ENGLISH

Formal Types of Communication Skills

This types of communication is also referred to as “official communication” and
covers the gamut of verbal expressions that address a formal need.
Informal Communication
Informal communication is surprisingly popular, and also referred to as “the
(unofficial) grapevine”. This is often by word-of-mouth information. In fact, it is this
type of communication that opens you up to unofficial yet provocative information.
Oral Communication (Face-to-face)
Face-to-face oral communication is the most recognized type of communication.
Here, what you express comes directly from what you speak. Again, this can be
formal or informal: with your friends and family, in a formal meeting or seminar, at
work with your colleagues and boss, within your community, during professional
presentations, etc.
Oral Communication (Distance)
Distance (oral) communication has made the world a smaller and more accessible
place. Mobile phones, VOIP, video-conferencing, 2-way webinars, etc. are all
modern expansions of distance communication, taking its expression to the next
subtle level. And in this type of communication, your tone of voice and pace of
delivery take priority over other expressions.
Non-verbal Types of Communication
This type of communication is more subtle, yet far more powerful. It includes the
entire gamut of physical postures and gestures, tone and pace of voice, and the
attitude with which you communicate.
Written Communication
A few decades ago, written communication depended on the trusty old mailman as
we wrote to people who were far away. On rare occasions, this also included the
formal note or legal notice from the bank, landlord, business client, etc. What a
surprise then that this type of communication has now taken over every aspect of
our world!
Kinesics or kinesic communication is all about communication through body movements,
such as gestures and facial expressions. It is all about non-verbal behavior using any part of the
body. It also includes communicating using the body as a whole. In popular culture, we call
this 'body language'.
Proxemics is the study of space and how we use it, and how it makes us feel more or less
comfortable. How close you stand next to someone, for example, depends on the relationship
you have with that person. ... Intimate space: very close, usually within one foot and sometimes
touching.
Haptic communication is a branch of nonverbal communication that refers to the ways in
which people and animals communicate and interact via the sense of touch. Touch is the most
sophisticated and intimate of the five senses.
We learned earlier that paralanguage refers to the vocalized but nonverbal parts of a
message. Vocalics is the study of paralanguage, which includes the vocal qualities that go along with
verbal messages, such as pitch, volume, rate, vocal quality, and verbal fillers (Andersen, 1999).

Chronemics is the study of the use of time in nonverbal communication. Time perceptions
include punctuality, willingness to wait, and interactions. The use of time can affect lifestyles,
daily agendas, speed of speech, movements and how long people are willing to listen.
Agyu – Epic hero of Bukidnon
Setting: Where and when is the story set? Setting represents both the physical location but also
the time (i.e. past, present, future) and the social and cultural conditions in which the characters
exist.
Social journalism is a media model consisting of a hybrid of professional journalism,
contributor and reader content. The format relies on community involvement, audience
engagement, social newsgathering and verification, data and analytics, and relationship-
building.
Citizen journalism, also known as collaborative media, participatory journalism, democratic
journalism, guerrilla journalism or street journalism, is based upon public citizens "playing an
active role in the process of collecting, reporting, analyzing, and disseminating news and
information.
Yellow journalism and the yellow press are American terms for journalism and associated
newspapers that present little or no legitimate, well-researched news while instead using eye-
catching headlines for increased sales. Techniques may include exaggerations of news events,
scandal-mongering, or sensationalism.
Adversarial journalism, or gotcha journalism, is a form of journalism that seeks to uncover
wrongdoings of public officials. Gotcha journalism can include various methods such as,
moving away from the agreed upon interview topic, or switching to an embarrassing subject that
was agreed to be out-of-bounds.
Manipulatives Media are tools that are used to aid in hands-on learning. They can be physical
objects or computer programs which learners can manipulate in order to grasp an idea, and
gain understanding or mastery of given concepts. Examples are Abacus, Jigsaw Puzzles, Lego,
Rubik's Cube.
Interactive media, also called interactive multimedia, any computer-delivered electronic system
that allows the user to control, combine, and manipulate different types of media, such as text,
sound, video, computer graphics, and animation. Examples of interactive media include web
sites, user-generated content, interactive television, gaming, interactive advertising, blogs and
mobile telephony.
Pre-Industrial Age (Before 1700's)
In this age, People had learned or discovered fire, developed paper from plants, and forged
weapons and tools with stone, bronze, copper and iron.
Industrial Age (1700s-1930s)
This is were people discovered the used of power steam, developed machine tools, established
iron production, and the manufacturing of various products (including books through the printing
press)
Electronic Age (1930s-1980s)
In this age, People invented the transistor ushered in the electronic age. People harnessed the
power of transistors that led to the transistor radio, electronic circuits, and the early computers.
In this age, long distance communication became more efficient.
Information Age (1900s-2000s)
This is were the Internet paved the way for faster communication and the creation of the social
network. People advanced the use of microelectronics with the invention of personal computers,
mobile devices, and wearable technology. Moreover, voice, image, sound and data are
digitalized. We are now living in the information age.
Character: A person or animal or really anything personified. There can be one main character
or many, and often there are secondary characters, but not always.
Plot: The plot consists of the events that happen in the story. In a plot you typically find an
introduction, rising action, a climax, the falling action, and a resolution. Plot is often represented
as an arc.
Conflict: Every story must have a conflict, i.e. a challenge or problem around which the plot is
based. Without conflict, the story will have no purpose or trajectory.
Theme: Idea, belief, moral, lesson or insight. It’s the central argument that the author is trying to
make the reader understand. The theme is the “why” of the story.
Point-of-view: “Who” is telling the story? First person (“I”) or third person (“he/she/it”). Limited
(one character’s perspective), multiple (many characters’ perspectives) or omniscient (all
knowing narrator). Second person (“you”) is not often used for writing stories.
Tone: The overall emotional “tone” or meaning of the story. Is it happy, funny, sad, depressed? Tone
can be portrayed in multiple ways, through word and grammar choices, choice of theme, imagery
and description, symbolism, and the sounds of the words in combination (i.e. rhyme, rhythm,
musicality).
Style: This is how things are said. Word choices, sentence structure, dialogue, metaphor, simile,
hyperbole. Style contributes significantly to tone.

Confucianism is an ancient Chinese belief system, which focuses on the importance of

personal ethics and morality. Whether it is only or a philosophy or also a religion is debated.
Mencius (or Meng Ke who lived from 372 to 289 B.C.E.) is the best-
known Confucian philosopher after Confucius himself
Buddhism is a faith that was founded by Siddhartha Gautama (“the Buddha”) more than 2,500
years ago in India. With about 470 million followers, scholars consider Buddhism one of the
major world religions.
Indios were defined as the native indigenous peoples in all the Spanish America and Asia
possessions. During the Spanish colonial period in the Mariana Islands (17th through 19th
centuries) the Chamorros people were classified as indios. In the Spanish racial
hierarchy, indios were the lowest-ranked group
Evolution involves the gradual changes from simple to more complex forms. Humans are believed
to have developed from simpler forms. Evolution is hypothesized to have begun in the oceans
billions of years ago. Darwin gave the theory of evolution. In his book -The Origin of Species, Darwin
has stated that evolution has come through a series of natural selection. The theory emphasized the
following points:

• Natural Selection
• Variation
• Struggle To Exist
• Survival of the Fittest
Evolution is the outcome of the interaction amongst the following five processes:

• Mutation
• Genetic Recombination
• Chromosomal Abnormalities
• Reproductive isolation
• Natural Selection
Dryopithecus
These are deemed to be the ancestors of both man and apes. They lived in China, Africa, Europe
and India. The genus Dryopithecus refers to the oak wood apes. When Dryopithecus was alive, the
tropical lowlands which it inhabited were densely forested, so the members could have
predominantly been herbivores.

Ramapithecus
Their first remains were discovered from the Shivalik range in Punjab and later in Africa and Saudi
Arabia. They lived in open grasslands. Two pieces of evidence confirm their Hominid status:

1. Thickened tooth enamel, robust jaws and shorter canines.

2. Usage of hands for food and defence and extrapolations of upright posture.

Australopithecus
The fossil of this genus was first discovered in 1924 in South Africa. They lived on the ground, used
stones as weapons and walked erect. They were 4 feet tall and weighed 60-80 pounds.

Homo Erectus
The first fossil of Homo Erectus was found in Java in 1891. These were named as Pithecanthropus
Erectus. These were considered as the missing link between the man and apes. Another discovery
made in China was the Peking man. This specimen had large cranial capacities and is believed to
have lived in communities. Homo erectus used tools comprising quartz. Tools made of bones and
wood were also discovered. There is evidence of collective huntings. There is also evidence of the
use of fire. The Homo Erectus is believed to dwell in caves.

Homo Sapiens
Neanderthalensis
The Homo Erectus evolved into Homo Sapiens. During evolution, two sub-species of Homo Sapiens
were identified- Homo sapien Neanderthal and Homo sapiens sapiens. The cranial capacity of
Neanderthal grew from 1200 to 1600 cc. Some small hand axes had also been discovered. This
species of hominids could hunt big names such as mammoths

Homo Sapiens
The remains of Homo Sapiens were first discovered in Europe and were named Cro-Magnon. In
these, the jaws are quite reduced, the modern man’s chin appeared, and the skull was rounded.
Their cranial capacity was about 1350 cc. They gathered food through hunting. Art first
appeared during this time.

Media literacy, put simply, is the ability to identify different types of media and the messages
they are sending. When we speak of media, it encompasses print media, such as newspapers,
magazines and posters, and theatrical presentations, tweets, radio broadcasts, etc.

Information literacy is the ability to find, evaluate, organize, use, and

communicate information in all its various formats, most notably in situations requiring decision
making, problem solving, or the acquisition of knowledge.

Technology literacy is the ability of an individual, working independently and with others, to
responsibly, appropriately and effectively use technology tools to access, manage, integrate,
evaluate, create and communicate information.
Sender: The sender or the communicator is the person who initiates the conversation and has
conceptualized the idea that he intends to convey it to others.

Encoding: The sender begins with the encoding process wherein he uses certain words or non-
verbal methods such as symbols, signs, body gestures, etc. to translate the information into a
message. The sender’s knowledge, skills, perception, background, competencies, etc. has a
great impact on the success of the message.

Message: Once the encoding is finished, the sender gets the message that he intends to
convey. The message can be written, oral, symbolic or non-verbal such as body gestures,
silence, sighs, sounds, etc. or any other signal that triggers the response of a receiver.

Communication Channel: The Sender chooses the medium through which he wants to convey
his message to the recipient. It must be selected carefully in order to make the message
effective and correctly interpreted by the recipient. The choice of medium depends on the
interpersonal relationships between the sender and the receiver and also on the urgency of the
message being sent. Oral, virtual, written, sound, gesture, etc. are some of the commonly used
communication mediums.

Receiver: The receiver is the person for whom the message is intended or targeted. He tries to
comprehend it in the best possible manner such that the communication objective is attained.
The degree to which the receiver decodes the message depends on his knowledge of the
subject matter, experience, trust and relationship with the sender.

Decoding: Here, the receiver interprets the sender’s message and tries to understand it in the
best possible manner. An effective communication occurs only if the receiver understands the
message in exactly the same way as it was intended by the sender.

Feedback: The Feedback is the final step of the process that ensures the receiver has received
the message and interpreted it correctly as it was

intended by the sender. It increases the effectiveness of the communication as it permits the
sender to know the efficacy of his message. The response of the receiver can be verbal or non-
verbal.
Note: The Noise shows the barriers in communications. There are chances when the message
sent by the sender is not received by the recipient.
 MATH
In propositional logic, modus ponens (/ˈmoʊdəs ˈpoʊnɛnz/; MP), also known
as modus ponendo ponens (Latin for "mode that by affirming affirms") or implication
elimination or affirming the antecedent, is a deductive argument form and rule of inference.
An example of an argument that fits the form modus ponens: If today is Tuesday, then John
will go to work. Today is Tuesday. Therefore, John will go to work.

Modus tollens is a valid argument form in propositional calculus in which and are propositions.
If implies , and is false, then. is false. Also known as an indirect proof or a proof by
contrapositive. For example, if being the king implies having a crown, not having a crown
implies not being the king.

In mathematics and logic, a direct proof is a way of showing the truth or falsehood of a given
statement by a straightforward combination of established facts, usually axioms, existing
lemmas and theorems, without making any further assumptions..

An indirect proof relies on a contradiction to prove a given conjecture by assuming the

conjecture is not true, and then running into a contradiction proving that the conjecture must be
true.

A normal distribution, sometimes called the bell curve, is a distribution that occurs naturally in
many situations. For example, the bell curve is seen in tests like the SAT and GRE.

The inverse is usually shown by putting a little "-1" after the function name, like this: f-1(y) We say
"f inverse of y" So, the inverse of f(x) = 2x+3 is written: f-1(y) = (y-3)/2.

Diameter of a Circle D=2×r

Circumference of a Circle C=2×π×r

Area of a Circle A = π × r2

Square 4 × side

Rectangle 2 × (length + width)

Parallelogram 2 × (side1 + side2)

Triangle side1 + side2 + side3

Regular n-polygon n × side

Trapezoid height × (base1 + base2) / 2

Trapezoid base1 + base2 + height × [csc(theta1) + csc(theta2)]

Square side^2

Rectangle length × width

Parallelogram base × height

Triangle base × height / 2

Regular n-polygon (1/4) × n × side2 × cot(pi/n)

Trapezoid height × (base1 + base2) / 2

Cube side^3

Rectangular Prism side1 × side2 × side3

Mathematicians normally use a two-valued logic: Every statement is

either True or False. This is called the Law of the Excluded Middle.

A statement in sentential logic is built from simple statements using the logical
connectives , , , , and . The truth or falsity of a statement built with
these connective depends on the truth or falsity of its components.

For example, the compound statement is built using the logical

connectives , , and . The truth or falsity of depends on the truth
or falsity of P, Q, and R.

A truth table shows how the truth or falsity of a compound statement depends on the
truth or falsity of the simple statements from which it's constructed. So we'll start by
looking at truth tables for the five logical connectives.

Here's the table for negation:

This table is easy to understand. If P is true, its negation is false. If P is false,

then is true.

should be true when both P and Q are true, and false otherwise:

is true if either P is true or Q is true (or both --- remember that we're using "or"
in the inclusive sense). It's only false if both P and Q are false.

Here's the table for logical implication:

To understand why this table is the way it is, consider the following example:

"If you get an A, then I'll give you a dollar."

The statement will be true if I keep my promise and false if I don't.

Suppose it's true that you get an A and it's true that I give you a dollar. Since I kept
my promise, the implication is true. This corresponds to the first line in the table.

Suppose it's true that you get an A but it's false that I give you a dollar. Since
I didn't keep my promise, the implication is false. This corresponds to the second line
in the table.

What if it's false that you get an A? Whether or not I give you a dollar, I haven't
broken my promise. Thus, the implication can't be false, so (since this is a two-valued
logic) it must be true. This explains the last two lines of the table.

means that P and Q are equivalent. So the double implication is true if P and
Q are both true or if P and Q are both false; otherwise, the double implication is false.

A Bond is a contract between two companies.

Companies or governments issue bonds because they need to borrow large amounts of money. They issue
bonds and investors buy them (thereby giving the people who issued the bond money).

Bonds have a maturity date. This means that at some point, the bond issuer has to pay back the money to
the investors. They also have to pay the investors a little bit more than they paid for the bond.

Amortization is the process of spreading out a loan into a series of fixed payments. The loan is paid off
at the end of the payment schedule. Some of each payment goes towards interest costs and some goes
toward your loan balance. Over time, you pay less in interest and more toward your balance.

An annuity is a long-term agreement (contract) between you and an insurance company that
allows you accumulate funds on a tax-deferred basis for later payout in the form of a guaranteed
income that you cannot outlive. ... When considering the purchase of an annuity, don't be
distracted away from its simplicity.

Shares are units of equity ownership interest in a corporation that exist as a financial asset providing
for an equal distribution in any residual profits, if any are declared, in the form of dividends.
Shareholders may also enjoy capital gains if the value of the company rises.
A stock is a general term used to describe the ownership certificates of any company. A share,
on the other hand, refers to the stock certificate of a particular company. Holding a particular
company's share makes you a shareholder. Description: Stocks are of two types—common and
preferred.

H0: The null hypothesis: It is a statement about the population that either is believed to be true
or is used to put forth an argument unless it can be shown to be incorrect beyond a reasonable
doubt.
Ha: The alternative hypothesis: It is a claim about the population that is contradictory
to H0 and what we conclude when we reject H0.
Since the null and alternative hypotheses are contradictory, you must examine evidence to
decide if you have enough evidence to reject the null hypothesis or not. The evidence is in the
form of sample data.
After you have determined which hypothesis the sample supports, you make adecision. There
are two options for a decision. They are “reject H0” if the sample information favors the
alternative hypothesis or “do not reject H0” or “decline to reject H0” if the sample information is
insufficient to reject the null hypothesis.
Mathematical Symbols Used in H0 and Ha:

H0 Ha

not equal (≠)

equal (=)
or greater than (>) or less than (<)

greater than or equal to (≥) less than (<)

less than or equal to (≤) more than (>)

Note
H0 always has a symbol with an equal in it. Ha never has a symbol with an equal in it. The
choice of symbol depends on the wording of the hypothesis test. However, be aware that many
researchers (including one of the co-authors in research work) use = in the null hypothesis,
even with > or < as the symbol in the alternative hypothesis. This practice is acceptable
because we only make the decision to reject or not reject the null hypothesis.
An asymptote is a line that the graph of a function approaches as either x or y go to positive or
negative infinity. There are three types of asymptotes: vertical, horizontal and oblique.
A vertical asymptote is a vertical line, x=a
A horizontal asymptote is a horizontal line, y=a
An oblique or slant asymptote is an asymptote along a line y=mx+b, where m≠0. Oblique
asymptotes occur when the degree of the denominator of a rational function is one less than the
degree of the numerator.
For example, the function f(x) = x+1x has an oblique asymptote about the line y=x and a vertical
asymptote at the line x=0.

A probability distribution is a statistical function that describes all the possible values and
likelihoods that a random variable can take within a given range.

Standard deviation is a number used to tell how measurements for a group are spread out from
the average (mean or expected value). A low standard deviation means that most of the
numbers are close to the average, while a high standard deviation means that the numbers are
more spread out.

Confidence Intervals. For a given statistic calculated for a sample of observations (e.g. the
mean), the confidence interval is a range of values around that statistic that are believed to
contain, with a certain probability (e.g.95%), the true value of that statistic (i.e. the population
value). Strictly speaking a 95% confidence interval means that if we were to take 100 different
samples and compute a 95% confidence interval for each sample, then approximately 95 of the
100 confidence intervals will contain the true mean value (μ).
An interest rate is a percentage charged on the total amount you borrow or save. Even a small
change in interest rates can have a big impact.
 SCIENCE
Oceans cover more than 70 percent of the Earth’s surface, and half of those waters are at least
1.86 miles (3 km) deep.
As far as we know, the ocean is 36,200 feet (11,000 m or almost 7 miles) deep at its deepest
point. On average, the ocean is about 12,100 feet (3,688 m) deep.1
Animals living in the bathypelagic zone or deeper never see sunlight.1 Some organisms living
there, such as vampire squid and humpback anglerfish, produce their own light.2
More than 99 percent of Earth’s inhabitable space is in the open ocean.3

The ocean is divided into five zones: the epipelagic zone, or upper open ocean (surface to 650
feet deep); the mesopelagic zone, or middle open ocean (650-3,300 feet deep); the
bathypelagic zone, or lower open ocean (3,300-13,000 feet deep); the abyssopelagic zone, or
abyss (13,000-20,000 feet deep); and the hadopelagic zone, or deep ocean trenches (20,000
feet and deeper).

The ocean produces more than 50 percent of the air we breathe.

Humans have only explored 5 percent of the world’s oceans. However, it is believed that
humans have impacted every part of the ocean with waste and chemical pollution.
Comet nuclei are loose collections of ice, dust and small rocky particles, ranging from a few
kilometers to tens of kilometers across. They are composed of rock, dust, ice and frozen gases
such as carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, methane, and ammonia.
When meteoroids enter Earth's atmosphere (or that of another planet, like Mars) at high speed
and burn up, the fireballs or “shooting stars” are called meteors. When a meteoroid survives
a trip through the atmosphere and hits the ground, it's called a meteorite.
an ecosystem is a community or group of living organisms that live in and interact with each
other in a specific environment.

The Skin
The integumentary system is the largest organ of the body, equaling 15-20% of our total body
mass. It acts as a barrier to physical, chemical, and biological agents. The skin prevents water
loss and regulates body temperature. It transmits the senses of touch, pain, and pleasure and
maintains body temperature by secreting sweat. The hair lubricates the scalp, which secretes
pheromones and cools or warms our heads. The nails protect our fingers, which are a major tool
used for protecting ourselves and providing ourselves with food, shelter, and sensations. The
skin leaves us most vulnerable when it is compromised by open wounds, allowing infectious
agents into the body.

Musculoskeletal System
Skeletal System (Bones, Joints)
The skeletal system supports and protects the body’s internal organs. The ribs protect the
abdominal organs, which are both vulnerable to injury and dangerous to our well being when
injured. The skull protects our brain which controls all functions of our bodies and minds. The
skeleton provides the framework and shape to our bodies. It also connects to our major muscles
to allow movement. Bones store minerals such as calcium and create blood cells in the soft
bone tissue called marrow. Bones can break easily without enough calcium and are subject to
such diseases as arthritis; cancers; scoliosis; osteoporosis, gout; bursitis; fractures and breaks;
and amputations. The human skeleton is made up of 206 bones

Muscular system (Cardiac, Smooth, and Skeletal Muscles)

Cardiac muscles are found in the heart and power the actions that maintain blood flow through
our body;
Smooth, or involuntary muscles are found in the heart and organs, they surround the internal
organs and are responsible for their movement such as moving food through the digestive tract;
and
Skeletal, or voluntary muscles, are responsible for carrying out the actions and movements
caused by messages sent from our brains through our nervous system. Skeletal muscles are
also responsible for maintaining posture and producing heat. When muscles lack appropriate
levels of oxygen they can cramp and tear, creating pain. When not used they can atrophy and
become useless. Diseases and disorders of the muscular system include muscular dystrophy;
fibromyalgia; tendinitis; multiple sclerosis; and muscle strain or sprains; hernias.

Lymphatic System (Red Bone Marrow, Thymus, Lymphatic Vessels, Thoracic Duct,
Spleen, Lymph Nodes)
This system transports clean fluids in our body back to the blood and drains excess fluids and
debris from the tissues and cells of the body. It also houses the white blood cells (lymphocytes)
involved in protecting our bodies from infection. Diseases and disorders specific to the lymphatic
system include anemias; leukemia; tuberculosis of the lymph nodes; Hodgkin’s disease; and
other blood disorders.

Respiratory System – (Nasal Cavity, Pharynx, Larynx, Trachea, Bronchus, Lung)

This system maintains our breathing. It supplies the body with oxygen for cellular respiration by
collecting oxygen in the lungs and disposes of carbon dioxide by breathing out the waste
product. It also provides our functions of speech and smell. Diseases and disorders of the
respiratory system include allergies; rhinitis and sinusitis; laryngitis; COPD; pleurisy; bronchitis;
emphysema; asthma; sarcoidosis; fibrosis; asbestosis; pulmonary vascular diseases; fungal or
bacterial infections of the lungs; sleep apnea; tuberculosis of the respiratory system; and lung,
throat, and other respiratory cancers.

Digestive system (Oral Cavity, Esophagus, Liver, Stomach, Small Intestine, Large
Intestine, Rectum, Anus)
Beginning with our mouths, this system is responsible for the breaking down and absorption of
nutrients and the elimination of the waste not utilized by the body. It is responsible for identifying
which minerals, vitamins, and other essentials from the foods we eat can be absorbed and
utilized or stored by the body and which are to be disposed of, and carrying out those functions.
Diseases and disorders of the digestive system include diverticulitis; gastritis; pancreatitis;
cholecystitis; cirrhosis; hepatitis; liver cancer; irritable bowel or colon syndromes; Crone’s
disease; and hemorrhoids.
Nervous System– (Brain, Spinal Cord, Nerves)
This system is actually made up of two distinct parts; the central nervous system (CNS) and the
peripheral nervous system. The central nervous system is made up of the brain and spinal cord,
and the peripheral nervous system is made up of all the nerves that lead into and out of the
CNS to other parts of the body. The entire nervous system controls all of the other systems of
the body, such as digestion and cardiac rhythm, and responds to internal and external changes,
such as activating muscles and breathing. It also transmits information to the brain, such as pain
and external sensations.

Diseases and disorders of the nervous system include paralysis; Parkinson’s Disease; palsy,
embolisms; thrombosis; arteriosclerosis; polio; myelitis; ALS; meningitis; Multiple Sclerosis;
muscular tics; Huntington’s Disease; cancers of the brain, spinal cord or nerves; epilepsy,
seizure disorders; narcolepsy; migraine headaches; peripheral neuropathy; and traumatic brain
injury.
Endocrine System– (Pineal Gland, Pituitary Gland, Thyroid Gland, Thymus, Adrenal
Gland, Pancreas, Ovary, Testis)
The glands of the endocrine system secrete chemicals called hormones that regulate most of
the processes in our bodies such as growth, reproduction, metabolism, and even the control of
the amount of glucose in our blood. Diseases and disorders of the endocrine system include
Type 1 & Type 2 Diabetes, hypoglycemia, Addison’s disease; Cushing’s syndrome;
hyper/hypothyroidism, thyroid cancer; and other active cancers of the endocrine glands.

Cardiovascular (Circulatory) System– (Heart, Blood Vessels)

The heart, made of cardiac muscle, pumps blood and blood vessels such as arteries and veins,
transport the blood to every part of our body providing organs and muscles with nourishment.
The blood carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, waste and more throughout the body.
Diseases and disorders associated with the cardiovascular system include myocardial
infarction; coronary bypass surgery; arrhythmias; valve replacements; pacemakers; transplants;
heart diseases (ischemic; hypertensive; arteriosclerotic); hypertension; aneurysms; fistulas;
arteriosclerosis; anaphylaxis shock; varicose veins; cold weather injuries; and sarcomas of the
blood vessels.
Urinary system (Kidney, Ureter, Urinary Bladder, Urethra)
The Genitourinary System ( also includes: prostate gland, penis, testis, scrotum, ductus
deferens)
This system is responsible for eliminating waste products of metabolism and other materials
from the body that are of no use. The system is also responsible for maintaining the balanced
fluid volume in our bodies by regulating the amount of water that is excreted, maintaining the
concentrations of electrolytes, and normal pH levels of the blood. Diseases and disorders of the
urinary system include nephrosis, bladder cancer, urethritis, bedwetting (enuresis), urinary and
kidney stones and infections, renal failure, incontinence, blood in the urine, and interstitial
cystitis.

Reproductive Systems
MALE (prostate gland, penis, testis, scrotum, ductus deferens)
FEMALE (Mammary glands, ovary, uterus, vagina, fallopian tube)
VA Equivalent for rating – Female Reproductive System
(Male reproductive system is under Genitourinary system)
The reproductive system mainly functions to create human life. Ovaries produce female sex
hormones and eggs. Eggs are fertilized in the fallopian tube by sperm then travel to the uterus,
which provides the site for growth. The mammary glands produce milk for the newborn.
Diseases and disorders associated with the female reproductive systems include breast cancer,
removal of breast or lumpectomy; hysterectomy; pregnancy complications; endometriosis;
ovarian or cervical cancers; and diseases or injuries of the vulva, vagina, cervix, uterus,
fallopian tubes, or ovaries.

Igneous rocks are formed from the solidification of molten rock material. Some form below
Earth's surface. Some form on or above Earth's surface. We describe these two basic types:
Intrusive igneous rocks crystallize below Earth's surface, and the slow cooling that occurs
there allows large crystals to form. Examples of intrusive igneous rocks are: diabase, diorite,
gabbro, granite, pegmatite, and peridotite.
Extrusive igneous rocks erupt onto the surface, where they cool quickly to form small crystals.
Some cool so quickly that they form an amorphous glass. These rocks include: andesite, basalt,
dacite, obsidian, pumice, rhyolite, scoria, and tuff.
Metamorphic rocks have been modified by heat, pressure, and chemical processes, usually
while buried deep below Earth's surface. Exposure to these extreme conditions has altered the
mineralogy, texture, and chemical composition of the rocks.
There are two basic types of metamorphic rocks. Foliated metamorphic rocks have a layered
or banded appearance that is produced by exposure to heat and directed pressure. Examples of
foliated rocks include: gneiss, phyllite, schist, and slate
Non-foliated metamorphic rocks do not have a layered or banded appearance. Examples of
nonfoliated rocks include: hornfels, marble, novaculite, quartzite, and skarn.
Sedimentary rocks are formed by the accumulation of sediments. There are three basic types
of sedimentary rocks.
Clastic sedimentary rocks form from the accumulation and lithification of mechanical
weathering debris. Examples include: breccia, conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone, and shale.
Chemical sedimentary rocks form when dissolved materials preciptate from solution.
Examples include: chert, some dolomites, flint, iron ore, limestones, and rock salt.
Organic sedimentary rocks form from the accumulation of plant or animal debris. Examples
include: chalk, coal, diatomite, some dolomites, and some limestones.
Erosion is the geological process in which earthen materials are worn away and transported by
natural forces such as wind or water.
Weathering is the breaking down or dissolving of rocks and minerals on Earths surface. Once a
rock has been broken down, a process called erosion transports the bits of rock and minerals
away. Water, acids, salt, plants, animals, and changes in temperature are all agents of
weathering and erosion.
At the equinox, Earth's two hemispheres are receiving the sun's rays equally. Night and day are
often said to be equal in length. In fact, the word equinox comes from the Latin aequus (equal)
and nox (night).
Solstice, either of the two moments in the year when the Sun's apparent path is farthest north
or south from Earth's Equator. At the winter solstice the day is the year's shortest, and at the
summer solstice it is the year's longest.
Nitrogen accounts for 78% of the atmosphere, oxygen 21% and argon 0.9%. Gases like
carbon dioxide, nitrous oxides, methane, and ozone are trace gases that account for about
a tenth of one percent of the atmosphere.

Example
Type Description
Organisms

Occurs when a parent cell splits into two identical daughter Bacteria, Protists,
Fission
cells of the same size. Unicellular Fungi

Starfish, some
Occurs when a parent organism breaks into fragments, or
Fragmentation worms, fungi,
pieces, and each fragment develops into a new organism.
plants, lichens

Occurs when a parent cell forms a bubble-like bud. The bud

stays attached to the parent cell while it grows and
Budding Yeast, Hydra
develops. When the bud is fully developed, it breaks away
from the parent cell and forms a new organism.

Vegetative Occurs when new individuals are formed without the

Plants
Reproduction production of seeds or spores.

Any form of reproduction that does not involve a male Many plants and
Agamogenesis
gamete. some animals.
Vocabulary

• agamogenesis: Any form of reproduction that does not involve a male gamete.

• asexual reproduction: Reproduction involving only one parent; occurs without a fusion
of gametes; produces offspring that are all genetically identical to the parent.

• budding: A form of asexual reproduction in which a new organism develops from an

outgrowth or bud on another one; the bud may stay attached or break free from the
parent.

• clone: A genetically identical copy; may be a gene, a cell or an organism; an organism

that is genetically identical to its parent.

• diploid: The state of a cell containing two sets of chromosomes; in human somatic cells,
two sets is 46 (23 pairs) chromosomes, 2n.

• fission: Asexual reproduction in which a parent separates into two or more individuals of
about equal size.

• fragmentation: Asexual reproduction in which the body breaks into several fragments,
which later develop into complete organisms.

• gamete: A sexually reproducing organism’s reproductive cells, such as sperm and egg
cells.

• haploid: The state of a cell containing one set of chromosomes; in human gametes, one
set is 23 chromosomes, n.

• meiosis: A type of cell division that halves the number of chromosomes and forms
gametes.

• parthenogenesis: A form of asexual reproduction where growth and development of

embryos occur without fertilization.

• reproduction: Process by which living organisms give rise to offspring; making the next
generation.

• sexual reproduction: Reproduction involving the joining of haploid gametes, producing

genetically diverse individuals.

• spore: A haploid reproductive cell, found in plants, algae and some protists; can fully
develop without fusing with another cell.

• vegetative reproduction: A type of asexual reproduction found in plants where new

individuals are formed without the production of seeds or spores.

• zygote: A fertilized egg; the first cell of a new organism.

Tropical Wave
An inverted trough (an elongated area of relatively low pressure) or cyclonic curvature maximum
moving east to west across the tropics. These can lead to the formation of a tropical cyclone.
Also known as an easterly wave.

Tropical Disturbance
A tropical weather system with organized convection (generally 100-300 miles in diameter)
originating in the tropics or subtropics, having a non-frontal migratory character and maintaining
its identity for 24 hours or longer. It may or may not be associated with a detectable perturbation
of the wind field.
Tropical Cyclone
A tropical cyclone is a low pressure system (not associated with a front) that develops over
tropical and sometimes sub-tropical waters and has organized deep convection with a closed
wind circulation about a well-defined center.
Extratropical Cyclone
A cyclone (of any intensity) for which the primary energy source is baroclinic (i.e., results from
the temperature contrast between warm & cold air masses).
Post-Tropical Cyclone
A cyclone that no longer possesses sufficient tropical characteristics to be considered a tropical
cyclone. Post-tropical cyclones can continue to carry heavy rains and high winds. Note: former
tropical cyclones that become extratropical and remnant lows are 2 specific classes of post-
tropical cyclones.
Remnant Low
A class of post-tropical cyclone that no longer possesses the convective organization required
of a tropical cyclone and has maximum sustained winds of less than 34 knots.
Subtropical Cyclone
A non-frontal low pressure system that has characteristics of both tropical and extratropical
cyclones. Subtropical cyclones originate over tropical or subtropical waters and have a closed
circulation about a well-defined center. In comparison to tropical cyclones, the maximum winds
occur relatively far from the center (greater than 60 nautical miles) and have a less symmetric
wind field and distribution of convection.
Tropical Depression
A tropical depression is a tropical cyclone that has maximum sustained surface winds (one-
minute average) of 38 mph (33 knots) or less.
Tropical Storm
A tropical storm is a tropical cyclone that has maximum sustained surface winds ranging from
39-73 mph (34 to 63 knots).
Hurricane
A hurricane is a tropical cyclone that has maximum sustained surface winds of 74 mph or
greater (64 knots or greater).
NOTE: The number of Tropical Storms and Hurricanes increases substantially in August,
peaks in mid-September and decreases towards a minimum by early November.
Tropical Storm Watch
A Tropical Storm Watch is issued when Tropical Storm conditions, including winds of 39-73
mph, pose a POSSIBLE threat to a specified coastal area within 48 hours.
Tropical Storm Warning
A Tropical Storm Warning is issued when Tropical Storm conditions, including winds of 39-73
mph, are EXPECTED in a specified coastal area within 36 hours or less.
Hurricane Watch
A Hurricane Watch is issued when sustained winds of 74 mph or higher are POSSIBLE within
the specified area of the Watch. Because hurricane preparedness activities become difficult
once winds reach tropical storm force, the Watch is issued 48 hours in advance of the onset of
tropical storm force winds.
Hurricane Warning
A Hurricane Warning is issued when sustained winds of 74 mph or higher are EXPECTED
somewhere within the specified area of the Warning. Because hurricane preparedness activities
become difficult once winds reach tropical storm force, the Warning is issued 36 hours in
advance of the onset of tropical storm force winds.
NOTE: A Hurricane Warning can remain in effect when dangerously high water or a
combination of dangerously high water and exceptionally high waves continues...even if the
winds have subsided below hurricane intensity.
Eye Wall
An organized band of cumulonimbus clouds immediately surrounding the center of the tropical
cyclone.
Storm Surge
An abnormal rise in sea level accompanying a tropical cyclone. This is the difference in height
between observed level of the sea surface and the level that would have occurred in the
absence of the storm. Storm surge is usually estimated by subtracting the normal or
astronomical tide from the observed storm tide.
Storm Tide
The water level rise resulting from the astronomical tide combined with the storm surge.
Genetic engineering is the process of using recombinant DNA (rDNA) technology to alter
the genetic makeup of an organism. Traditionally, humans have manipulated genomes
indirectly by controlling breeding and selecting offspring with desired traits.
Fermentation is any metabolic process in which microorganisms’ activity creates a desirable
change in food and beverages, whether it’s increasing flavor, preserving foodstuffs, providing
health benefits, or more.
Examples of Products Formed by Fermentation
• Beer.
• Wine.
• Yogurt.
• Cheese.
• Certain sour foods containing lactic acid, including sauerkraut, kimchi, and pepperoni.
• Bread leavening by yeast.
• Sewage treatment.
• Some industrial alcohol production, such as for biofuel
The word “ferment” comes from the Latin verb “fervere,” which means “to boil.” Ironically,
fermentation is possible without heat.
Lactic acid fermentation is a metabolic process by which glucose or other six-carbon sugars
(also, disaccharides of six-carbon sugars, e.g. sucrose or lactose) are converted into cellular
energy and the metabolite lactate, which is lactic acid in solution. This method makes
sauerkraut, pickles, kimchi, yogurt, and sourdough bread.
Ethanol fermentation/alcohol fermentation. Yeasts break pyruvate molecules—the output of
the metabolism of glucose (C6H12O6) known as glycolysis—in starches or sugars down into
alcohol and carbon dioxide molecules. Alcoholic fermentation produces wine and beer.
Acetic acid fermentation. Starches and sugars from grains and fruit ferment into sour tasting
vinegar and condiments. Examples include apple cider vinegar, wine vinegar, and kombucha.
Pyruvic acid, (CH3COCOOH), is an organic acid that probably occurs in all living cells. It
ionizes to give a hydrogen ion and an anion, termed pyruvate. Biochemists use the
terms pyruvate and pyruvic acid almost interchangeably. pyruvic acid; acetoacetic acid.
Chemical formulas for pyruvic acid and acetoacetic acid. Pyruvic acid supplies energy to
living cells through the citric acid cycle (also known as the Krebs cycle ) when oxygen is present
(aerobic respiration); it ferments to produce lactic acid when oxygen is lacking ( fermentation
). Pyruvate is the output of the anaerobic metabolism of glucose known as glycolysis.
Ethanol (Ethyl Alcohol) Ethanol, also called alcohol, ethyl alcohol and grain alcohol, is a
clear, colorless liquid and the principle ingredient in alcoholic beverages like beer, wine or
brandy.
There is a couple different ways to determine if a bond is ionic or covalent. By definition,
an ionic bond is between a metal and a nonmetal, and a covalent bond is between 2
nonmetals. So you usually just look at the periodic table and determine whether your
compound is made of a metal/nonmetal or is just 2 nonmetals.
Ionic bonding is the complete transfer of valence electron(s) between atoms. It is a type of
chemical bond that generates two oppositely charged ions. In ionic bonds, the metal loses
electrons to become a positively charged cation, whereas the nonmetal accepts those electrons
to become a negatively charged anion.
A covalent bond is a chemical bond that involves the sharing of electron pairs between atoms.
These electron pairs are known as shared pairs or bonding pairs, and the stable balance of
attractive and repulsive forces between atoms, when they share electrons, is known
as covalent bonding.
Nonpolar covalent bonds are a type of chemical bond where two atoms share a pair of
electrons with each other. Polar covalent bonding is a type of chemical bond where a pair of
electrons is unequally shared between two atoms.
Metallic bonds occur among metal atoms. Whereas ionic bonds join metals to non-
metals, metallic bonding joins a bulk of metal atoms. A sheet of aluminum foil and a copper
wire are both places where you can see metallic bonding in action.
Polyethylene is a lightweight, durable thermoplastic with variable crystalline structure. It is one
of the most widely produced plastics in the world (tens of millions of tons are produced
worldwide each year). Polyethylene is used in applications ranging for films, tubes, plastic
parts, laminates, etc. (Also known as PLASTIC)
Vector Quantities: Vector quantities refer to the physical quantities characterized by the
presence of both magnitude as well as direction. For example, displacement, force, torque,
momentum, acceleration, velocity, etc.
A quantity that has magnitude but no particular direction is described as scalar.
A quantity that has magnitude and acts in a particular direction is described as vector.
Some examples of scalars are mass, density, time, temperature, volume, energy, speed, etc.
These quantities can be described using a number only. Examples of vectors are weight,
displacement, force, velocity, etc.
Synthetic polymers are derived from petroleum oil, and made by scientists and engineers.
Examples of synthetic polymers include nylon, polyethylene, polyester, Teflon, and epoxy.
Natural polymers occur in nature and can be extracted. They are often water-based.
Newton Mass (N)