Network -Ethernet

What is Ethernet?

• Ethernet is a type of communication protocol that is created at Xerox PARC

in 1973 which connects computers on a network over a wired connection.
• It is a widely used LAN protocol, which is also known as Alto Aloha Network.
It connects computers within the local area network and wide area network.
• Numerous devices like printers and laptops can be connected by LAN and
WAN within buildings, homes, and even small neighborhoods.
• It offers a simple user interface that helps to connect various devices easily,
such as switches, routers, and computers.
• A local area network (LAN) can be created with the help of a single router
and a few Ethernet cables, which enable communication between all linked
devices.
• This is because an Ethernet port is included in your laptop in which one end
of a cable is plugged in and connect the other to a router.
• Ethernet ports are slightly wider, and they look similar to telephone jacks.
 Different Types of Ethernet Networks
• An Ethernet device with CAT5/CAT6 copper cables is connected to a fiber optic
cable through fiber optic media converters.
• The distance covered by the network is significantly increased by this extension
for fiber optic cable. There are some kinds of Ethernet networks, which are
discussed below:
 Types of Ethernet Networks

• Fast Ethernet:
• This type of Ethernet is usually supported by a twisted pair or CAT5 cable, which has the
potential to transfer or receive data at around100 Mbps.
• They function at 100Base and 10/100Base Ethernet on the fiber side of the link if any device
such as a camera, laptop, or other is connected to a network. The fiber optic cable and
twisted pair cable are used by fast Ethernet to create communication.
• The 100BASE-TX, 100BASE-FX, and 100BASE-T4 are the three categories of Fast Ethernet.

The T4 means it's a CAT5 UTP
straight through cable using
all four available pairs and
supports speeds up to 100
Mbps.
100Base-FX also works for 100Base-TX uses two of the four
speeds up to 100 Mb but available pairs within the UTP cable,
uses fiber optic cable whereas the 100Base-T4 uses all
instead of UTP. four pairs.
 Types of Ethernet Networks
• Gigabit Ethernet:
• This type of Ethernet network is an upgrade from Fast Ethernet, which uses fiber optic cable
and twisted pair cable to create communication.
• It can transfer data at a rate of 1000 Mbps or 1Gbps. In modern times, gigabit Ethernet is
more common.
• This network type also uses CAT5e or other advanced cables, which can transfer data at a
rate of 10 Gbps.
• The primary Goal of developing the gigabit Ethernet
• To full fill the user's requirements, such as faster transfer of data, faster communication network, and more.

• 10-Gigabit Ethernet:
• This type of network can transmit data at a rate of 10 Gigabit/second, considered a more
advanced and high-speed network.
• It makes use of CAT6a or CAT7 twisted-pair cables and fiber optic cables as well.
• This network can be extended up to nearly 10,000 meters with the help of using a fiber optic
cable.
CAT.7 Ethernet Gigabit LAN Network
Cable (RJ45) 1000Mbit/s
 Ethernet Networks
• Switch Ethernet:
• This type of network involves adding switches or hubs, which helps to improve network
throughput as each workstation in this network can have its own dedicated 10 Mbps connection
instead of sharing the medium.
• Instead of using a crossover cable, a regular network cable is used when a switch is used in a
network. For the latest Ethernet, it supports 1000Mbps to 10 Gbps and 10Mbps to 100Mbps for
fast Ethernet.
• Advantages of Ethernet:-
• It is not much costly to form an Ethernet network. As compared to other systems of connecting
computers, it is relatively inexpensive.
• Ethernet network provides high security for data as it uses firewalls in terms of data security.
• Also, the Gigabit network allows the users to transmit data at a speed of 1-100Gbps.
• In this network, the quality of the data transfer does maintain.
• In this network, administration and maintenance are easier.
• The latest version of gigabit ethernet and wireless ethernet have the potential to transmit data
at the speed of 1-100Gbps.
 Ethernet Networks
• Disadvantages of Ethernet:-
• The wired Ethernet network restricts you in terms of distances, and it is best for
using in short distances.
• If you create a wired Ethernet network that needs cables, hubs, switches, routers,
they increase the cost of installation.
• Data needs quick transfer in an interactive application, as well as data is very small.
• In Ethernet network, any acknowledge is not sent by receiver after accepting a
packet.
• If you are planning to set up a wireless Ethernet network, it can be difficult if you
have no experience in the network field.
• Comparing with the wired Ethernet network, wireless network is not more secure.
• The full-duplex data communication mode is not supported by the 100Base-T4
version.
• Additionally, finding a problem is very difficult in an Ethernet network (if has), as it
is not easy to determine which node or cable is causing the problem.
 What is the Internet?

• The Internet
• A computer network that interconnects hundreds of millions of computing
devices throughout the world.
• Computing devices were primarily traditional desktop PCs, Linux
workstations, and so-called servers that store and transmit information such
as Web pages and e-mail messages.
• Devices connected to the Internet
• Nontraditional Internet end systems such as laptops, smartphones, tablets,
TVs, gaming consoles, Web cams, automobiles, environmental sensing
devices, picture frames, and home electrical and security systems
• In Internet, all of these devices are called hosts or end systems
 Description
What isofthe
the Internet?
Internet

• An infrastructure that provides services to applications.

• These applications include
• electronic mail,
• Web surfing,
• Social networks,
• instant messaging,
• Voiceover-IP (VoIP),
• Video streaming,
• distributed games,
• peer-to-peer (P2P) file sharing,
• television over the Internet,
• remote login
 What is the Internet?
• Applications
• Distributed applications, since they involve multiple end systems that
exchange data with each other.
• Importantly, Internet applications run on end systems—they do not run in the
packet switches in the network core.
• Although packet switches facilitate the exchange of data among end systems,
they are not concerned with the application that is the source or sink of data.
• Application Programming Interface (API)
• End systems attached to the Internet provide an API that specifies how a
program running on one end system asks the Internet infrastructure to deliver
data.
• Internet API is a set of rules that the sending program must follow so that the
Internet can deliver the data to the destination program data to a specific
destination program running on another end system.
 Internet
InternetService
ServiceProviders
ProvidersISP
ISP

• End systems access the Internet through Internet Service Providers

(ISPs), including
• Residential ISPs such as local cable or telephone companies;
• Corporate ISPs;
• university ISPs; and
• ISPs that provide WiFi access in airports, hotels, coffee shops, and other
public places.
• Each ISP is in itself a network of packet switches and communication
links.
• ISPs provide a variety of types of network access to the end systems,
including residential broadband access such as cable modem.
STANDARD ETHERNET
• The original Ethernet was created in 1976 Since then, it has gone through four
generations: Standard Ethernet (10 Mbps), Fast Ethernet (100 Mbps), Gigabit
Ethernet (1 Gbps), and Ten-Gigabit Ethernet (10 Gbps),
 Wired LANs: Ethernet
• IEEE STANDARDS
• In 1985, the Computer Society of the IEEE started a project, called Project 802, to set standards to enable
intercommunication among equipment from a variety of manufacturers.
• Project 802 does not seek to replace any part of the OSI or the Internet model.

• Instead, it is a way of specifying functions of the physical layer and the data link layer of major LAN protocols.

• The standard was adopted by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI).

• In 1987, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) also approved it as an international standard
under the designation ISO 8802.
• The IEEE has subdivided the data link layer into two sublayers: logical link control (LLC) and media access
control (MAC).
• IEEE has also created several physical layer standards for different LAN protocols.
 Wired LANs: Ethernet

• Logical Link Control (LLC)

• The main functionality of the LLC layer
• It multiplexes the protocols over the MAC layer while sending and de-
multiplex the protocols while receiving.
• This layer controls the flow control.
• The error-checking of the data link layer is performed by LLC.
• It can also track the acknowledgments.
• While transmitting data, if LLC detects any frame loss, immediately it sends
back to the source to transmit over again.
• The LLC layer comes above the MAC layer and acts as an interface between
the upper layers and the MAC layer.
 Wired LANs: Ethernet

• Medium access control (MAC) sub layer

• MAC address is a unique address that is allocated to the NIC of the device.

• It is used as an address to transmit data within ethernet or Wi-Fi.

• This layer acts as an interface between the physical layer and the LLC layer in the OSI model.

• The main responsibility of the MAC layer is that it encapsulates the frames during transmission 

• The MAC layer identifies and verifies the address of source stations and destinations.

• MAC layer performs multiple access resolution when there are more data frames.

• MAC layer coordinates with the physical layer to seize a shared channel by using multiple MAC
entities to avoid collisions.

• Ethernet is an example of a medium that is defined through the MAC sublayer.

 Wired LANs: Ethernet

• MAC Sublayer
• In Standard Ethernet, the MAC sublayer governs the operation of the access
method.
• It also frames data received from the upper layer and passes them to the
physical layer.
• Frame Format
• The Ethernet frame contains seven fields: preamble, SFD, DA, SA, length or
type of protocol data unit (PDU), upper-layer data, and the CRC.
• Ethernet does not provide any mechanism for acknowledging received
frames, making it what is known as an unreliable medium.
• Acknowledgments must be implemented at the higher layers. The format of
the MAC frame is shown
• Preamble:-
• The first field of the 802.3 frame contains 7 bytes (56 bits) of alternating 0s and 1s that alerts
the receiving system to the coming frame and enables it to synchronize its input timing.
• The 56-bit pattern allows the stations to miss some bits at the beginning of the frame.
• The preamble is actually added at the physical layer and is not (formally) part of the frame.
• Start frame delimiter (SFD):-
• The second field (l byte: 10101011) signals the beginning of the frame.
• The SFD warns the station or stations that this is the last chance for synchronization.
• The last 2 bits is 11 and alerts the receiver that the next field is the destination addr ess.
• Destination address (DA):-
• The DA field is 6 bytes and contains the physical address of the destination station or stations
to receive the packet.
• Source address (SA):-
• The SA field is also 6 bytes and contains the physical address of the sender of the packet.
• Length or type:-
• Defines the number of bytes in the data field.
• Data:-
• This field carries data encapsulated from the upper-layer protocols. It is a
• minimum of 46 and a maximum of 1500 bytes.
• CRC:-
• The last field contains error detection information
• Frame Length
• Ethernet has imposed restrictions on both the minimum and maximum lengths of a frame,
• An Ethernet frame needs to have a minimum length of 512 bits or 64 bytes.
• Part of this length is the header and the trailer.
• If we count 18 bytes of header and trailer (6 bytes of source address, 6 bytes of
destination address, 2 bytes of length or type, and 4 bytes of CRC), then the
minimum length of data from the upper layer is 64 - 18 = 46 bytes.
• If the upper-layer packet is less than 46 bytes, padding is added to make up the
difference.
• The standard defines the maximum length of a frame (without preamble and SFD
field) as 1518 bytes. If we subtract the 18 bytes of header and trailer, the maximum
length of the payload is 1500 bytes.
• Addressing
• Each station on an Ethernet network (such as a PC, workstation, or printer) has its own
network interface card (NIC). The NIC fits inside the station and provides the station with a
6-byte physical address.
 Unicast, Multicast, and Broadcast Addresses
• A source address is always a unicast address-the frame comes from only one station.
• The destination address, however, can be unicast, multicast, or broadcast.
• If the least significant bit of the first byte in a destination address is 0, the address is
unicast; otherwise, it is multicast.
 CSMA CA and CSMA CD

• CSMA is a mechanism that senses the state of the shared channel to

prevent or recover data packets from a collision.
• It is also used to control the flow of data packets over the network so that
the packets are not get lost, and data integrity is maintained.
• In CSMA, when two or more data packets are sent at the same time on a
shared channel, the chances of collision occurred.
• Due to the collision, the receiver does not get any information regarding
the sender's data packets.
• And the lost information needs to be resented so that the receiver can
get it. Therefore we need to sense the channel before transmitting data
packets on a network. It is divided into two parts, CSMA/CA (Collision
Avoidance) and CSMA/CD (Collision Detection).
 CSMA/CD

• The Carrier Sense Multiple Access/ Collision Detection protocol is used to detect a

collision in the media access control (MAC) layer.
• Once the collision was detected, the CSMA CD immediately stopped the transmission
by sending the signal so that the sender does not waste all the time to send the data
packet.
• Suppose a collision is detected from each station while broadcasting the packets. In
that case, the CSMA CD immediately sends a jam signal to stop transmission and waits
for a random time context before transmitting another data packet.
• If the channel is found free, it immediately sends the data and returns it.
• Advantages of CSMA CD:
• It is used for collision detection on a shared channel within a very short time.
• CSMA CD is better than CSMA for collision detection.
• CSMA CD is used to avoid any form of waste transmission.
• It has lower CSMA CD overhead as compared to the CSMA CA.

• Disadvantage of CSMA CD
• It is not suitable for long-distance networks because as the distance increases,
CSMA CD' efficiency decreases.
• It can detect collision only up to 2500 meters, and beyond this range, it cannot
detect collisions.
• When multiple devices are added to a CSMA CD, collision detection performance
is reduced.
 CSMA/CA
• CSMA stands for Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance.
• It means that it is a network protocol that uses to avoid a collision rather than
allowing it to occur, and it does not deal with the recovery of packets after a
collision.
• It is similar to the CSMA CD protocol that operates in the media access control
layer.
• In CSMA CA, whenever a station sends a data frame to a channel, it checks
whether it is in use.
• If the shared channel is busy, the station waits until the channel enters idle mode.
• Hence, we can say that it reduces the chances of collisions and makes better use
of the medium to send data packets more efficiently.
 Advantage of CSMA/CA

• When the size of data packets is large, the chances of collision in CSMA CA is less.
• It controls the data packets and sends the data when the receiver wants to send
them.
• It is used to prevent collision rather than collision detection on the shared
channel.
• CSMA CA avoids wasted transmission of data over the channel.
• It is best suited for wireless transmission in a network.
Categories of Standard Ethernet
 10Base5: Thick Ethernet
• The first implementation is called 10Base5, thick Ethernet, or Thicknet.
• The nickname derives from the size of the cable, which is roughly the size of a garden
hose and too stiff to bend with your hands.
• 10Base5 was the first Ethernet specification to use a bus topology with an external
transceiver (transmitter/receiver) connected via a tap to a thick coaxial cable.
• The maximum length of the coaxial cable must not exceed 500 m, otherwise,
• There is excessive degradation of the signal. If a length of more than 500 m is needed,
up to five segments, each a maximum of 5OO-meter, can be connected using
repeaters
 10Base2: Thin Ethernet
• The second implementation is called 10Base2, thin Ethernet, or Cheapernet.
• 1OBase2 also uses a bus topology, but the cable is much thinner and more flexible.
• The cable can be bent to pass very close to the stations.
• In this case, the transceiver is normally part of the network interface card (NIC), which is
installed inside the station.
• The collision here occurs in the thin coaxial cable.
• This implementation is more cost effective than 10Base5 because thin coaxial cable is less
expensive than thick coaxial
• Installation is simpler because the thin coaxial cable is very flexible. However, the length of
each segment cannot exceed 185 m.
 10Base-T: Twisted-Pair Ethernet
• The third implementation is called 10Base-T or twisted-pair Ethernet.
• 10Base-T uses a physical star topology. The stations are connected to a hub via
two pairs of twisted cable.
• Note that two pairs of twisted cable create two paths (one for sending and one for
receiving) between the station and the hub. Any collision here happens in the hub.
• The maximum length of the twisted cable here is defined as 100 m, to minimize
the effect of attenuation in the twisted cable.
• When sending IP packets over Ethernet, it is necessary to determine the MAC address of the
destination, to insert it in the Ethernet destination MAC address of the packet.
• This is performed by means of the ARP (Address Resolution Protocol), part of the IP suite of
protocols.
• ARP is used to generate a look-up table that translates IP addresses to MAC addresses for any
transmission technology.
• The translation is done only for outgoing IP packets, because this is when the IP header and the
Ethernet header are created.
• The ARP table contains one row for each IP host: each row has two columns, one listing the IP
address and the other listing the corresponding MAC (Ethernet) address.
• When translating an IP address to an Ethernet address, the table is searched for the row
corresponding to the destination IP address, and the corresponding Ethernet address is then found
in the same row.
• The machine whose address whose ip address is present in destination IP Address field responds to
source providing his own MAC address.