ENGLISH bank, landlord, business client, etc.
What a surprise then that this type of
Formal Types of Communication
Skills
This types of communication is also
referred to as “official communication”
and covers the gamut of verbal
expressions that address a formal
need.
Informal Communication
Informal communication is surprisingly
popular, and also referred to as “the
(unofficial) grapevine”. This is often by
word-of-mouth information. In fact, it
is this type of communication that
opens you up to unofficial yet
provocative information.
Oral Communication (Face-to-
face)
Face-to-face oral communication is the
most recognized type of
communication. Here, what you
express comes directly from what you
speak. Again, this can be formal or
informal: with your friends and family,
in a formal meeting or seminar, at
work with your colleagues and boss,
within your community,
during professional presentations, etc.
Oral Communication (Distance)
Distance (oral) communication has
made the world a smaller and more
accessible place. Mobile phones, VOIP,
video-conferencing, 2-way webinars,
etc. are all modern expansions of
distance communication, taking its
expression to the next subtle level.
And in this type of communication,
your tone of voice and pace of delivery
take priority over other expressions.
Non-verbal Types of
Communication
This type of communication is more
subtle, yet far more powerful. It
includes the entire gamut of physical
postures and gestures, tone and pace
of voice, and the attitude with which
you communicate.
Written Communication
A few decades ago, written
communication depended on the
trusty old mailman as we wrote to
people who were far away. On rare
occasions, this also included the
formal note or legal notice from the
communication has now taken over
every aspect of our world!
Kinesics or kinesic communication is all
about communication through body
movements, such as gestures and facial
expressions. It is all about non-verbal
behavior using any part of the body. It also
includes communicating using the body as
a whole. In popular culture, we call this
'body language'.
Proxemics is the study of space and how
we use it, and how it makes us feel more or
less comfortable. How close you stand next
to someone, for example, depends on the
relationship you have with that person. ...
Intimate space: very close, usually within
one foot and sometimes touching.
Haptic communication is a branch of
nonverbal communication that refers to the
ways in which people and
animals communicate and interact via the
sense of touch. Touch is the most
sophisticated and intimate of the five
senses.
We learned earlier that paralanguage refers to
the vocalized but nonverbal parts of a
message. Vocalics is the study of paralanguage,
which includes the vocal qualities that go along
with verbal messages, such as pitch, volume,
rate, vocal quality, and verbal fillers (Andersen,
1999).
Chronemics is the study of the use of time
in nonverbal communication. Time
perceptions include punctuality, willingness
to wait, and interactions. The use of time
can affect lifestyles, daily agendas, speed of
speech, movements and how long people
are willing to listen.
Agyu – Epic hero of Bukidnon
Setting: Where and when is the story set?
Setting represents both the physical location
but also the time (i.e. past, present, future)
and the social and cultural conditions in
which the characters exist.
Social journalism is a media model
consisting of a hybrid of
professional journalism, contributor and
reader content. The format relies on
community involvement, audience
engagement, social newsgathering and
verification, data and analytics, and
relationship-building.
Citizen journalism, also known as
collaborative media, participatory
journalism, democratic journalism, guerrilla
journalism or street journalism, is based
upon public citizens "playing an active role
in the process of collecting, reporting,
analyzing, and disseminating news and
information.
Yellow journalism and the yellow press are
American terms for journalism and
associated newspapers that present little or
no legitimate, well-researched news while
instead using eye-catching headlines for
increased sales. Techniques may include
exaggerations of news events, scandal-
mongering, or sensationalism.
Adversarial journalism, or
gotcha journalism, is a form
of journalism that seeks to uncover
wrongdoings of public officials.
Gotcha journalism can include various
methods such as, moving away from the
agreed upon interview topic, or switching to
an embarrassing subject that was agreed to
be out-of-bounds.
Manipulatives Media are tools that are
used to aid in hands-on learning. They can
be physical objects or computer programs
which learners can manipulate in order to
grasp an idea, and gain understanding or
mastery of given concepts. Examples are
Abacus, Jigsaw Puzzles, Lego, Rubik's
Cube.  i.e. a challenge or problem around which
Interactive media, also called interactive
multimedia, any computer-delivered
electronic system that allows the user to
control, combine, and manipulate different
types of media, such as text, sound, video,
computer graphics, and animation.
Examples of interactive media include
web sites, user-generated
content, interactive television,
gaming, interactive advertising, blogs and
mobile telephony.
Pre-Industrial Age (Before 1700's)
In this age, People had learned or
discovered fire, developed paper from
plants, and forged weapons and tools with
stone, bronze, copper and iron.
Industrial Age (1700s-1930s)
This is were people discovered the used of
power steam, developed machine tools,
established iron production, and the
manufacturing of various products (including
books through the printing press)
Electronic Age (1930s-1980s)
In this age, People invented the transistor
ushered in the electronic age. People
harnessed the power of transistors that led
to the transistor radio, electronic circuits,
and the early computers. In this age, long
distance communication became more
efficient.
Information Age (1900s-2000s)
This is were the Internet paved the way for
faster communication and the creation of
the social network. People advanced the
use of microelectronics with the invention of
personal computers, mobile devices, and
wearable technology. Moreover, voice,
image, sound and data are digitalized. We
are now living in the information age.
Character: A person or animal or really
anything personified. There can be one
main character or many, and often there are
secondary characters, but not always.
Plot: The plot consists of the events that
happen in the story. In a plot you typically
find an introduction, rising action, a climax,
the falling action, and a resolution. Plot is
often represented as an arc. 
Conflict: Every story must have a conflict,
the plot is based. Without conflict, the story
will have no purpose or trajectory.
Theme: Idea, belief, moral, lesson or
insight. It’s the central argument that the
author is trying to make the reader
understand. The theme is the “why” of the
story.
Point-of-view: “Who” is telling the story?
First person (“I”) or third person (“he/she/it”).
Limited (one character’s perspective),
multiple (many characters’ perspectives) or
omniscient (all knowing narrator). Second
person (“you”) is not often used for writing
stories.
Tone: The overall emotional “tone” or
meaning of the story. Is it happy, funny, sad,
depressed? Tone can be portrayed in multiple
ways, through word and grammar choices,
choice of theme, imagery and description,
symbolism, and the sounds of the words in
combination (i.e. rhyme, rhythm, musicality).
Style: This is how things are said. Word
choices, sentence structure, dialogue,
metaphor, simile, hyperbole. Style contributes
significantly to tone.
Confucianism is an ancient Chinese belief
system, which focuses on the importance of
personal ethics and morality. Whether it is
only or a philosophy or also a religion is
debated. Mencius (or Meng Ke who lived
from 372 to 289 B.C.E.) is the best-
known Confucian philosopher after
Confucius himself
Buddhism is a faith that was founded by
Siddhartha Gautama (“the Buddha”) more
than 2,500 years ago in India. With about
470 million followers, scholars
consider Buddhism one of the major world
religions.
Indios were defined as the native
indigenous peoples in all the Spanish
America and Asia possessions. During the
Spanish colonial period in the Mariana
Islands (17th through 19th centuries) the
Chamorros people were classified
as indios. In the Spanish racial
hierarchy, indios were the lowest-ranked
group
Evolution involves the gradual changes from
simple to more complex forms. Humans are
believed to have developed from simpler
forms. Evolution is hypothesized to have
begun in the oceans billions of years ago.
Darwin gave the theory of evolution. In his
book -The Origin of Species, Darwin has
stated that evolution has come through a
series of natural selection. The theory
emphasized the following points:
 Natural Selection
 Variation
 Struggle To Exist
 Survival of the Fittest
Evolution is the outcome of the interaction
amongst the following five processes:
 Mutation
 Genetic Recombination
 Chromosomal Abnormalities
 Reproductive isolation
 Natural Selection
Dryopithecus
These are deemed to be the ancestors of both
man and apes. They lived in China, Africa,
Europe and India. The genus Dryopithecus
refers to the oak wood apes. When
Dryopithecus was alive, the tropical lowlands
which it inhabited were densely forested, so
the members could have predominantly been
herbivores.
Ramapithecus
Their first remains were discovered from the
Shivalik range in Punjab and later in Africa
and Saudi Arabia. They lived in open
grasslands. Two pieces of evidence confirm
their Hominid status:
1. Thickened tooth enamel, robust jaws
and shorter canines.
2. Usage of hands for food and defence
and extrapolations of upright posture.
Australopithecus
The fossil of this genus was first discovered in
1924 in South Africa. They lived on the
ground, used stones as weapons and walked
erect. They were 4 feet tall and weighed 60-80
pounds.
Homo Erectus
The first fossil of Homo Erectus was found in
Java in 1891. These were named as
Pithecanthropus Erectus. These were
considered as the missing link between the
man and apes. Another discovery made in
China was the Peking man. This specimen
had large cranial capacities and is believed to
have lived in communities. Homo erectus
used tools comprising quartz. Tools made of
bones and wood were also discovered. There
is evidence of collective huntings. There is
also evidence of the use of fire. The Homo
Erectus is believed to dwell in caves.
Homo Sapiens Neanderthalensis
The Homo Erectus evolved into Homo
Sapiens. During evolution, two sub-species of
Homo Sapiens were identified- Homo sapien
Neanderthal and Homo sapiens sapiens. The
cranial capacity of Neanderthal grew from
1200 to 1600 cc. Some small hand axes had
also been discovered. This species of
hominids could hunt big names such as
mammoths
Homo Sapiens
The remains of Homo Sapiens were first
discovered in Europe and were named Cro-
Magnon. In these, the jaws are quite
reduced, the modern man’s chin appeared,
and the skull was rounded. Their cranial
capacity was about 1350 cc. They gathered
food through hunting. Art first appeared
during this time.
Media literacy, put simply, is the ability to
identify different types of media and the
messages they are sending. When we
speak of media, it encompasses print
media, such as newspapers, magazines
and posters, and theatrical presentations,
tweets, radio broadcasts, etc.
Information literacy is the ability to find,
evaluate, organize, use, and
communicate information in all its various
formats, most notably in situations requiring
decision making, problem solving, or the
acquisition of knowledge.
Technology literacy is the ability of an
individual, working independently and with
others, to responsibly, appropriately and
effectively use technology tools to access,
manage, integrate, evaluate, create and
communicate information.
Sender: The sender or the communicator is
the person who initiates the conversation
and has conceptualized the idea that he
intends to convey it to others.
Encoding: The sender begins with the
encoding process wherein he uses certain
words or non-verbal methods such as
symbols, signs, body gestures, etc. to
translate the information into a message.
The sender’s knowledge, skills, perception,
background, competencies, etc. has a great
impact on the success of the message.
Message: Once the encoding is finished,
the sender gets the message that he
intends to convey. The message can be
written, oral, symbolic or non-verbal such as
body gestures, silence, sighs, sounds, etc.
or any other signal that triggers the
response of a receiver.
Communication Channel: The Sender
chooses the medium through which he
wants to convey his message to the
recipient. It must be selected carefully in
order to make the message effective and
correctly interpreted by the recipient. The
choice of medium depends on the
interpersonal relationships between the
sender and the receiver and also on the
urgency of the message being sent. Oral,
virtual, written, sound, gesture, etc. are
some of the commonly used communication
mediums.
Receiver: The receiver is the person for
whom the message is intended or targeted.
He tries to comprehend it in the best
possible manner such that the
communication objective is attained. The
degree to which the receiver decodes the
message depends on his knowledge of the
subject matter, experience, trust and
relationship with the sender.
Decoding: Here, the receiver interprets the
sender’s message and tries to understand it
in the best possible manner. An effective
communication occurs only if the receiver
understands the message in exactly the
same way as it was intended by the sender.
Feedback: The Feedback is the final step
of the process that ensures the receiver has
received the message and interpreted it
correctly as it was
intended by the sender. It increases the
effectiveness of the communication as it
permits the sender to know the efficacy of
his message. The response of the receiver
can be verbal or non-verbal.
Note: The Noise shows the barriers in
communications. There are chances when
the message sent by the sender is not
received by the recipient.
MATH
In propositional logic, modus
ponens (/ˈmoʊdəs ˈpoʊnɛnz/; MP), also
known as modus ponendo ponens (Latin
for "mode that by affirming affirms") or
implication elimination or affirming the
antecedent, is a deductive argument form
and rule of inference. An example of an
argument that fits the form modus ponens:
If today is Tuesday, then John will go to
work. Today is Tuesday. Therefore, John Rectangle length × width
will go to work.
Parallelogram base × height
Modus tollens is a valid argument form in
propositional calculus in which and are Triangle base × height / 2
propositions. If implies , and is false, then. is
false. Also known as an indirect proof or a Regular n-polygon (1/4) × n × side2 ×
proof by contrapositive. For example, if cot(pi/n)
being the king implies having a crown, not
having a crown implies not being the king. Trapezoid height × (base1 + base2) / 2

In mathematics and logic, a direct proof is a Cube side^3

way of showing the truth or falsehood of a
given statement by a straightforward Rectangular Prism side1 × side2 × side3
combination of established facts, usually
axioms, existing lemmas and theorems,
without making any further assumptions..

An indirect proof relies on a contradiction Mathematicians normally use a two-

to prove a given conjecture by assuming valued logic: Every statement is
the conjecture is not true, and then running either True or False. This is called
into a contradiction proving that the the Law of the Excluded Middle.
conjecture must be true.

A normal distribution, sometimes called the A statement in sentential logic is built

bell curve, is a distribution that occurs from simple statements using the
naturally in many situations. For example, the logical connectives   ,   ,   ,   ,
bell curve is seen in tests like the SAT and
GRE.
and   . The truth or falsity of a
statement built with these connective
The inverse is usually shown by putting a little depends on the truth or falsity of its
"-1" after the function name, like this: f-1(y) components.
We say "f inverse of y" So, the inverse of f(x)
= 2x+3 is written: f-1(y) = (y-3)/2.
For example, the compound
Diameter of a Circle D = 2 × r statement   is built using
the logical connectives   ,   , and   .
Circumference of a
C = 2 × π × r The truth or falsity of   
Circle
depends on the truth or falsity of P, Q,
Area of a Circle A = π × r2 and R.

A truth table shows how the truth or

falsity of a compound statement
Square 4 × side depends on the truth or falsity of the
simple statements from which it's
Rectangle 2 × (length + width) constructed. So we'll start by looking at
truth tables for the five logical
Parallelogram 2 × (side1 + side2)
connectives.
Triangle side1 + side2 + side3
Here's the table for negation:
Regular n-polygon n × side

Trapezoid height × (base1 + base2) / 2

Trapezoid base1 + base2 + height ×

[csc(theta1) + csc(theta2)]

Square side^2

This table is easy to understand. If P
is true, its negation   is false. If P
is false, then   is true.
 should be true when both P and
Q are true, and false otherwise:
 is true if either P is true or Q
is true (or both --- remember that we're
using "or" in the inclusive sense). It's
only false if both P and Q are false.
Here's the table for logical implication:
To understand why this table is the way
it is, consider the following example:
"If you get an A, then I'll give you a
dollar."
The statement will be true if I keep my
promise and false if I don't.
Suppose it's true that you get an A and
it's true that I give you a dollar. Since I
kept my promise, the implication
is true. This corresponds to the first line
in the table.
Suppose it's true that you get an A but
it's false that I give you a dollar. Since
I didn't keep my promise, the
implication is false. This corresponds to
the second line in the table.
What if it's false that you get an A?
Whether or not I give you a dollar, I
haven't broken my promise. Thus, the
implication can't be false, so (since this
is a two-valued logic) it must be true.
This explains the last two lines of the
table.
 means that P and Q
are equivalent. So the double
implication is true if P and Q are
both true or if P and Q are both false;
otherwise, the double implication is
false.
A Bond is a contract between two companies.
Companies or governments issue bonds because
they need to borrow large amounts of money.
They issue bonds and investors buy them
(thereby giving the people who issued the bond
money).
Bonds have a maturity date. This means that at
some point, the bond issuer has to pay back the
money to the investors. They also have to pay
the investors a little bit more than they paid for
the bond.
Amortization is the process of spreading out a
loan into a series of fixed payments. The loan is
paid off at the end of the payment schedule.
Some of each payment goes towards interest
costs and some goes toward your loan balance.
Over time, you pay less in interest and more
toward your balance.
An annuity is a long-term agreement
(contract) between you and an insurance
 company that allows you accumulate funds Note
on a tax-deferred basis for later payout in
the form of a guaranteed income that you H0 always has a symbol with an equal in
cannot outlive. ... When considering the it. Ha never has a symbol with an equal in it.
purchase of an annuity, don't be distracted The choice of symbol depends on the
away from its simplicity. wording of the hypothesis test. However, be
aware that many researchers (including one
Shares are units of equity ownership interest of the co-authors in research work) use = in
in a corporation that exist as a financial asset the null hypothesis, even with > or < as the
providing for an equal distribution in any symbol in the alternative hypothesis. This
residual profits, if any are declared, in the form practice is acceptable because we only
of dividends. Shareholders may also enjoy
make the decision to reject or not reject the
capital gains if the value of the company rises.
null hypothesis.
A stock is a general term used to describe
the ownership certificates of any company. An asymptote is a line that the graph of a
A share, on the other hand, refers to the function approaches as either x or y go to
stock certificate of a particular company. positive or negative infinity. There are three
Holding a particular company's share makes types of asymptotes: vertical, horizontal and
you a shareholder. Description: Stocks are oblique.
of two types—common and preferred.
A vertical asymptote is a vertical line, x=a
H0: The null hypothesis: It is a statement
A horizontal asymptote is a horizontal
about the population that either is believed
line, y=a
to be true or is used to put forth an
argument unless it can be shown to be
incorrect beyond a reasonable doubt.
Ha: The alternative hypothesis: It is a
claim about the population that is
contradictory to H0 and what we conclude
when we reject H0.
Since the null and alternative hypotheses
are contradictory, you must examine
evidence to decide if you have enough
evidence to reject the null hypothesis or not.
The evidence is in the form of sample data. An oblique or slant asymptote is an
asymptote along a line y=mx+b,
After you have determined which hypothesis
where  m≠0. Oblique asymptotes occur
the sample supports, you make adecision.
when the degree of the denominator of a
There are two options for a decision. They
rational function is one less than the degree
are “reject H0” if the sample information
of the numerator.
favors the alternative hypothesis or “do not
reject H0” or “decline to reject H0” if the For example, the function f(x) = x+1x has an
sample information is insufficient to reject oblique asymptote about the line y=x and a
the null hypothesis. vertical asymptote at the line x=0.
Mathematical Symbols Used in H0 and Ha:

H0 Ha

not equal (≠)

equal (=) or greater than (>) or less
than (<)

greater than or equal to

less than (<)
(≥) A probability distribution is a statistical
function that describes all the possible
values and likelihoods that a random
less than or equal to (≤) more than (>) variable can take within a given range.

Standard deviation is a number used to tell
how measurements for a group are spread
out from the average (mean or expected
value). A low standard deviation means that
most of the numbers are close to the
average, while a high standard deviation
means that the numbers are more spread
out.
Confidence Intervals. For a given statistic
calculated for a sample of observations (e.g.
the mean), the confidence interval is a
range of values around that statistic that are
believed to contain, with a certain probability
(e.g.95%), the true value of that statistic (i.e.
the population value). Strictly speaking a
95% confidence interval means that if we
were to take 100 different samples and
compute a 95% confidence interval for each
sample, then approximately 95 of the 100
confidence intervals will contain the true
mean value (μ).
An interest rate is a percentage charged on
the total amount you borrow or save. Even a
small change in interest rates can have a
big impact.
SCIENCE
Oceans cover more than 70 percent of the
Earth’s surface, and half of those waters are
at least 1.86 miles (3 km) deep.
As far as we know, the ocean is 36,200 feet
(11,000 m or almost 7 miles) deep at its
deepest point. On average, the ocean is
about 12,100 feet (3,688 m) deep.1
Animals living in the bathypelagic zone or
deeper never see sunlight.1 Some
organisms living there, such as vampire
squid and humpback anglerfish, produce
their own light.2
More than 99 percent of Earth’s inhabitable
space is in the open ocean.3
The ocean is divided into five zones: the
epipelagic zone, or upper open ocean
(surface to 650 feet deep); the mesopelagic
zone, or middle open ocean (650-3,300 feet
deep); the bathypelagic zone, or lower open
ocean (3,300-13,000 feet deep); the
abyssopelagic zone, or abyss (13,000-
20,000 feet deep); and the hadopelagic
zone, or deep ocean trenches (20,000 feet
and deeper).
The ocean produces more than 50 percent
of the air we breathe.
Humans have only explored 5 percent of the
world’s oceans. However, it is believed that
humans have impacted every part of the
ocean with waste and chemical pollution.
Comet nuclei are loose collections of ice,
dust and small rocky particles, ranging from
a few kilometers to tens of kilometers
across. They are composed of rock, dust,
ice and frozen gases such as carbon
monoxide, carbon dioxide, methane, and
ammonia.
When meteoroids enter Earth's
atmosphere (or that of another planet, like
Mars) at high speed and burn up, the
fireballs or “shooting stars” are called
meteors. When a meteoroid survives a trip
through the atmosphere and hits the
ground, it's called a meteorite.
an ecosystem is a community or group of
living organisms that live in and interact with
each other in a specific environment.
The Skin
The integumentary system is the largest
organ of the body, equaling 15-20% of our
total body mass. It acts as a barrier to
physical, chemical, and biological agents.
The skin prevents water loss and regulates
body temperature. It transmits the senses of
touch, pain, and pleasure and maintains
body temperature by secreting sweat. The
hair lubricates the scalp, which secretes
pheromones and cools or warms our heads.
The nails protect our fingers, which are a
major tool used for protecting ourselves and
providing ourselves with food, shelter, and
sensations. The skin leaves us most
vulnerable when it is compromised by open
wounds, allowing infectious agents into the
body.
Musculoskeletal System
Skeletal System (Bones, Joints)
The skeletal system supports and protects
the body’s internal organs. The ribs protect
the abdominal organs, which are both
vulnerable to injury and dangerous to our
well being when injured. The skull protects
our brain which controls all functions of our
bodies and minds. The skeleton provides
the framework and shape to our bodies. It
also connects to our major muscles to allow
movement. Bones store minerals such as
calcium and create blood cells in the soft
bone tissue called marrow. Bones can
break easily without enough calcium and
are subject to such diseases as arthritis;
cancers; scoliosis; osteoporosis, gout;
bursitis; fractures and breaks; and
amputations. The human skeleton is made up
of 206 bones
Muscular system (Cardiac, Smooth, and
Skeletal Muscles)
Cardiac muscles are found in the heart and
power the actions that maintain blood flow
through our body;
Smooth, or involuntary muscles are
found in the heart and organs, they
surround the internal organs and are
responsible for their movement such as
moving food through the digestive tract; and
Skeletal, or voluntary muscles, are
responsible for carrying out the actions and
movements caused by messages sent from
our brains through our nervous system.
Skeletal muscles are also responsible for
maintaining posture and producing heat.
When muscles lack appropriate levels of
oxygen they can cramp and tear, creating
pain. When not used they can atrophy and
become useless. Diseases and disorders of
the muscular system include muscular
dystrophy; fibromyalgia; tendinitis; multiple
sclerosis; and muscle strain or sprains;
hernias.
Lymphatic System (Red Bone Marrow,
Thymus, Lymphatic Vessels, Thoracic
Duct, Spleen, Lymph Nodes)
This system transports clean fluids in our
body back to the blood and drains excess
fluids and debris from the tissues and cells
of the body. It also houses the white blood
cells (lymphocytes) involved in protecting
our bodies from infection. Diseases and
disorders specific to the lymphatic system
include anemias; leukemia; tuberculosis of
the lymph nodes; Hodgkin’s disease; and
other blood disorders.
Respiratory System – (Nasal Cavity,
Pharynx, Larynx, Trachea, Bronchus,
Lung)
This system maintains our breathing. It
supplies the body with oxygen for cellular
respiration by collecting oxygen in the lungs
and disposes of carbon dioxide by breathing
out the waste product. It also provides our
functions of speech and smell. Diseases
and disorders of the respiratory system
include allergies; rhinitis and sinusitis;
laryngitis; COPD; pleurisy; bronchitis;
emphysema; asthma; sarcoidosis; fibrosis;
asbestosis; pulmonary vascular diseases;
fungal or bacterial infections of the lungs;
sleep apnea; tuberculosis of the respiratory
system; and lung, throat, and other
respiratory cancers.
Digestive system (Oral Cavity,
Esophagus, Liver, Stomach, Small
Intestine, Large Intestine, Rectum, Anus)
Beginning with our mouths, this system is
responsible for the breaking down and
absorption of nutrients and the elimination
of the waste not utilized by the body. It is
responsible for identifying which minerals,
vitamins, and other essentials from the
foods we eat can be absorbed and utilized
or stored by the body and which are to be
disposed of, and carrying out those
functions. Diseases and disorders of the
digestive system include diverticulitis;
gastritis; pancreatitis; cholecystitis; cirrhosis;
hepatitis; liver cancer; irritable bowel or
colon syndromes; Crone’s disease; and
hemorrhoids.
Nervous System– (Brain, Spinal Cord,
Nerves)
This system is actually made up of two
distinct parts; the central nervous system
(CNS) and the peripheral nervous system.
The central nervous system is made up of
the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral
nervous system is made up of all the nerves
that lead into and out of the CNS to other
parts of the body. The entire nervous
system controls all of the other systems of
the body, such as digestion and cardiac
rhythm, and responds to internal and
external changes, such as activating
muscles and breathing. It also transmits
information to the brain, such as pain and
external sensations.
Diseases and disorders of the nervous
system include paralysis; Parkinson’s
Disease; palsy, embolisms; thrombosis;
arteriosclerosis; polio; myelitis; ALS;
meningitis; Multiple Sclerosis; muscular tics;
Huntington’s Disease; cancers of the brain,
spinal cord or nerves; epilepsy, seizure
disorders; narcolepsy; migraine headaches;
peripheral neuropathy; and traumatic brain
injury.
Endocrine System– (Pineal Gland,
Pituitary Gland, Thyroid Gland, Thymus,
Adrenal Gland, Pancreas, Ovary, Testis)
The glands of the endocrine system secrete
chemicals called hormones that regulate
most of the processes in our bodies such as
growth, reproduction, metabolism, and even
the control of the amount of glucose in our
blood. Diseases and disorders of the
endocrine system include Type 1 & Type 2
Diabetes, hypoglycemia, Addison’s disease;
Cushing’s syndrome; hyper/hypothyroidism,
thyroid cancer; and other active cancers of
the endocrine glands.
Cardiovascular (Circulatory) System–
(Heart, Blood Vessels)
The heart, made of cardiac muscle, pumps
blood and blood vessels such as arteries
and veins, transport the blood to every part
of our body providing organs and muscles
with nourishment. The blood carries oxygen,
carbon dioxide, nutrients, waste and more
throughout the body. Diseases and
disorders associated with the cardiovascular
system include myocardial infarction;
coronary bypass surgery; arrhythmias; valve
replacements; pacemakers; transplants;
heart diseases (ischemic; hypertensive;
arteriosclerotic); hypertension; aneurysms;
fistulas; arteriosclerosis; anaphylaxis shock;
varicose veins; cold weather injuries; and
sarcomas of the blood vessels.
Urinary system (Kidney, Ureter, Urinary
Bladder, Urethra)
The Genitourinary System ( also
includes: prostate gland, penis, testis,
scrotum, ductus deferens)
This system is responsible for eliminating
waste products of metabolism and other
materials from the body that are of no use.
The system is also responsible for
maintaining the balanced fluid volume in our
bodies by regulating the amount of water
that is excreted, maintaining the
concentrations of electrolytes, and normal
pH levels of the blood. Diseases and
disorders of the urinary system include
nephrosis, bladder cancer, urethritis,
bedwetting (enuresis), urinary and kidney
stones and infections, renal failure,
incontinence, blood in the urine, and
interstitial cystitis.
Reproductive Systems
MALE (prostate gland, penis, testis,
scrotum, ductus deferens)
FEMALE (Mammary glands, ovary, uterus,
vagina, fallopian tube)
VA Equivalent for rating – Female
Reproductive System
(Male reproductive system is under
Genitourinary system)
The reproductive system mainly functions to
create human life. Ovaries produce female
sex hormones and eggs. Eggs are fertilized
in the fallopian tube by sperm then travel to
the uterus, which provides the site for
growth. The mammary glands produce milk
for the newborn. Diseases and disorders
associated with the female reproductive
systems include breast cancer, removal of
breast or lumpectomy; hysterectomy;
pregnancy complications; endometriosis;
ovarian or cervical cancers; and diseases or
injuries of the vulva, vagina, cervix, uterus,
fallopian tubes, or ovaries.
Igneous rocks are formed from the
solidification of molten rock material. Some
form below Earth's surface. Some form on
or above Earth's surface. We describe these
two basic types:
Intrusive igneous rocks crystallize below
Earth's surface, and the slow cooling that
occurs there allows large crystals to form.
Examples of intrusive igneous rocks are:
diabase, diorite, gabbro, granite, pegmatite,
and peridotite.
Extrusive igneous rocks erupt onto the
surface, where they cool quickly to form
small crystals. Some cool so quickly that
they form an amorphous glass. These rocks
include: andesite, basalt, dacite, obsidian, In fact, the word equinox comes from the
pumice, rhyolite, scoria, and tuff. Latin aequus (equal) and nox (night).
Metamorphic rocks have been modified by Solstice, either of the two moments in the
heat, pressure, and chemical processes, year when the Sun's apparent path is
usually while buried deep below Earth's farthest north or south from Earth's Equator.
surface. Exposure to these extreme At the winter solstice the day is the year's
conditions has altered the mineralogy, shortest, and at the summer solstice it is
texture, and chemical composition of the the year's longest.
rocks.
Nitrogen accounts for 78% of the
There are two basic types of metamorphic atmosphere, oxygen 21% and argon 0.9%.
rocks. Foliated metamorphic rocks have a Gases like carbon dioxide, nitrous
layered or banded appearance that is oxides, methane, and ozone are trace
produced by exposure to heat and directed gases that account for about a tenth of one
pressure. Examples of foliated rocks percent of the atmosphere.
include: gneiss, phyllite, schist, and slate
Example
Non-foliated metamorphic rocks do not Type Description
Organisms
have a layered or banded appearance.
Examples of nonfoliated rocks include:
hornfels, marble, novaculite, quartzite, and
Occurs when a parent Bacteria,
skarn.
cell splits into two Protists,
Fission
Sedimentary rocks are formed by the identical daughter cells Unicellular
accumulation of sediments. There are three of the same size. Fungi
basic types of sedimentary rocks.
Occurs when a parent
Clastic sedimentary rocks form from the Starfish,
organism breaks into
accumulation and lithification of mechanical some
fragments, or pieces,
weathering debris. Examples include: Fragmentation worms,
and each fragment
breccia, conglomerate, sandstone, fungi, plants,
develops into a new
siltstone, and shale. lichens
organism.
Chemical sedimentary rocks form when
dissolved materials preciptate from Occurs when a parent
solution. Examples include: chert, some cell forms a bubble-like
dolomites, flint, iron ore, limestones, and bud. The bud stays
rock salt. attached to the parent
cell while it grows and
Organic sedimentary rocks form from the Budding Yeast, Hydra
develops. When the bud
accumulation of plant or animal debris. is fully developed, it
Examples include: chalk, coal, diatomite, breaks away from the
some dolomites, and some limestones. parent cell and forms a
new organism.
Erosion is the geological process in which
earthen materials are worn away and
Occurs when new
transported by natural forces such as wind
Vegetative individuals are formed
or water. Plants
Reproduction without the production of
Weathering is the breaking down or seeds or spores.
dissolving of rocks and minerals on Earths
surface. Once a rock has been broken Any form of reproduction Many plants
down, a process called erosion transports Agamogenesis that does not involve a and some
the bits of rock and minerals away. Water, male gamete. animals.
acids, salt, plants, animals, and changes in
temperature are all agents of weathering
and erosion.
Vocabulary
At the equinox, Earth's two hemispheres
are receiving the sun's rays equally. Night
and day are often said to be equal in length.
 agamogenesis: Any form of
reproduction that does not involve a
male gamete.
 asexual reproduction:
Reproduction involving only one
parent; occurs without a fusion of
gametes; produces offspring that are
all genetically identical to the parent.
 budding: A form of asexual
reproduction in which a new
organism develops from an
outgrowth or bud on another one;
the bud may stay attached or break
free from the parent.
 clone: A genetically identical copy;
may be a gene, a cell or an
organism; an organism that is
genetically identical to its parent.
 diploid: The state of a cell
containing two sets of
chromosomes; in human somatic
cells, two sets is 46 (23 pairs)
chromosomes, 2n.
 fission: Asexual reproduction in
which a parent separates into two or
more individuals of about equal size.
 fragmentation: Asexual
reproduction in which the body
breaks into several fragments, which
later develop into complete
organisms.
 gamete: A sexually reproducing
organism’s reproductive cells, such
as sperm and egg cells.
 haploid: The state of a cell
containing one set of chromosomes;
in human gametes, one set is 23
chromosomes, n.
 meiosis: A type of cell division that
halves the number of chromosomes
and forms gametes.
 parthenogenesis: A form of asexual
reproduction where growth and
development of embryos occur
without fertilization.
 reproduction: Process by which
living organisms give rise to
offspring; making the next
generation.
 sexual reproduction: Reproduction
involving the joining of haploid
gametes, producing genetically
diverse individuals.
 spore: A haploid reproductive cell,
found in plants, algae and some
protists; can fully develop without
fusing with another cell.
 vegetative reproduction: A type of
asexual reproduction found in plants
where new individuals are formed
without the production of seeds or
spores.
 zygote: A fertilized egg; the first cell
of a new organism.
Tropical Wave
An inverted trough (an elongated area of
relatively low pressure) or cyclonic
curvature maximum moving east to west
across the tropics. These can lead to the
formation of a tropical cyclone. Also known
as an easterly wave.
Tropical Disturbance
A tropical weather system with organized
convection (generally 100-300 miles in
diameter) originating in the tropics or
subtropics, having a non-frontal migratory
character and maintaining its identity for 24
hours or longer. It may or may not be
associated with a detectable perturbation of
the wind field.
Tropical Cyclone
A tropical cyclone is a low pressure system
(not associated with a front) that develops
over tropical and sometimes sub-tropical
waters and has organized deep convection
with a closed wind circulation about a well-
defined center.
Extratropical Cyclone
A cyclone (of any intensity) for which the
primary energy source is baroclinic (i.e.,
results from the temperature contrast
between warm & cold air masses).
Post-Tropical Cyclone
A cyclone that no longer possesses
sufficient tropical characteristics to be
considered a tropical cyclone. Post-tropical
cyclones can continue to carry heavy rains
and high winds. Note: former tropical
cyclones that become extratropical and
remnant lows are 2 specific classes of post-
tropical cyclones.
Remnant Low
A class of post-tropical cyclone that no
longer possesses the convective
organization required of a tropical cyclone
and has maximum sustained winds of less
than 34 knots.
Subtropical Cyclone
A non-frontal low pressure system that has
characteristics of both tropical and
extratropical cyclones. Subtropical cyclones
originate over tropical or subtropical waters
and have a closed circulation about a well-
defined center. In comparison to tropical
cyclones, the maximum winds occur
relatively far from the center (greater than
60 nautical miles) and have a less
symmetric wind field and distribution of
convection.
Tropical Depression
A tropical depression is a tropical cyclone
that has maximum sustained surface winds
(one-minute average) of 38 mph (33 knots)
or less.
Tropical Storm
A tropical storm is a tropical cyclone that
has maximum sustained surface winds
ranging from 39-73 mph (34 to 63 knots).
Hurricane
A hurricane is a tropical cyclone that has
maximum sustained surface winds of 74
mph or greater (64 knots or greater).
NOTE: The number of Tropical Storms
and Hurricanes increases substantially in
August, peaks in mid-September and
decreases towards a minimum by early
November.
Tropical Storm Watch
A Tropical Storm Watch is issued when
Tropical Storm conditions, including winds
of 39-73 mph, pose a POSSIBLE threat to a
specified coastal area within 48 hours.
Tropical Storm Warning
A Tropical Storm Warning is issued when
Tropical Storm conditions, including winds
of 39-73 mph, are EXPECTED in a
specified coastal area within 36 hours or
less.
Hurricane Watch
A Hurricane Watch is issued when
sustained winds of 74 mph or higher are
POSSIBLE within the specified area of the
Watch. Because hurricane preparedness
activities become difficult once winds reach
tropical storm force, the Watch is issued 48
hours in advance of the onset of tropical
storm force winds.
Hurricane Warning
A Hurricane Warning is issued when
sustained winds of 74 mph or higher are
EXPECTED somewhere within the specified
area of the Warning. Because hurricane
preparedness activities become difficult
once winds reach tropical storm force, the
Warning is issued 36 hours in advance of
the onset of tropical storm force winds.
NOTE: A Hurricane Warning can remain in
effect when dangerously high water or a
combination of dangerously high water and
exceptionally high waves continues...even if
the winds have subsided below hurricane
intensity.
Eye Wall
An organized band of cumulonimbus clouds
immediately surrounding the center of the
tropical cyclone.
Storm Surge
An abnormal rise in sea level accompanying
a tropical cyclone. This is the difference in
height between observed level of the sea
surface and the level that would have
occurred in the absence of the storm. Storm
surge is usually estimated by subtracting
the normal or astronomical tide from the
observed storm tide.
Storm Tide
The water level rise resulting from the
astronomical tide combined with the storm
surge.
Genetic engineering is the process of
using recombinant DNA (rDNA) technology
to alter the genetic makeup of an organism.
Traditionally, humans have manipulated
genomes indirectly by controlling breeding
and selecting offspring with desired traits.
Fermentation is any metabolic process in
which microorganisms’ activity creates a
desirable change in food and beverages,
whether it’s increasing flavor, preserving
foodstuffs, providing health benefits, or
more.
Examples of Products Formed by
Fermentation
 Beer.
 Wine.
 Yogurt.
 Cheese.
 Certain sour foods containing lactic
acid, including sauerkraut, kimchi,
and pepperoni.
 Bread leavening by yeast.
 Sewage treatment.
 Some industrial alcohol production,
such as for biofuel
The word “ferment” comes from the Latin
verb “fervere,” which means “to boil.”
Ironically, fermentation is possible without
heat.
Lactic acid fermentation is a metabolic
process by which glucose or other six-
carbon sugars (also, disaccharides of six-
carbon sugars, e.g. sucrose or lactose) are
converted into cellular energy and the
metabolite lactate, which is lactic acid in
solution. This method makes sauerkraut,
pickles, kimchi, yogurt, and sourdough
bread.
Ethanol fermentation/alcohol
fermentation. Yeasts break pyruvate
molecules—the output of the metabolism of
glucose (C6H12O6) known as glycolysis—
in starches or sugars down into alcohol and
carbon dioxide molecules. Alcoholic
fermentation produces wine and beer.
Acetic acid fermentation. Starches and
sugars from grains and fruit ferment into
sour tasting vinegar and condiments.
Examples include apple cider vinegar, wine
vinegar, and kombucha.
Pyruvic acid, (CH3COCOOH), is an
organic acid that probably occurs in all
living cells. It ionizes to give a hydrogen ion
and an anion, termed pyruvate.
Biochemists use the
terms pyruvate and pyruvic acid almost
interchangeably. pyruvic acid;
acetoacetic acid. Chemical formulas
for pyruvic acid and acetoacetic acid.
Pyruvic acid supplies energy to living cells
through the citric acid cycle (also known as
the Krebs cycle ) when oxygen is present
(aerobic respiration); it ferments to produce
lactic acid when oxygen is lacking
( fermentation ). Pyruvate is the output of
the anaerobic metabolism of glucose known
as glycolysis.
Ethanol (Ethyl Alcohol) Ethanol, also
called alcohol, ethyl alcohol and
grain alcohol, is a clear, colorless liquid and
the principle ingredient
in alcoholic beverages like beer, wine or
brandy.
There is a couple different ways
to determine if a bond is ionic or covalent.
By definition, an ionic bond is between a
metal and a nonmetal, and a
covalent bond is between 2 nonmetals. So
you usually just look at the periodic table
and determine whether your compound is described using a number
made of a metal/nonmetal or is just 2 only. Examples of vectors are weight,
nonmetals. displacement, force, velocity, etc.
Ionic bonding is the complete transfer of Synthetic polymers are derived from
valence electron(s) between atoms. It is a petroleum oil, and made by scientists and
type of chemical bond that generates two engineers. Examples of synthetic
oppositely charged ions. In ionic bonds, polymers include nylon, polyethylene,
the metal loses electrons to become a polyester, Teflon, and epoxy.
positively charged cation, whereas the Natural polymers occur in nature and can
nonmetal accepts those electrons to be extracted. They are often water-based.
become a negatively charged anion.
Newton Mass (N)
A covalent bond is a chemical bond that
involves the sharing of electron pairs
between atoms. These electron pairs are
known as shared pairs or bonding pairs,
and the stable balance of attractive and
repulsive forces between atoms, when they
share electrons, is known as covalent
bonding.
Nonpolar covalent bonds are a type of
chemical bond where two atoms share a
pair of electrons with each other. Polar
covalent bonding is a type of
chemical bond where a pair of electrons is
unequally shared between two atoms.
Metallic bonds occur among metal atoms.
Whereas ionic bonds join metals to non-
metals, metallic bonding joins a bulk of
metal atoms. A sheet of aluminum foil and a
copper wire are both places where you
can see metallic bonding in action.
Polyethylene is a lightweight, durable
thermoplastic with variable crystalline
structure. It is one of the most widely
produced plastics in the world (tens of
millions of tons are produced worldwide
each year). Polyethylene is used in
applications ranging for films, tubes, plastic
parts, laminates, etc. (Also known as
PLASTIC)
Vector Quantities: Vector quantities refer
to the physical quantities characterized by
the presence of both magnitude as well as
direction. For example, displacement, force,
torque, momentum, acceleration, velocity,
etc.
A quantity that has magnitude but no
particular direction is described as scalar.
A quantity that has magnitude and acts in a
particular direction is described as vector.
Some examples of scalars are mass,
density, time, temperature, volume, energy,
speed, etc. These quantities can be