Statistics: Introduction (Part 2)

Prepared by:
Engr. Fernando B. Canlas
Chapter Outline
 Level of Measurement of Variables
 Methods of Collection of Data
 Sampling Methods
 RATIO- A good example of ratio data is weight in
kilograms. If something weighs zero kilograms, it truly weighs
nothing—compared to temperature (interval data), where a value of z
ero degrees doesn’t mean there is “no temperature,

Level Of Measurement
 The mathematical quality of the
scores of a variable.
◼ Nominal - Scores are labels only, they
-also categorizes variables into labeled
are not numbers. groups, and these categories have an
order or hierarchy to them

◼ Ordinal - Scores have some numerical

quality and can be ranked.
◼ Interval-ratio - Scores are numbers.
 Interval – has arbitrary zero values
 Ratio – has absolute zero point
INTERVAL - An oft-cited example of interval data is temperature in Fahrenheit,
where the difference between 10 and 20 degrees Fahrenheit is exactly
the same as the difference between, say, 50 and 60 degrees Fahrenheit.
Nominal Level Variables
 Scores are different from each other
but cannot be treated as numbers.
◼ Examples:
 Gender
◼ 1 = Female, 2 = Male
 Race
◼ 1 = White, 2 =Black, 3 = Hispanic
 Religion
◼ 1 = Protestant, 2 = Catholic
Ordinal Level Variables
 Scores can be ranked from high to
low or from more to less.
 Survey items that measure opinions
and attitudes are typically ordinal.
Ordinal Level Variables:
Example
 “Do you agree or disagree that
University Health Services should
offer free contraceptives?”
◼ A student that agreed would be more in
favor than a student who disagreed.
◼ If you can distinguish between the
scores of the variable using terms such
as “more, less, higher, or lower” the
variable is ordinal.
Interval-ratio Variables
 Scores are actual numbers and have
a true zero point and equal intervals
between scores.
 Examples:
◼ Age (in years)
◼ Income (in dollars)
◼ Number of children
◼ A true zero point (0 = no children)
◼ Equal intervals: each child adds one unit
Level of Measurement
 Different statistics require different
mathematical operations (ranking,
addition, square root, etc.)
 The level of measurement of a
variable tells us which statistics are
permissible and appropriate.
Collection of Data
 Statistical Data
◼ Primary data are first-hand information
from primary sources.
◼ Secondary data come from secondary
sources which includes newspapers,
magazines, journals and published
materials.
Methods of Collecting Data
 Direct or Interview Method
◼ Ex: face-to-face, telephone
 Indirect or Questionnaire Method
◼ Ex: survey questions
 Documents or Registration Method
◼ Ex: documents from gov’t agencies
 Observation or Experimental Method
◼ Ex: recording responses
Sampling Techniques
 Sampling is the process of obtaining
samples from the population.

 It is divided into random

(probability) sampling and non-
random (non-probability) sampling.
Probability Sampling
 The sample is selected at random.
 Everyone in the population has an equal
chance of getting selected.
 Used when sampling bias has to be
reduced.
 Useful when the population is diverse.
 Used to create an accurate sample.
 Finding the right respondents is not easy.
Non-Probability Sampling
 Sample selection based on the subjective
judgment of the researcher.
 Not everyone has an equal chance to
participate.
 The researcher does not consider sampling
bias.
 Useful when the population has similar traits.
 The sample does not accurately represent the
population.
 Finding respondents is easy.
Types of Random Sampling
 Simple Random Sampling
◼ Every item or individual has the same
chance of being selected.
◼ Ex: lottery sampling, table of random
numbers
 Systematic Sampling
◼ Individuals are partitioned into groups.
◼ It is done when you choose every “nth”
individual to be a part of the sample.
Types of Random Sampling
 Stratified Random Sampling
◼ Individuals or items are subdivided into
separate subpopulations or strata
according to some common
characteristics.
◼ Ex: Suppose that in a school, the
following data was gathered:
Male (FT): 90 Female (FT): 9
Male (PT): 18 Female (PT): 63
Select a sample of 40 staffs:
Types of Random Sampling
 Cluster Sampling
◼ It is used when the population is large or
when it involves subjects residing in
large geographic area.
◼ Individuals or items are divided into
several clusters.
 Multi-stage Sampling
◼ Uses a combination of several random
sampling techniques.
Types of Non-Random Sampling
 Purposive Sampling
◼ Uses one’s personal judgment or common
sense to select a sample
◼ In other words, researchers choose only
those people who they deem fit to
participate in the research study.
◼ It is not a scientific method of sampling,
and the downside to this sampling
technique is that the preconceived notions
of a researcher can influence the results.
Types of Non-Random Sampling
 Convenience Sampling
◼ Samples are selected from the
population only because they are
conveniently available to the researcher.
◼ Researchers choose these samples just
because they are easy to recruit, and the
researcher did not consider selecting a
sample that represents the entire
population.
Types of Non-Random Sampling
 Quota Sampling
◼ It is a method in which researchers create a
sample involving individuals that represent a
population.
◼ Researchers choose these individuals
according to specific traits or qualities.
◼ For example, a cigarette company wants to
find out what age group prefers what brand
of cigarettes in a particular city. He/she
applies quotas on the age groups of 21-30,
31-40, 41-50, and 51+.
Types of Non-Random Sampling
 Snowball Sampling
◼ It helps researchers find a sample when they
are difficult to locate.
◼ Researchers use this technique when the
sample size is small and not easily available.
◼ This sampling system works like the referral
program.
◼ Once the researchers find suitable subjects, he
asks them for assistance to seek similar
subjects to form a considerably good size
sample.