CENGR4120 – Flood Control and 1

Drainage Design

STORMWATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT

Learning Objectives:
1. Summarizes the extent to which stormwater affects the quality of receiving waters and
describes various environmental effects of stormwater runoff.
2. Discusses hydrology as it relates to stormwater quality, as storm events of different
magnitudes tend to impact receiving-water quality in different ways.
3. Introduces BMPs and presents descriptions of commonly used nonstructural and
structural BMPs.
4. Discuss the use of BMPs in stormwater management programs for newly developed
and existing communities and for construction projects.

ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF STORMWATER RUN-OFF

Table 15.1 shows that the urban runoff/storm sewers category was the leading source
of impairment for 13 percent of rivers and streams, 18 percent of lakes, and 32 percent of
estuaries in the United States. Relative to other sources, urban runoff/storm sewers was the
second leading source of impairment for estuaries, third leading source for lakes, and fourth
leading source for rivers and streams.

Table 15.2 lists typical receiving-water problems associated with the long-term accumulation
of pollutants and short-term storm events.
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Pollutants in Urban Stormwater

Although stormwater is often viewed by the public as being as clean as rain, it in fact
contains significant quantities of the same types of constituents more commonly associated
with municipal and/or industrial wastewater. A summary of some of the common constituents
in urban stormwater runoff, their sources, and their effects is provided in Table 15.3.
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An example of the effects that stormwater may have on water quality in urban receiving waters
is shown in Table 15.4.

Table 15.5 shows the contaminant percentage contributions of the different flow sources.

Effects on Streams
In addition to the increases in various pollutant concentrations, urbanization results in
increases in the frequency and magnitude of runoff events and decreases in stream base flows.
These changes result in secondary effects that include alteration of the channel cross-section
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and stream alignment, increased erosion, and stream sediment, and, ultimately, degradation of
the aquatic habitat.
➢ Flow Regime Alteration - Urbanization decreases the availability of pervious surfaces
and surface storage capacity, resulting in an increase in the frequency and severity of
flooding.
➢ Habitat Effects - Changes in flow regime, the resulting changes in stream morphology,
and the increase in pollutants generally degrade the habitat for aquatic biota. The quality
of an aquatic habitat may be measured by the number of organisms, number of species,
and types of species present and surviving in the water.

HYDROLOGY FOR STORMWATER QUALITY CONTROL

Small, frequently occurring storm events account for a significant portion of the total
annual pollutant load from urban drainage basins. Thus, capture and treatment of the
stormwater from such events is the recommended design approach for water-quality
enhancement, as opposed to facility designs that focus on less-frequent, larger events. A design
that not only controls the large events, but that also acknowledges the importance of small ones,
is both possible and desirable.

The basis for developing appropriate stormwater controls is the understanding that specific
receiving-water problems are associated with specific rain-depth categories. To identify which
rain-depth categories are important for which receiving-water problems, long-term evaluations
are needed.

Specific Rain Depths

➢ Less than 0.3 in. (8 mm) - These rains account for most of the events (about 60
percent), but little of the runoff volume (5 to 9 percent) and are therefore the easiest to
control. They produce much lower pollutant mass discharges and probably have less
effect on receiving waters than do other rains.
➢ 0.3 to 4 in. - These rains account for most of the runoff volume (about 85 percent) and
produce moderate to high flows. They make up about 40 percent of annual rain events.
These rains occur approximately every two weeks, on average, and subject the receiving
waters to frequent high-pollutant loads.
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➢ More than 4 in. - These rains probably produce the most damaging flows from a habitat
destruction standpoint and occur, on average, once every several months. These
recurring high flows establish a high energy gradient for the stream and cause stream
banks to become unstable. Fewer than 2 percent of rainfall events are in this category,
but they are responsible for about 5 to 9 percent of the annual runoff and pollutant
discharges.
➢ Very large rains - This category is seldom represented in field studies due to the rarity
of large events and the typically short duration of most field observations. These rains
occur only, on average, once every several decades or less often, and produce extremely
large flows.

These findings and others have resulted in recognition that the design of stormwater treatment
facilities should be based on flows and volumes different from those used in the design of
conveyance structures. The volume used to size treatment facilities is called the water quality
capture volume, which corresponds to the volume of runoff expected to result from a frequently
occurring storm event, where the specific frequency is typically defined by local regulations.
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STORMWATER QUALITY BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

Best management practice (BMP), as applied to urban runoff management, is a term adopted
in the 1970s to represent actions and practices that could be used to reduce urban runoff flow
rates and constituent concentrations. An effective stormwater management program consists of
a series of BMPs that act in concert to reduce the negative impacts of stormwater.

BMPs may be classified as structural or nonstructural. Structural BMPs are facilities designed
to reroute, temporarily detain, or treat stormwater prior to discharge into a receiving body.
Nonstructural BMPs include a variety of institutional and educational practices designed to
reduce the pollutant loads entering the stormwater system.

Most commonly used Structural BMPs

➢ Porous Pavement and Porous Pavement Detention - Modular porous pavement,
which is shown in Figure 15.2, consists of open-void concrete block units placed on
gravel bedding. Surface voids in the blocks are filled with sand or a sandy turf. The
purpose of porous pavement is to reduce the imperviousness of a site by encouraging
rain falling directly on the porous pavement to infiltrate.
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➢ Porous pavement detention - (see Figure 15.3) is like porous pavement in that many
of the same types of modular block are used, the openings in the blocks are filled with
sand, and a granular bedding is used. However, porous pavement designed to function
as detention differs from basic porous pavement in a few ways. With porous pavement
detention, the porous area is slightly depressed [on the order of 1 to 2 in. (25 to 50 mm)]
with respect to the surrounding pavement to create a shallow ponding area for storage
of the water quality capture volume.
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➢ Grass Buffer Areas - A grass buffer, or filter strip, is a uniformly graded and densely
vegetated area of turf grass. Sheet flows over the grass tend to infiltrate, and
contaminants in the runoff tend to filter out and settle.

➢ Grass Swales - Grass swales, such as the one shown in Figure 15.4, are small
drainageways that convey concentrated flows. They may be used to convey flow along
roadway edges in lieu of curb and gutter, through park settings, and away from parking
areas.

➢ Stream Buffers and Greenways - greenways can provide important recreational

benefits and help protect the stream riparian zone and aquatic habitat. Although
greenways are commonly described as areas that provide water quality treatment by
filtering stormwater, little filtering occurs because most stormwater enters the stream
through channels and underground pipes.
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➢ Porous Landscape Detention - Like porous pavement detention, porous landscape

detention consists of slightly depressed areas for temporary detainment of all or a
portion of the water quality capture volume. As its name implies, however, porous
landscape detention is provided in landscaped rather than paved areas. This can be
easily integrated into islands in parking lots, roadway medians, and roadside swale
features. (see Figure 15.6)

➢ Extended Detention Basins - For development sites or drainage basins of moderate

area, with significant water quality capture volume, use of an extended detention basin
(see Figure 15.7) may be appropriate. Extended detention basins can also be used to
control peak runoff rates for larger storm events if they provide additional storage
volume above the pool level associated with the water quality capture volume.

➢ Sand Filter Extended Detention Basins - A sand filter extended detention basin is an
extended detention basin with the addition of a sand filter bed and a gravel layer with
an underdrain system beneath.

➢ Wet Detention Ponds - A wet detention pond (see Figure 15.8) is a structural control
appropriate for large drainage basins. This type of pond has a permanent pool of water
below the invert of its outlet structure that can be depleted only through evaporation
and infiltration.
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➢ Construction Wetland Basins - A constructed wetland basin is a shallow retention

pond or wet detention pond. This type of control is appropriate for large drainage areas
where a continual or nearly continual base flow is present to sustain the growth of
rushes, willows, cattails, and similar wetland species.

➢ Constructed Wetland Channels - A constructed wetland channel, like a constructed

wetland basin, is a control with a continual base flow that sustains reeds, willows,
rushes, and similar wetland species.

➢ Covering of Storage and Handling Areas - In locations where toxic or non-toxic

potential pollutants can accumulate on exterior surfaces, such as loading docks or
outdoor storage and stockpiling facilities, covering the area can eliminate or greatly
reduce stormwater wash-off or wind erosion of the accumulated materials.

➢ Spill Containment and Control - Accidental spills are prone to occur at facilities
where bulk liquids are handled and dispensed, such as gasoline filling stations. Spills
can have devastating effects on water quality and aquatic ecosystems; therefore, spill
containment and control facilities are required on such sites.

➢ Critical Source Area Control - Special controls are needed in many critical source
areas (ultra-urban areas) such as vehicle service areas, heavy-equipment storage and
maintenance yards, scrap yards, and areas having frequent, high levels of vehicle
activity (convenience stores, for example).

➢ Source Area Biofiltration Devices - In many situations, significant stormwater control

is possible by altering the microscale drainage paths around structures to allow
enhanced infiltration. Rain gardens are an example in which roof runoff is directed to
depressed lawn areas.

➢ Use of Cisterns and Rain Barrels - On-site temporary storage of runoff from relatively
clean areas (such as most roofs and residential driveways) in underground cisterns or
simple rain barrels allows this water to be used for irrigation during dry periods.
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Non-Structural BMPs
Nonstructural controls are often called source controls or pollution prevention because they
seek to reduce or eliminate the introduction of contaminants into stormwater. They cannot
wholly eliminate pollution—and thus must be implemented along with structural controls—
but they can make structural controls more effective by reducing the loadings that structural
controls must handle.

Nonstructural controls take many forms, but each can be categorized by the purpose it serves:
➢ Waste minimization
➢ Good housekeeping
➢ Preventive maintenance
➢ Exposure minimization
➢ Spill prevention
➢ Public education
➢ Mitigation

Nonstructural BMP practices

Catch Basin Cleaning - The typical catch basin configuration consists of an appropriately
sized sump with a hood over the outlet pipe. Stormwater bed load and a low to moderate
number of suspended solids (about 30 to 45 percent of the annual load) are trapped in the sump.
The larger fraction of the sediment in the flowing stormwater will be trapped in preference to
finer material, which has greater amounts of associated pollutants.

Street Cleaning - Basic Street cleaning should be conducted about four times a year in
industrial and other areas having obvious high dirt loadings in streets. Additional street cleaning
should be scheduled in heavily vegetated areas to remove leaves before rains wash them into
the drainage system.

Inappropriate Discharge Control - Screening procedures for identifying and correcting

inappropriate discharges into storm drainage systems are also needed. Many separate storm
drainage systems have flowing water during dry weather, with some discharging highly
polluted water such as raw sewage, cleaning waters, or industrial wastewaters.
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Public Education Programs - Public education is an important and common nonstructural

component of many stormwaters control programs. Education efforts commonly include
advertising to inform the public about nonpoint-source water-pollution problems and help them
make proper decisions concerning the protection of runoff quality. Public use of pesticides and
fertilizers and disposal of pet wastes and household toxic wastes are examples of areas in which
such education can be beneficial.

APPROACHES TO APPLYING BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

Implementation of Controls in Newly Developing Area

Stormwater controls established at the time of development can take advantage of
simple grading and site layout options that provide significant stormwater benefits at little cost.
The following list describes stormwater management scenarios likely to be effective under
various conditions for new developments.

➢ Low- and very low-density residential developments [greater than 2 ac (0.8 ha) lot
sizes] - Most stormwater should be infiltrated on-site by directing runoff from paved
and roof areas to small bioretention areas (retention areas consisting of a planted soil
bed over an under drained sand layer).

➢ Medium-density developments [¼ to 2-acre (0.1 to 0.8 ha) lot sizes] - Paved areas
should be minimized, and porous pavements and paver blocks should be used for
walkways, driveways, overflow parking areas, and so forth.

➢ High-density developments - Combined sanitary- and storm-sewer systems can be

effectively used in these areas, provided they are legally acceptable.

Four-step process for the selection of structural controls for newly developed and
redeveloped urban areas.

Step 1: Employ runoff reduction practices - One of the most effective ways of reducing
runoff peaks and volumes from urbanizing areas is to minimize the directly connected
impervious areas that contribute to the stormwater conveyance system. In so doing, infiltration
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of rainfall is promoted, with consequent reductions in pollution and conveyance system costs.
Low-impact development (LID) uses a variety of strategies intended to minimize the amount of
stormwater and stormwater pollution from newly developing areas.

Step 2: Provide water quality capture volume - Provision of temporary storage for
stormwater is a fundamental requirement for any site where stormwater quality is to be
effectively addressed. The purpose of temporary storage is to permit settling of suspended
sediments and to provide sufficient residence time for the settling to be effective.

Step 3: Stabilize Drainageways - Erosion of drainageways, whether natural or man-made, is

a major source of contaminating sediments and associated pollutants such as phosphorus.
Increases in peak rates and volumes of runoff caused by urbanization can lead to uncontrolled
bed and bank erosion. Stabilization of channels may be necessary to minimize these potential
problems, and can be accomplished in three ways:

➢ Construct a grass-, riprap-, or concrete-lined channel - This method is the traditional

engineering approach and can nearly eliminate bed and bank erosion completely.
➢ Avoid bed degradation using grade control structures and by reshaping sharp
channel bends and steep banks - These stabilization efforts should be accomplished
in such a way as to minimize disturbances to desirable vegetation and habitat.
➢ Employ a constructed wetland channel - This approach gives special attention to
stormwater quality and is one form of a structural control.

Step 4: Consider the needs for additional controls - f a site is being developed or redeveloped
for industrial or commercial purposes; specialized types of controls may be needed. Included
among these are spill containment and control facilities and protection of storage and handling
areas.

Stormwater Controls Suitable for Retrofitting in Existing Areas

The ability to construct new stormwater controls in developed areas is severely limited
by both the availability of suitable controls and the extent of control that can be accomplished.
In addition, retrofitting a control is typically much more costly than if the same control were
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installed at the time of development. Retrofitting stormwater controls is generally limited to

the practices shown in the following list.

Public works practices

➢ Enhanced street cleaning
➢ Increased catch basin cleaning
➢ Repairing trash hoods in catch basins
➢ Installing catch basin inserts
➢ Rebuilding inlets to create catch basins
➢ Litter control campaigning, with increases in availability of trash receptacles and trash
pickup frequency
➢ Public environmental education campaigning
➢ Pet waste control enforcement
➢ Household toxicant collection
➢ Enhanced enforcement of erosion control requirements
➢ Modification of public place landscaping maintenance

Infiltration practices at source areas

➢ Routing rooftop drains toward pervious areas
➢ Amending soils with compost
➢ Modification of residential and commercial landscaping
➢ Providing French drains for collection of roof runoff where pervious area is limited
➢ Replacement of pavement with porous paver blocks

Outfall wet detention ponds

• Modification of existing dry detention ponds for enhanced pollution control
• Enhancement of performance at existing wet ponds
• Construction of new wet detention ponds in available areas

Control runoff at critical source areas (such as vehicle service facilities, scrap yards, etc.)
• Use of sand perimeter filters
• Construction of underground sedimentation/filtration units
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Construction Project Best Management Practices

Construction activities that disturb natural soils and protective vegetation make soils
more prone to erosion by wind and water. Eroded sediments may be transported onto roadway
surfaces and then spread through the site’s neighborhood by passing vehicles. The sediment
can then clog newly constructed inlets, storm sewers, and natural channels and can cause
disruptions to natural aquatic life. Commonly used practices for addressing each element are
described in the subsections that follow.

➢ Erosion control measures - Erosion control measures should be used to limit erosion
of soil from disturbed areas on a construction site. Mulching is the application of plant
residues or other materials to the soil surface to provide temporary stabilization. Mulch
may be applied to surfaces that are exposed for a short time or during seeding after final
grades are established. Mulch protects the soil from rainfall impact, retards overland
flow, and promotes the growth of vegetation by protecting the seed and fostering
germination.

Revegetation is the establishment of a viable plant community. Temporary

vegetation is typically required on surfaces that will be exposed for one year or
longer.

➢ Sediment transport control measures - Sediment transport control measures are used
to limit transport of sediment to off-site properties and downstream receiving waters.
One such control measure is a check dam, which consists of a small temporary
obstruction in a ditch or waterway used to prevent sediment transport by reducing the
velocity of flow.

A temporary slope drain is a flexible or rigid conduit used to effectively

transport runoff down disturbed slopes.

Diversions are measures used temporarily or permanently to divert water

around an area that is either under construction, being stabilized, or prone to
erosion.
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A silt fence is a temporary barrier used to filter sediment from sheet flow.

Temporary sediment traps are small impoundments that detain runoff from
small drainage areas [less than 5 ac (2 ha)] so that sediments can settle out.

A sediment basin is a temporary impoundment used to detain runoff from an

area of up to approximately 100 ac (40 ha) to settle sediments before discharging
stormwater from the construction site.

➢ Drainageway Protection - measures prevent damage to streams and other

drainageways that can result from erosion and sedimentation on a construction site.

Temporary channel diversions can be used to keep flowing water away from
construction activities, thus significantly reducing sediment movement.

Storm sewer inlets that are in operation during construction must be protected to prevent
sediment in construction site runoff from entering the conveyance system. The most common
technique is to construct a temporary filter around inlets using straw bales, filter fabric, or
rocks.