within the
range of WiMAX. For example, a WiMAX equipped vehicle.
A user station connects wirelessly to the base station, forming the last wile of the
broadband network through the air interface. The base station is responsible for
initiating and controlling transmission of frames. Each frame can support both upstream
and downstream data. The base station is connected to the backbone network of the
broadband service provider. The backbone network is connected to Internet. The
architecture is shown as follows −
IEEE 802.16 Protocol Stack
The general structure of the IEEE protocol stack is shown as below −
As shown in the diagram, IEEE 802.16 lays down the standards for physical layer and
data link layer.
• Physical Layer − The two popular services of the physical layer are fixed
WiMAX and mobile WiMAX. They operate in the licensed spectrum below
11 GHz. Fixed WiMAX was released in 2003 and uses OFDM; while mobile
WiMAX was released in 2005 and uses scalable OFDM.
• Data Link Layer − The data link layer is subdivided into three sublayers −
o Security sublayer − This is the bottommost layer and is
concerned with security and privacy of the wireless network. It
deals with encryption, decryption and key management.
o MAC common sublayer − The MAC sublayer is concerned with
channel management. The channel management is connection
oriented, a feature that plays due to which quality of service
(QoS) guarantees are given to the subscriber. The base station
controls the system. It schedules the channels from base
station to the subscriber (downlink channels) and also manages
the channels from the subscriber to the base station (uplink
channels).
o Service specific convergence sublayer − This is equivalent to
logical link control layer of other systems. It provides the
required services and interface to network layer.
Bluetooth network technology connects mobile devices wirelessly over a short-range
to form a personal area network (PAN). The Bluetooth architecture has its own
independent model with a stack of protocols, instead of following the standard OSI
model or TCP/IP model.
The protocols in the Bluetooth standard can be loosely grouped into the physical layer,
data link layer, middleware layer, and application layer as shown in the following
diagram –
What is Bluetooth
Bluetooth is a network technology that connects mobile devices wirelessly over a short-
range to form a personal area network (PAN). They use short-wavelength, ultra-high
frequency (UHF) radio waves within the range 2.400 to 2.485 GHz, instead of RS-232
data cables of wired PANs.
Features of Bluetooth
• Bluetooth technology was released in 1999 as Bluetooth 1.0, by Special
Interest Group (SIG) who continues to manage it.
• It was initially standardized as IEEE 802.15.1.
• Mobile computing devices and accessories are connected wirelessly by
Bluetooth using short-range, low-power, inexpensive radios.
• UHF radio waves within the range of 2.400 to 2.485 GHz are using for data
communications.
• A PAN or a piconet can be created by Bluetooth within a 10 m radius.
• Presently, 2 to 8 devices may be connected.
• Bluetooth protocols allow devices within the range to find Bluetooth
devices and connect with them. This is called pairing. Once, the devices are
paired, they can transfer data securely.
• Bluetooth has lower power consumption and lower implementation costs
than Wi-Fi. However, the range and transmission speeds are typically
lower than Wi-Fi.
• The lower power requirements make it less susceptible to interference with
other wireless devices in the same 2.4GHz bandwidth.
• Bluetooth version 3.0 and higher versions can deliver a data rate of 24
Mbps.
• The Bluetooth version 4.0 came in 2010. It is characterized by low energy
consumption, multivendor interoperability, the economy of
implementation, and greater range.
Protocols in the Bluetooth Protocol Architecture

• Physical Layer − This includes Bluetooth radio and Baseband (also in the
data link layer.
o Radio − This is a physical layer equivalent protocol that lays
down the physical structure and specifications for
transmission of radio waves. It defines air interface, frequency
bands, frequency hopping specifications, and modulation
techniques.
o Baseband − This protocol takes the services of radio protocol.
It defines the addressing scheme, packet frame format, timing,
and power control algorithms.
• Data Link Layer − This includes Baseband, Link Manager Protocol (LMP),
and Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol (L2CAP).
o Link Manager Protocol (LMP) − LMP establishes logical links
between Bluetooth devices and maintains the links for
enabling communications. The other main functions of LMP
are device authentication, message encryption, and
negotiation of packet sizes.
o Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol (L2CAP) −
L2CAP provides adaption between upper layer frame and
baseband layer frame format. L2CAP provides support for
both connection-oriented as well as connectionless services.
• Middleware Layer − This includes Radio Frequency Communications
(RFComm) protocol, adopted protocols, SDP, and AT commands.
o RFComm − It is short for Radio Frontend Component. It
provides a serial interface with WAP.
o Adopted Protocols − These are the protocols that are
adopted from standard models. The commonly adopted
protocols used in Bluetooth are Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP),
Internet Protocol (IP), User Datagram Protocol (UDP),
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), and Wireless
Application Protocol (WAP).
o Service Discovery Protocol (SDP)− SDP takes care of
service-related queries like device information so as to
establish a connection between contending Bluetooth
devices.
o AT Commands − ATtention command set.
• Applications Layer − This includes the application profiles that allow the
user to interact with the Bluetooth applications.
stands for Global System for Mobile Communication. GSM
GSM in Wireless Communication

GSMis an open and digital cellular technology used for mobile
communication. It uses 4 different frequency bands of 850 MHz,
900 MHz, 1800 MHz and 1900 MHz . It uses the combination of
FDMA and TDMA. This article includes all the concepts of GSM
architecture and how it works.
GSM is having 4 different sizes of cells are used in GSM :
1. Macro : In this size of cell, Base Station antenna is

installed.
2. Micro : In this size of cell, antenna height is less than the
average roof level.
3. Pico : Small cells’ diameter of few meters.
4. Umbrella : It covers the shadowed (Fill the gaps between
cells) regions.
Features of GSM are :
1. Supports international roaming

2. Clear voice clarity
3. Ability to support multiple handheld devices.
4. Spectral / frequency efficiency
5. Low powered handheld devices.
6. Ease of accessing network
7. International ISDN compatibility.
GSM is nothing but a larger system which is divided into further 3

subsystems.
GEEKSFORGEEKS
GSM in Wireless Communication
GSM stands for Global System for Mobile Communication. GSM is an open and digital
cellular technology used for mobile communication. It uses 4 different frequency bands of
850 MHz, 900 MHz, 1800 MHz and 1900 MHz . It uses the combination of FDMA and
TDMA. This article includes all the concepts of GSM architecture and how it works.
GSM is having 4 different sizes of cells are used in GSM :
1. Macro : In this size of cell, Base Station antenna is installed.

2. Micro : In this size of cell, antenna height is less than the average roof level.
3. Pico : Small cells’ diameter of few meters.
4. Umbrella : It covers the shadowed (Fill the gaps between cells) regions.
Features of GSM are :
1. Supports international roaming

2. Clear voice clarity
3. Ability to support multiple handheld devices.
4. Spectral / frequency efficiency
5. Low powered handheld devices.
6. Ease of accessing network
7. International ISDN compatibility.
GSM is nothing but a larger system which is divided into further 3 subsystems.
1. BSS : BSS stands for Base Station Subsystem. BSS handles traffic and signaling between a
mobile phone and the network switching subsystem. BSS having two
components BTS and BSC.
2. NSS : NSS stands for Network and Switching Subsystem. NSS is the core network of
GSM. That carried out call and mobility management functions for mobile phone
present in network. NSS have different components like VLR, HLR and EIR.
3. OSS : OSS stands for Operating Subsystem. OSS is a functional entity which the network
operator monitor and control the system. OMC is the part of OSS. Purpose of OSS is to
offer the customer cost-effective support for all GSM related maintenance services.
Suppose there are 3 Mobile stations which are connected with the tower and that tower is
connected to BTS through TRX, then further connected to BSC and MSC. Let’s understand
the functionality of different components.
1. MS : MS stands for Mobile System. MS comprises user equipment and software needed
for communication with a mobile network. Mobile Station (MS) = Mobile
Equipment(ME) + Subscriber Identity Module (SIM). Now, these mobile stations are
connected to tower and that tower connected with BTS through TRX. TRX is a transceiver
which comprises transmitter and receiver. Transceiver has two performance of sending and
receiving.
2. BTS : BTS stands for Base Transceiver Station which facilitates wireless communication
between user equipment and a network. Every tower has BTS.
3. BSC : BSC stands for Base Station Controller. BSC has multiple BTS. You can consider
the BSC as a local exchange of your area which has multiple towers and multiple towers
have BTS.
4. MSC : MSC stands for Mobile Switching Center. MSC is associated with
communication switching functions such as call setup, call release and routing. Call tracing,
call forwarding all functions are performed at the MSC level. MSC is having further
components like VLR, HLR, AUC, EIR and PSTN.
• VLR : VLR stands for Visitor Location Register. VLR is a database which contains the exact
location of all mobile subscribers currently present in the service area of MSC. If you are
going from one state to another state then your entry is marked into the database of
VLR.
• HLR : HLR stands for Home Location Register. HLR is a database containing pertinent
data regarding subscribers authorized to use a GSM network.. If you purchase SIM card
from in the HLR. HLR is like a home which contains all data like your ID proof, which plan
you are taking, which caller tune you are using etc.
• OMC : OMC stands for Operation Maintenance Center. OMC monitor and maintain the
performance of each MS, BSC and MSC within a GSM system.
• AUC : AUC stands for Authentication Center. AUC authenticates the mobile subscriber
that wants to connect in the network.
• EIR : EIR stands for Equipment Identity Register. EIR is a database that keeps the record
of all allowed or banned in the network. If you are banned in the network them you
can’t enter the network, and you can’t make the calls.
• PSTN : PSTN stands for Public Switched Telephone Network. PSTN connects with MSC.
PSTN originally a network of fixed line analog telephone systems. Now almost entirely
digital in its core network and includes mobile and other networks as well as fixed
telephones. The earlier landline phones which places at our home is nothing but PSTN.
Three subsystem BSS, NSS and OSS are connected with each other via some interfaces.
Total three interfaces are there:
1. Air Interface : Air interface is also known as UM interface. Interface between MS and
BTS is called as UM interface because it is mobile analog to the U interface of ISDN.
2. Abis Interface : It is a BSS internal interface linking with BTS and BSC.
3. A interface : It provides communication between BSS and MSC.
What is the full form of CDMA

CDMA: Code Division Multiple Access
CDMA stands for Code Division Multiple Access. It is a channel access method used by
several radio communication technologies. It is a digital cellular technology and an
example of multiple access. It is generally used for mobile communication.
Multiple access means that several transmitters can send information simultaneously over
a single communication channel. In this system, different CDMA codes are assigned to
different users, and the user can access the whole bandwidth for the entire duration. It
optimizes the use of available bandwidth as it transmits over the entire frequency range
and does not limit the user's frequency range.
Thus, CDMA allows several users to share a band of frequencies without undue
interference between the users. It is used as an access method in many mobile phone
standards.
CDMA technology was developed during World War II. It was developed by English allies to
protect their wireless transmissions from jamming. When the war ended, Qualcomm patented
this technology and made it commercially available. The first CDMA system was launched in
September 1995 in Hong Kong by Hutchison Telephone Co.
Usage
o It is used in the Global Positioning System (GPS).
o It is used by several mobile phone companies (e.g., Qualcomm standard IS-2000, also
known as CDMA2000)
o W-CDMA is used in UTMS 3G mobile phone standards.
o CDMA has been used in OmniTRACS satellite system for transportation.
Categories of CDMA
o Synchronous CDMA (orthogonal codes)
o Asynchronous CDMA (pseudorandom codes
o The differences between GSM and CDMA are as follows:
Serial No. GSM CDMA
Global System for Mobile

1. Full form global Code Division Multiple Access.
communication.
FDMA(Frequency Division Multiple

CDMA(Code Division Multiple
2. Technology used Access) and TDMA (Time Division
Access).
Multiple Access).
GSM is globally widely used and CDMA is available in fewer countries

3. Availability
available. and carriers.
4. Data speed rate 42Mbps in HSPA (3G). 3.6Mbps in CDMA.
GSM supports transmitting data and

5.Features CDMA does not support this feature.
voice both at once.
6. Customer
Stored in a SIM card. Stored in a headset or phone.
Information
GSM does not provide built-in

7. Encryption CDMA provides built-in encryption.
encryption is available.
8. Secure GSM offers less secure communication. CDMS offers secure communication.
9. Roaming GSM enables worldwide roaming. CDMA enables limited roaming.
GSM signals can be detected since they CDMA transmissions are difficult to
10. Signal Detection
are focused in a narrow bandwidth. detect.
There is always a requirement of SIM There are no such requirements for

11. SIM Card
card for a GSM device to function. CDMA phones.
When a SIM on a phone stops working, When a CDMA on a phone ceases

12. Flexibility we can use another SIM rather than operating, we must purchase a new
purchasing a new phone. phone.
GSM technology operates on a wedge CDMA technology is based on

13. Type of Spectrum
spectrum known as carrier. spread spectrum technology.
14. MIMO (Multiple LTE adheres to 8*8, 4*4 MIMO and

Input Multiple Output) GSM follows 2*2 MIMO. also supports cooperative MIMO
method and multi-user MIMO
Ipv4 Ipv6
Address IPv4 is a 32-bit IPv6 is a 128-bit

length address. address.
Fields IPv4 is a numeric IPv6 is an

address that consists alphanumeric
of 4 fields which are address that
separated by dot (.). consists of 8 fields,
which are
separated by
colon.
Classes IPv4 has 5 different IPv6 does not

classes of IP address contain classes of
that includes Class A, IP addresses.
Class B, Class C, Class
D, and Class E.
Number of IP IPv4 has a limited IPv6 has a large

address number of IP number of IP
addresses. addresses.
VLSM It supports VLSM It does not support

(Virtual Length VLSM.
Subnet Mask). Here,
VLSM means that
Ipv4 converts IP
addresses into a
subnet of different
sizes.
Address It supports manual It supports

configuration and DHCP manual, DHCP,
configuration. auto-
configuration, and
renumbering.
Address space It generates 4 billion It generates 340
unique addresses undecillion unique
addresses.
End-to-end In IPv4, end-to-end In the case of IPv6,

connection connection integrity end-to-end
integrity is unachievable. connection
integrity is
achievable.
Security In IPv4, security In IPv6, IPSEC is

features depends on the developed for
application. This IP security purposes.
address is not
developed in
keeping the security
feature in mind.
Address In IPv4, the IP In IPv6, the

representation address is representation of
represented in the IP address in
decimal. hexadecimal.
Fragmentation Fragmentation is Fragmentation is

done by the senders done by the
and the forwarding senders only.
routers.
Packet flow It does not provide It uses flow label

identification any mechanism for field in the header
packet flow for the packet flow
identification. identification.
Checksum field The checksum field The checksum field

is available in IPv4. is not available in
IPv6.
Transmission IPv4 is On the other hand,
scheme broadcasting. IPv6 is multicasting,
which provides
efficient network
operations.
Encryption and It does not provide It provides

Authentication encryption and encryption and
authentication. authentication.
Number of It consists of 4 It consists of 8

octets octets. fields, and each
field contains 2
octets. Therefore,
the total number of
octets in IPv6 is 16.
IP Address in Networking
• IP Address is short for Internet Protocol Address.
• It is a unique address assigned to each computing device in an IP network.
• ISP assigns IP Address to all the devices present on its network.
• Computing devices use IP Address to identify and communicate with other devices
in the IP network.
Types Of IP Address-
IP Addresses may be of the following two types-

1. Static IP Address
2. Dynamic IP Address
1. Static IP Address-
• Static IP Address is an IP Address that once assigned to a network element always

remains the same.
• They are configured manually.
NOTE
• Some ISPs do not provide static IP
addresses.
• Static IP Addresses are more costly than
dynamic IP Addresses.
2. Dynamic IP Address-
• Dynamic IP Address is a temporarily assigned IP Address to a network element.

• It can be assigned to a different device if it is not in use.
• DHCP or PPPoE assigns dynamic IP addresses.
IP Address Format-
• IP Address is a 32 bit binary address written as 4 numbers separated by dots.

• The 4 numbers are called as octets where each octet has 8 bits.
• The octets are divided into 2 components- Net ID and Host ID.
1. Network ID represents the IP Address of the network and is used to identify the
network.
2. Host ID represents the IP Address of the host and is used to identify the host
within the network.
the Net ID
= 214
Total Number Of Hosts-
Total number of hosts that can be configured in class B

= Numbers possible due to available 16 bits in the Host ID – 2
= 216 – 2
Range Of 1st Octet-
We have-
• Minimum value of 1st octet = 10000000 = 128
• Maximum value of 1st octet = 10111111 = 191
So, Range of 1st octet = [128, 191]
Use-
• Class B is used by organizations requiring medium size networks like IRCTC, banks
etc.
3. Class C-
If the 32 bit binary address starts with bits 110, then

IP Address belongs to class C.
In class C IP Address,
• The first 24 bits are used for the Network ID.
• The remaining 8 bits are used for the Host ID.
Total Number Of IP Addresses-
Total number of IP Addresses available in class C

= Numbers possible due to remaining available 29 bits
= 229
Total Number Of Networks-
Total number of networks available in class C

= Numbers possible due to remaining available 21 bits in the Net ID
= 221
Total Number Of Hosts-
Total number of hosts that can be configured in class C

= Numbers possible due to available 8 bits in the Host ID – 2
= 28 – 2
Range Of 1st Octet-
We have-
Use-
• Class C is used by organizations requiring small to medium size networks.

• For example- engineering colleges, small universities, small offices etc.
4. Class D-

IP Address belongs to class D.
• Class D is not divided into Network ID and Host ID.

Total number of IP Addresses available in class D

= 228
Range Of 1st Octet-
We have-
Use-
• Class D is reserved for multicasting.

• In multicasting, there is no need to extract host address from the IP Address.
• This is because data is not destined for a particular host.
5. Class E-

IP Address belongs to class E.
• Class E is not divided into Network ID and Host ID.
Total number of IP Addresses available in class E

= 228
Range Of 1st Octet-
We have-
Use-
• Class E is reserved for future or experimental purposes.
Classes of IP Address-
All the classes of IP Address are summarized in the following table-

Total 1st Number
Class of Hosts
Number of Octet of Default
IP per
IP Decimal Networks Subnet Mask
Address network
Addresses Range available
Class A 231 1 – 126 27 – 2 224 – 2 255.0.0.0
128 –
Class B 230 214 216 – 2 255.255.0.0
191
192 –
Class C 229 221 28 – 2 255.255.255.0
223
224 – Not Not

Class D 228 Not defined
239 defined defined
240 – Not Not

Class E 228 Not defined
254 defined defined
Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) is a group of IP addresses that are allocated to

the customer when they demand a fixed number of IP addresses.
In CIDR there is no wastage of IP addresses as compared to classful addressing because
only the numbers of IP addresses that are demanded by the customer are allocated to
the customer.
The group of IP addresses is called Block in Classless Inter - Domain (CIDR).
CIDR follows CIDR notation or Slash notation. The representation of CIDR notation is
x.y.z.w /n the x.y.z.w is IP address and n is called mask or number of bits that are used
in network id.
Properties of CIDR Block

The properties of CIDR block are as follows −
• The IP addresses in a block are continuous.
• The first address of a block should be exactly divisible by the number of
addresses of a block.
• The size of the Block should be power of 2.
Use of CIDR
Variable-length subnet masking is the foundation of CIDR (VLSM). It can now specify
prefixes of any duration, making it much more powerful than the previous method.
Two collections of numbers make up CIDR IP addresses. The network address is written
as a prefix, similar to how an IP address is written (e.g. 192.255.255.255).
The suffix, which means how many bits are in the whole address (e.g. /12), is the second
component. A CIDR IP address will look anything like this when put together −
192.255.255.255/12
As part of the IP address, the network prefix is also defined. These changes are based
on how many bits are needed. As an illustration, in the above example, the first 12 bits
of the address are for the network, while the last 20 bits are for host addresses.
CIDR Notation
Using CIDR we can assign an IP address to host without using standard id address
classes like Class A, B, and C.
In CIDR we simply tell how many bits are used for network id. The network id bits are
provided after the '/' symbol. Like /10 means 10 bits are used for the network id part
and remaining 32-10=22 bits are used for the host id part.
The advantage of using CIDR notation is that it reduces the number of entries in the
routing table and also it manages the ip address space.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of using CIDR Notation are as follows −
• Using CIDR it is complex to determine the route. By using classful
addresses, we are directly having separate tables for class A, Class B, Class
C.
• So we directly go to these tables by seeing the prefix of IP address. But by
using CIDR, we don't have these tables separately. All entries are placed
in a single table. So, it is difficult to find a route.
TCP/IP model
o The TCP/IP model was developed prior to the OSI model.
o The TCP/IP model is not exactly similar to the OSI model.
o The TCP/IP model consists of five layers: the application layer, transport layer, network
layer, data link layer and physical layer.
o The first four layers provide physical standards, network interface, internetworking, and
transport functions that correspond to the first four layers of the OSI model and these four
layers are represented in TCP/IP model by a single layer called the application layer.
o TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, and each of them
provides specific functionality.
Here, hierarchical means that each upper-layer protocol is supported by two or more
lower-level protocols.
Functions of TCP/IP layers:
Network Access Layer

o A network layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model.
o A network layer is the combination of the Physical layer and Data Link layer defined in the
OSI reference model.
o It defines how the data should be sent physically through the network.
o This layer is mainly responsible for the transmission of the data between two devices on
the same network.
o The functions carried out by this layer are encapsulating the IP datagram into frames
transmitted by the network and mapping of IP addresses into physical addresses.
o The protocols used by this layer are ethernet, token ring, FDDI, X.25, frame relay.
Internet Layer
o An internet layer is the second layer of the TCP/IP model.
o An internet layer is also known as the network layer.
o The main responsibility of the internet layer is to send the packets from any network, and
they arrive at the destination irrespective of the route they take.
Following are the protocols used in this layer are:
IP Protocol: IP protocol is used in this layer, and it is the most significant part of the entire
TCP/IP suite.
Following are the responsibilities of this protocol:
o IP Addressing: This protocol implements logical host addresses known as IP addresses.

The IP addresses are used by the internet and higher layers to identify the device and to
provide internetwork routing.
o Host-to-host communication: It determines the path through which the data is to be
transmitted.
o Data Encapsulation and Formatting: An IP protocol accepts the data from the transport
layer protocol. An IP protocol ensures that the data is sent and received securely, it
encapsulates the data into message known as IP datagram.
o Fragmentation and Reassembly: The limit imposed on the size of the IP datagram by
data link layer protocol is known as Maximum Transmission unit (MTU). If the size of IP
datagram is greater than the MTU unit, then the IP protocol splits the datagram into
smaller units so that they can travel over the local network. Fragmentation can be done by
the sender or intermediate router. At the receiver side, all the fragments are reassembled
to form an original message.
o Routing: When IP datagram is sent over the same local network such as LAN, MAN, WAN,
it is known as direct delivery. When source and destination are on the distant network,
then the IP datagram is sent indirectly. This can be accomplished by routing the IP
datagram through various devices such as routers.
ARP Protocol
o ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol.

o ARP is a network layer protocol which is used to find the physical address from the IP
address.
o The two terms are mainly associated with the ARP Protocol:
o ARP request: When a sender wants to know the physical address of the device, it
broadcasts the ARP request to the network.
o ARP reply: Every device attached to the network will accept the ARP request and
process the request, but only recipient recognize the IP address and sends back its
physical address in the form of ARP reply. The recipient adds the physical address
both to its cache memory and to the datagram header
ICMP Protocol
o ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol.

o It is a mechanism used by the hosts or routers to send notifications regarding datagram
problems back to the sender.
o A datagram travels from router-to-router until it reaches its destination. If a router is
unable to route the data because of some unusual conditions such as disabled links, a
device is on fire or network congestion, then the ICMP protocol is used to inform the
sender that the datagram is undeliverable.
o An ICMP protocol mainly uses two terms:
o ICMP Test: ICMP Test is used to test whether the destination is reachable or not.
o ICMP Reply: ICMP Reply is used to check whether the destination device is
responding or not.
Transport Layer
The transport layer is responsible for the reliability, flow control, and correction of data
which is being sent over the network.
The two protocols used in the transport layer are User Datagram protocol and
Transmission control protocol.
o User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

o It provides connectionless service and end-to-end delivery of transmission.
o It is an unreliable protocol as it discovers the errors but not specify the error.
o User Datagram Protocol discovers the error, and ICMP protocol reports the error
to the sender that user datagram has been damaged.
o UDP consists of the following fields:
Source port address: The source port address is the address of the application
program that has created the message.
Destination port address: The destination port address is the address of the
application program that receives the message.
Total length: It defines the total number of bytes of the user datagram in bytes.
Checksum: The checksum is a 16-bit field used in error detection.
o UDP does not specify which packet is lost. UDP contains only checksum; it does
not contain any ID of a data segment.
o Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

o It provides a full transport layer services to applications.
o It creates a virtual circuit between the sender and receiver, and it is active for the
duration of the transmission.
o TCP is a reliable protocol as it detects the error and retransmits the damaged
frames. Therefore, it ensures all the segments must be received and acknowledged
before the transmission is considered to be completed and a virtual circuit is
discarded.
o At the sending end, TCP divides the whole message into smaller units known as
segment, and each segment contains a sequence number which is required for
reordering the frames to form an original message.
o At the receiving end, TCP collects all the segments and reorders them based on
sequence numbers.
Application Layer
o An application layer is the topmost layer in the TCP/IP model.
o It is responsible for handling high-level protocols, issues of representation.
o This layer allows the user to interact with the application.
o When one application layer protocol wants to communicate with another application layer,
it forwards its data to the transport layer.
o There is an ambiguity occurs in the application layer. Every application cannot be placed
inside the application layer except those who interact with the communication system. For
example: text editor cannot be considered in application layer while web browser
using HTTP protocol to interact with the network where HTTP protocol is an application
layer protocol.
Following are the main protocols used in the application layer:

o HTTP: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. This protocol allows us to access the
data over the world wide web. It transfers the data in the form of plain text, audio, video.
It is known as a Hypertext transfer protocol as it has the efficiency to use in a hypertext
environment where there are rapid jumps from one document to another.
o SNMP: SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol. It is a framework used
for managing the devices on the internet by using the TCP/IP protocol suite.
o SMTP: SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol. The TCP/IP protocol that supports
the e-mail is known as a Simple mail transfer protocol. This protocol is used to send the
data to another e-mail address.
o DNS: DNS stands for Domain Name System. An IP address is used to identify the
connection of a host to the internet uniquely. But, people prefer to use the names instead
of addresses. Therefore, the system that maps the name to the address is known as
Domain Name System.
o TELNET: It is an abbreviation for Terminal Network. It establishes the connection between
the local computer and remote computer in such a way that the local terminal appears to
be a terminal at the remote system.
o FTP: FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. FTP is a standard internet protocol used for
transmitting the files from one computer to another computer
TCP vs UDP
What is the TCP?
The TCP stands for Transmission Control Protocol. If we want the communication
between two computers and communication should be good and reliable. For example,
we want to view a web page, then we expect that nothing should be missing on the page,
or we want to download a file, then we require a complete file, i.e., nothing should be
missing either it could be a text or an image. This can only be possible due to the TCP. It
is one of the most widely used protocols over the TCP/IP network.
Features of TCP
The following are the features of the TCP:
o Data delivery
TCP protocol ensures that the data is received correctly, no data is missing and in order. If
TCP protocol is not used, then the incorrect data can be received or out of order. For
example, if we try to view the web page or download a file without using TCP, then some
data or images could be missing.
o Protocol
TCP is a connection-oriented protocol. Through the word connection-oriented, we
understand that the computers first establish a connection and then do the
communication. This is done by using a three-way handshake. In a three-way
handshake, the first sender sends the SYN message to the receiver then the receiver sends
back the SYN ACK message to confirm that the message has been received. After receiving
the SYN ACK message, the sender sends the acknowledgment message to the receiver. In
this way, the connection is established between the computers. Once the connection is
established, the data will be delivered. This protocol guarantees the data delivery means
that if the data is not received then the TCP will resend the data.
What is UDP?
The UDP stands for User Datagram Protocol. Its working is similar to the TCP as it is also
used for sending and receiving the message. The main difference is that UDP is a
connectionless protocol. Here, connectionless means that no connection establishes prior
to communication. It also does not guarantee the delivery of data packets. It does not
even care whether the data has been received on the receiver's end or not, so it is also
known as the "fire-and-forget" protocol. It is also known as the "fire-and-
forget" protocol as it sends the data and does not care whether the data is received or
not. UDP is faster than TCP as it does not provide the assurance for the delivery of the
packets.
Differences between the TCP and UDP
o Type of protocol
Both the protocols, i.e., TCP and UDP, are the transport layer protocol. TCP is a connection-
oriented protocol, whereas UDP is a connectionless protocol. It means that TCP requires
connection prior to the communication, but the UDP does not require any connection.
o Reliability
TCP is a reliable protocol as it provides assurance for the delivery of the data. It follows the
acknowledgment mechanism. In this mechanism, the sender receives the acknowledgment
from the receiver and checks whether the acknowledgment is positive or negative. If the
ACK is positive means, the data has been received successfully. If ACK is negative, then
TCP will resend the data. It also follows the flow and error control mechanism.
UDP is an unreliable protocol as it does not ensure the delivery of the data.
o Flow Control
TCP follows the flow control mechanism that ensures a large number of packets are not
sent to the receiver at the same time, while UDP does not follow the flow control
mechanism.
o Ordering
TCP uses ordering and sequencing techniques to ensure that the data packets are received
in the same order in which they are sent. On the other hand, UDP does not follow any
ordering and sequencing technique; i.e., data can be sent in any sequence.
o Speed
Since TCP establishes a connection between a sender and receiver, performs error
checking, and also guarantees the delivery of data packets while UDP neither creates a
connection nor it guarantees the delivery of data packets, so UDP is faster than TCP.
o Flow of data
In TCP, data can flow in both directions means that it provides the full-duplex service. On
the other hand, UDP is mainly suitable for the unidirectional flow of data.
o TCP UDP
Full form It stands It stands for User

for Transmission Datagram
Control Protocol. Protocol.
Type of It is a connection- It is a
connection oriented protocol, connectionless
which means that protocol, which
the connection means that it
needs to be sends the data
established before without checking
the data is whether the
transmitted over system is ready to
the network. receive or not.
Reliable TCP is a reliable UDP is an

protocol as it unreliable protocol
provides as it does not take
assurance for the the guarantee for
delivery of data the delivery of
packets. packets.
Speed TCP is slower than UDP is faster than

UDP as it performs TCP as it does not
error checking, guarantee the
flow control, and delivery of data
provides packets.
assurance for the
delivery of
Header size The size of TCP is The size of the

20 bytes. UDP is 8 bytes.
Acknowledgment TCP uses the UDP does not wait
three-way- for any
handshake acknowledgment;
concept. In this it just sends the
concept, if the data.
sender receives
the ACK, then the
sender will send
the data. TCP also
has the ability to
resend the lost
data.
Flow control It follows the flow This protocol

mechanism control follows no such
mechanism in mechanism.
which too many
packets cannot be
sent to the
receiver at the
same time.
Error checking TCP performs It does not

error checking by perform any error
using a checksum. checking, and also
When the data is does not resend
corrected, then the lost data
the data is packets.
retransmitted to
the receiver.
Applications This protocol is This protocol is

mainly used where used where fast
a secure and communication is
reliable required and does
communication not care about the
process is reliability like VoIP,
required, like game streaming,
military services,
web browsing, and video and music
e-mail. streaming, etc.
Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP)

Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP), is a technology that allowing
you to make voice calls over a broadband Internet connection
instead of an analog (regular) phone line. Some VoIP services
allow you to call people using the same service, but others may
allow you to call anyone. They can have a telephone number –
including local, long-distance, mobile, and international numbers
or not. Some VoIP services only work over your computer or a
special VoIP phone while other services allow you to use a
traditional phone connected to a VoIP adapter.
How VoIP / Internet Voice Works –

Voice is converted into a digital signal by VoIP services that travel
over the Internet. If the regular phone number is called, the signal
is converted to a regular telephone signal i.e. an analog signal
before it reaches the destination. VoIP can allow you to make a call
directly from a computer having a special VoIP phone, or a
traditional phone connected to a special adapter. Wireless hot
spots in locations such as airports, hospitals, cafes, etc allow you
to connect to the Internet and can enable you to use VoIP service
wirelessly.
Equipments Required –
A high-speed Internet connection is required which can be
through a cable modem or high-speed services such as a local area
network. A computer, adaptor, or specialized phone is required.
Some VoIP services only work over your computer or a special
VoIP phone. Other services allow you to use a traditional phone
connected to a VoIP adapter. If you use your computer some
software and an inexpensive microphone are needed. VoIP phones
plug directly into your broadband connection and operate largely
like a traditional telephone. If you use a telephone with a VoIP
adapter, you can dial just as you always have, and the service
provider may also provide a dial tone.
Advantages of VoIP –
1. Some VoIP services offer features and services that are not
available with a traditional phone, or are available but only
for an additional fee.
2. Paying for both a broadband connection and a traditional
telephone line can be avoided.
3. Smoother connection than an analog signal can be
provided.
Disadvantages of VoIP –
1. Some VoIP services don’t work during power outages and

the service provider may not offer backup power.
2. Not all VoIP services connect directly to emergency
services through emergency service numbers.
3. VoIP providers may or may not offer directory assistance.

Initially, Ethernet Can Be Designed To Run Over Coaxial Cables, Twisted Pair Cables, Fiber Optic Cable

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Initially, Ethernet Can Be Designed To Run Over Coaxial Cables, Twisted Pair Cables, Fiber Optic Cable

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What is an Ethernet Network?

Advantages of using wired Ethernet network

• Data is transmitted and received at very high speed.

• It is very easy to use the wired network.

Disadvantages of using wired Ethernet network

• The wired Ethernet network is used only for short distances.

• The mobility is limited.

• Its maintenance is difficult.

• Ethernet cables, hubs, switches, routers increase the cost of installation.

Home » Networking » Communication » What is Ethernet? – Definition

What is Ethernet? – Definition

Definition: Ethernet (pronounced “eether net”) is a computer network technology

We’ll be covering the following topics in this tutorial:

• The wired Ethernet network is used only for short distances.

Advantages of using wireless Ethernet

• These types of networks can handle a large number of users.

The features of Ethernet are as follows:

Fundamentals of Fibre Channel

Point to point topology.

Fibre channel arbitrated loop.

Switched fabric topology.

Topology refers to the physical/logical arrangement of nodes or other devices in a network.

Basic port details, to know to understand the mentioned topologies –

Port Type Associated Topology

N_port Node Point to point or Fabric.

NL_port Node Node connected to an arbitrated loop.

F_port Fabric Fabric port.

L_port Loop Hub port on an arbitrated loop.

Link Control Facility [L_C_F] is a hardware

This inter-switch expansion port is used to

A network switch that interconnects servers and

Point to point topology :

•A single link connects two ports in this topology.

Fibre channel arbitrated loop topology [FC-AL] :

FC-AL can join up to 126 ports on one controller.

Switched Fabric Topology :

• This is the topology, that is very much in use nowadays.

Let's take an example of the five-layered architecture.

Why do we require Layered architecture?

There are three main CoS technologies:

802.1p Layer 2 Tagging

Type of Service (ToS)

Differentiated Services (DiffServ)

Frame Relay – What is Frame Relay?

Various key features of this protocol are as follows:

Characteristics of Frame Relay

▪ Frame Relay service is a service that supports the transport of data

Features of frame relay:

Some important features of frame relay are :

The frame format used in frame relay.

• • The DLCI length is 10 bits

• Frame relay supports ANSI standards.

• Frame relay can provide two types of virtual circuits.

Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)

ISDN is a circuit-switched telephone network system, but it also

In the context of the OSI model, ISDN is employed as the network

1. Basic Rate Interface (BRI) –

The basic rate interface (BRl) specifies a digital pipe consisting

2. Primary Rate Interface (PRI) –

• To support switched and non-switched applications

• To support voice and non-voice applications

• Reliance on 64-kbps connections

14. MIMO (Multiple LTE adheres to 88, 44 MIMO and