Construction and Types of Armature Windings in Synchronous Generators

Unit IV Construction, Operation and Voltage Regulation of Synchronous generator
Construction of 3 Phase Alternator or Synchronous Generator
Alternator consists of two main parts, namely the stator and the rotor. The stator is the stationary
part of the machine. It carries the armature winding in which the voltage is generated. The output
of the machine is taken from the stator. The rotor is the rotating part of the machine. The rotor
produces the main field flux.
Stator Construction
The stationary part of the machine is called Stator. It includes various parts like stator frame,
stator core, stator windings and cooling arrangement. They are explained below in detail.
Stator Frame
It is the outer body of the machine made of cast iron, and it protects the inner parts of the
machine.
Stator Core
The stator core is made of silicon steel material. It is made from a number of stamps which are
insulated from each other. Its function is to provide an easy path for the magnetic lines of force
and accommodate the stator winding.
Stator Winding
Slots are cut on the inner periphery of the stator core in which 3 phase or 1 phase winding is
placed. Enameled copper is used as winding material. The winding is star connected. The
winding of each phase is distributed over several slots. When the current flows in a distributed
winding it produces an essentially sinusoidal space distribution of EMF.
Rotor Construction
The rotating part of the machine is called Rotor. There are two types of rotor construction,
namely the salient pole type and the cylindrical rotor type.
Salient Pole (Non cylindrical) Rotor
The term salient means projecting. Thus, a salient pole rotor consists of poles projecting out from
the surface of the rotor core. Construction of a salient pole rotor is as shown in the figure. The
projected poles are made up from laminations of steel.
 Salient pole rotors have large diameter and shorter axial length.
 They are generally used in lower speed electrical machines, say 100 RPM to 1500 RPM.
www.Jntufastupdates.com 1
 Flux distribution is relatively poor than non-salient pole rotor, hence the generated EMF
waveform is not as good as cylindrical rotor.
 Salient pole rotors generally need damper windings to prevent rotor oscillations during
operation.
 Salient pole synchronous generators are mostly used in hydro power plants.
Non-salient pole (cylindrical) rotor
Non-salient pole rotors are cylindrical in shape having parallel slots on it to place rotor windings.
It is made up of solid steel. The construction of non-salient pole rotor (cylindrical rotor) is as
shown in figure below. Sometimes, they are also called as drum rotor.
 They are smaller in diameter but having longer axial length.

 Cylindrical rotors are used in high speed electrical machines, usually 1500 RPM to 3000
RPM.
 Windage loss as well as noise is less as compared to salient pole rotors.
 Their construction is robust as compared to salient pole rotors.
 Number of poles is usually 2 or 4.
 Damper windings are not needed in non-salient pole rotors.
 Flux distribution is sinusoidal and hence gives better EMF waveform.
 Non-salient pole rotors are used in nuclear, gas and thermal power plants.
Armature Winding
Armature windings of alternators are different from that of DC machines. Basically, three
phase alternators carry three sets of windings arranged in the slots in such a way that there exists
a phase difference of 120° between the induced EMF in them. In a DC machine, winding is
closed while in alternators winding is open i.e., two ends of each set of the winding are brought
out.
In three phase alternators, the six terminals are brought out which are finally connected in star or
delta and then the three terminals are brought out. Each set of windings represents winding per
phase and induced EMF in each set is called induced EMF per phase denoted as Eph. All the
coils used for one phase must be connected in such a way that their EMF helps each other. And
overall design should be in such a way that the waveform of an induced EMF is almost
sinusoidal in nature.
1) Conductor: The part of the wire, which is under the influence of the magnetic field and
responsible for the induced EMF, is called active length of the conductor. The conductors are
placed in the armature slots.
2) Turn: A conductor in one slot, when connected to a conductor in another slot forms a turn. So
two conductors constitute a turn. This is shown in the below figure (a).
3) Coil: As there are a number of turns, for simplicity the number of turns are grouped together
to form a coil. Such a coil is called a multi-turn coil. A coil may consist of single turn called
single turn coil. Figure (b) shows a multi-turn coil.
4) Coil Side: Coil consists of many turns. Part of the coil in each slot is called coil side of a coil
as shown in the above figure (b).
5) Pole Pitch: It is centre to centre distance between the two adjacent poles. We have seen that
for one rotation of the conductors, 2 poles are responsible for 360° electrical of EMF, 4 poles are
responsible for 720° electrical of EMF and so on. So 1 pole is responsible for 180° electrical of
induced EMF
Key Point: So 180° electrical is also called one pole pitch.
Practically how many slots are under one pole which is responsible for 180° electrical, are
measured to specify the pole pitch.
For example let us consider 2 poles, 18 slots armature of an alternator. Then under 1 pole, there
are 18/2 i.e. 9 slots. So pole pitch is 9 slots or 180° electrical. This means 9 slots are responsible
for producing a phase difference of 180° between the EMFS induced in different conductors.
This number of slots/pole is denoted as 'n'.
Pole pitch = 180° electrical = slots per pole (no. of slots/P) = n
6) Slot angle (β): The phase difference contributed by one slot in degrees electrical is called slot
angle As slots per pole contributes 180° electrical which is denoted as 'n', we can write,
1 slot angle = 180°/n

β = 180°/n
In the above example,
n = 18/2 = 9, while β = 180°/n = 20°
Note: This means that if we consider an induced EMF in the conductors which are placed in the
slots which are adjacent to each other, there will exist a phase difference of in between them.
While if EMF induced in the conductors which are placed in slots which are 'n' slots distance
away, there will exist a phase difference of 180° in between them.
Types of Armature Windings in Alternator
The different types of armature windings in alternators are,
1) Single layer and double layer winding
2) Full pitch and short pitch winding
3) Concentrated and distributed winding
Single Layer and Double Layer Winding:

If a slot consists of only one coil side, winding is said to be a single layer. This is shown in figure
(a). While there are two coil sides per slot, one, at the bottom and one at the top the winding is
called double layer as shown in figure (b).A lot of space gets wasted in single layer hence in
practice generally double layer winding is preferred.
Full Pitch and Short Pitch Winding:

As seen earlier, one pole pitch is 180° electrical. The value of 'n', slots per pole indicates how
many slots are contributing 180° electrical phase difference. So if coil side in one slot is
connected to a coil side in another slot which is one pole pitch distance away from the first slot,
the winding is said to be full pitch winding and coil is called full pitch coil. For example, in 2
poles, 18 slots alternator, the pole pitch is n = 18/2 = 9 slots. So if coil side in slot No. 1 is
connected to coil side in slot No. 10 such that two slots No. 1 and No. 10 are one pole pitch or n
slots or 180° electrical apart, the coil is called full pitch coil. Here we can define one more term
related to a coil called coil span.
Coil Span:
It is the distance on the periphery of the armature, between two coil sides of a coil. It is usually
expressed in terms of number of slots or degrees electrical. So if coil span is 'n' slots or 180°
electrical the coil is called 180° full pitch coil. This is shown in the figure to left. As against this
if coils are used in such a way that coil span is slightly less than a pole pitch i.e. less than 180°
electrical, the coils are called, short pitched coils or fractional pitched coils. Generally, coils
are shorted by one or two slots.
So in 18 slots, 2 pole alternator instead of connecting a coil side in slot No 1 to slot No.10, it is
connected to a coil side in slot No.9 or slot No. 8, the coil is said to be short pitched coil and
winding are called short pitch winding. This is shown in the below figure.
Advantages of Short Pitch Coils:

In actual practice, short pitch coils are used as it has following advantages,
 The length required for the end connections of coils is less i.e. the inactive length of
winding is less and so less copper is required. Hence economical
 Short pitching eliminates high frequency harmonics which distort the sinusoidal nature of
EMF Hence waveform of an induced EMF is more sinusoidal due to short pitching.
 As high frequency harmonics get eliminated, eddy current and hysteresis losses which
depend on frequency also get minimized. This increases the efficiency
Concentrated and distributed winding:
In three phase alternators, we have seen that there are three different sets of windings, each for a
phase. So depending upon the total number of slots and number of poles, we have certain slots
per phase available under each pole. This is denoted as 'm'.
m = Slots per pole per phase = n/number of phases
= n/3 (generally no. of phases is 3)
For example in 18 slots, 2 pole alternator we have,
n = 18/2 = 9
Therefore m = 9/3
So we have 3 slots per pole per phase available. Now let 'x' number of conductors per phase are
to be placed under one pole. And we have 3 slots per pole per phase available. But if all 'x'
conductors per phase are placed in one slot keeping remaining 2 slots per pole per phase empty
then the winding is called concentrated winding.
Key Point: So in a concentrated winding, all conductors or coils belonging to a phase are placed
in one slot under every pole.
But in practice, an attempt is always made to use all the 'm' slots per pole per phase available for
distribution of the winding. So if 'x' conductors per phase are distributed amongst the 3 slots per
phase available under every pole, the winding is called distributed winding. So in distributed
type of winding all the coils belonging to a phase are well distributed over the 'm' slots per phase,
under every pole. Distributed winding makes the waveform of the induced EMF more sinusoidal
in nature. Also in concentrated winding due to a large number of conductors per slot, heat
dissipation is poor.
Key Point: So in practice, double layer, short pitched and distributed type of armature
winding is preferred for the alternators.
Pitch Factor or Coil Span Factor (Kc):
In practice, short pitch coils are preferred. So coil is formed by connecting one coil side to
another which is less than one pole pitch away. So actual coil span is less than 180°. The coil is
generally shorted by one or two slots.
Key Point: The angle by which coils are short pitched is called angle of short pitch denoted as
'α'.
α = Angle by which coils are short pitched.
As coils are shorted in terms of the number of slots i.e.
either by one slot, two slots and so on and slot angle is β
then the angle of short pitch is always a multiple of the slot
angle β.
α = β x Number of slots by which coils are short pitched
(or)
α = (180° - Actual coil span of the coils)
Angle of short pitch
It is defined as the ratio of resultant EMF when the coil is short pitch to the result EMF when the
coil is full pitched. It is always less than one.
Where α = Angle of short pitch

Distribution Factor (Kd):
Similar to full pitch coils, concentrated winding is also rare in practice. Attempt made to use all
the slots available under a pole for the winding which makes the nature of the induced EMF
more sinusoidal. Such a winding is called distributed winding.
Consider 18 slots 2 pole alternator. So slots per pole i.e. n = 9.
m = Slots per pole per phase = 3
β = 180°/9 = 20°
The distribution factor is defined as the ratio of the resultant EMF when coils are distributed to
the resultant EMF when coils are concentrated. It is always less than one.
Where m = Slots per pole per phase
β = Slot angle = 180°/n
n = Slots per pole
EMF Equation of Alternator

We know that Synchronous Generator or Alternator will generate an EMF. The following is
the derivation of EMF equation of Synchronous Generator or Alternator.
Let Φ = Flux per pole, in Wb
P = Number of poles
N = Synchronous speed in RPM
f = Frequency of induced EMF in Hz
Z = Total number of conductors
Zph = Conductors per phase connected in series
Zph = Z/3 as number of phases = 3
Consider a single conductor placed in a slot.
The average value of EMF induced in a conductor = dΦ/dt
For one revolution of a conductor,
EAvg per conductor = (Flux cut in one revolution/Time taken for one revolution)
Total flux cut in one revolution is Φ x P.
Time taken for one revolution is 60/Ns seconds.
... EAvg per conductor = ΦP / (60/Ns) …… (1)
= ΦPNs/60
But f = PNs/120
Therefore PNs/60= 2f
Substation in (1),
EAvg per conductor = 2 f Φ volts
Assume full pitch winding for simplicity i.e. this conductor is connected to a conductor which
is 180o electrical apart. So there two EMFs will try to set up a current in the same direction i.e.
the two EMF are helping each other and hence resultant EMF per turn will be twice the EMF
induced in a conductor.
... EMF per turn = 2 x (EMF per conductor)
= 2 x (2 f Φ)
= 4 f Φ volts
Let Tph be the total number of turns per phase connected in series. Assuming concentrated
winding, we can say that a are placed in single slot per pole per phase (So induced EMF's in all
turns will be in phase as placed in a single slot. Hence net EMF per phase will be algebraic sum
of the EMF'S per turn.
Average Eph = Tph x (Average EMF per turn)
Average Eph = Tph x 4 f Φ

But in AC circuits RMS value of an alternating quantity is used for the analysis. The form factor
is 1.11 of sinusoidal EMF
Form Factor, Kf = (R.M.S.)/Average = 1.11 ......... for sinusoidal
... R.M.S. value of Eph = Kf x Average value
Therefore, the EMF equation of alternator is given by
E = 4.44 x f Φ Tph volts ........... (2)
Note: This is the basic EMF equation for an induced EMF per phase for full pitch, concentrated
type of winding.
Where Tph = Number of turns per phase
Tph = Zph /2 ....... as 2 conductors constitute 1 turn
But as mentioned earlier, the winding used for the alternators is distributed and short pitch hence
EMF induced slightly gets affected. Let us see now the effect of distributed and short pitch type
of winding on the EMF equation.
So generalized expression for the derivation of EMF equation of Synchronous
generator or Alternator can be written as
Eph = 4.44 f ΦTph Kc Kd volts
But For full pitch coil, Kc = 1 and For concentrated winding Kd = 1
Armature Reaction in Synchronous Generator
When the load is connected to the alternator, the armature winding of the alternator carries a
current. Every current carrying conductor produces its own flux so armature of the alternator also
produces its own flux, when carrying a current. So there are two fluxes present in the air gap, one
due to armature current while second is produced by the filed winding called main flux. The flux
produced by the armature is called armature flux.
Note: So effect of the armature flux on the main flux affecting its value and the distribution is
called armature reaction.
The effect of the armature flux not only depends on the magnitude of the current flowing through
the armature winding but also depends on the nature of the power factor of the load connected to
the alternator. Now we will study the effect of nature of the load power factor on the armature
reaction.
Unity Power Factor Load
Consider a purely resistive load connected to the alternator, having unity power factor. As
induced EMF. Eph drives a current of Iaph and load power factor is unity, Eph and Iph are in phase
with each other.
If Φf is the main flux produced by the field winding responsible for producing Eph then Eph lags
Φf by 90o. Now current through armature Ia, produces the armature flux say Φa. So flux Φa and
Ia are always in the same direction.
This relation between Φf , Φa, Eph and Iaph can be shown in the phasor diagram. (See Fig.)
It can be seen from the phasor diagram that there exists a phase difference of 90o between the
armature flux and the main flux. The waveforms for the two fluxes are also shown in the above
Fig. From the waveforms it can be seen that the two fluxes oppose each other on the left half of
each pole while assist each other on the right half of each pole. Hence average flux in the air gap
remains constant but its distribution gets distorted.
Note : Hence such distorting effect of armature reaction under unity p.f. condition of the load is
called cross magnetizing effect of armature reaction.
Due to such distortion of the flux, there is small drop in the terminal voltage of the alternator.
Zero Lagging Power Factor Load
Consider a purely inductive load connected to the alternator having zero lagging power factor.
This indicates that Iaph driven by Eph lags Eph by 90o which is the power factor angle Φ. Induced
EMF Eph lags main flux Φf by 90o while Φa is in the same direction as that of Ia. So the phasor
diagram and the waveforms are shown in the below Fig. It can be seen from the phasor diagram
that the armature flux and the main flux are exactly in opposite direction to each other.
Note: So armature flux tries to cancel the main flux. Such an effect of armature reaction is called
demagnetizing effect of the armature reaction.
As this effect causes reduction in the main flux, the terminal voltage drops. This drop in the
terminal voltage is more than the drop corresponding to the unity p.f. load.
Zero Leading Power Factor Load

Consider a purely capacitive load connected to the alternator having zero leading power factor.
This means that armature current Iaph driven by E ph, leads Eph by 90o, which is the power factor
angle Φ. Induced EMG=F Eph lags Φ f by 90o while Iaph and Φa are always in the same direction.
The phasor diagram and the waveforms are shown in the below Fig.
It can be seen from the phasor diagram and waveforms shown in the above Fig, the armature flux
and the main field flux are in the same direction i.e. they are helping each other. This results into
the addition in main flux.
Note : Such an effect of armature reaction due to which armature flux assists field flux is called
magnetizing effect of the armature reaction.
As this effect adds the flux to the main flux, greater EMF gets induced in the armature. Hence
there is increase in the terminal voltage for leading power factor loads.
For intermediate power factor loads i.e. between zero lagging and zero leading the armature
reaction is partly cross magnetizing and partly demagnetising for lagging power factor loads or
partly magnetizing for leading power factor loads.
Armature Reaction Reactance (Xar)
In all the conditions of the load power factors, there is change in the terminal voltage due to
the armature reaction. Mainly the practical loads are inductive in nature, due to demagnetizing
effect of armature reaction; there is reduction in the terminal voltage. Now this drop in the
voltage due to the interaction of armature and main flux. This drop is not across any physical
element. But to quantify the voltage drop due to the armature reaction, armature winding is
assumed to have a fictitious reactance. This fictitious reactance of the armature is called armature
reaction reactance denoted as Xar Ω/ph. And the drop due to armature reaction can be accounted
as the voltage drop across this reactance as Iar Xar.
Note: The value of this reactance changes as the load power factor changes, as armature reaction
depends on the load power factor.
Phasor Diagram of Synchronous Generator

The phasor diagram is a very significant factor of the power system analysis. As the output of the
synchronous generator is alternating current, so it can easily be explained by the phasor
diagrams. If we draw the output voltage and current in such a geometrically way that they show
some relation among them, the resultant diagram called a phasor diagram.
In the electrical power system, there are three main types of load first one is resistive, the second
one is capacitive and the third one is inductive. We will connect all these three loads with
the synchronous generator and will see their effect and will draw their phasor diagram.
The given diagram shows the relation among the parameter like phase voltage (V), internal
generated voltage (E), armature current (IA), synchronous reactance (XS) and some other factors
by phasor diagram when the generator is working with the resistive load and have unity power
factor (Fig. 2).
V= E – jXsIA– RAIA
We can observe from the above-given equation that internal generated voltage (E A) are will be
equal to the phase or terminal voltage of the generator if we deduct the voltage loss due to
armature resistance and the synchronous reactance from it.
All these parameters and their facts are shown in an above-given diagram.
In a given diagram (Fig. 1), we have construed the phasor diagram of the synchronous generator
when it relates to the inductive load, in this case, the power factor will be lagging. There is also a
phasor diagram of the synchronous generator when it connected with the capacitive load, in this
case, the power factor will be leading (Fig. 3).
If we compare the lagging and leading load phasor diagrams of the synchronous generator we
can conclude that to get a specific value of the phase or terminal voltage and armature current we
will require larger amount of internal generated voltage E for the inductive load (lagging) than
the capacitive load (leading). So, we will have to provide a larger field current at the rotor in case
of inductive load (lagging load) than the leading load to generates the same amount of the
terminal voltage.
Two Reaction Theory / Analysis/ Blondel’s Theory
We knew that in non-salient pole type alternators the air gap is uniform. Due to the uniform air
gap, the field flux, as well as armature flux varies sinusoidally in the air gap. In non salient
pole alternators, air gap length is constant and reactance is also constant. This two reaction
theory was given by Professor Andre Blondel so it is named as Blondel two reaction theory.
Due to this, the MMFs of armature and field act upon the same magnetic circuit all the time
hence can be added vectorially. But in salient pole type alternators, the length of the air gap
varies and the reluctance also varies. Hence the armature flux and field flux cannot vary
sinusoidally in the air gap. The reluctances of the magnetic circuits on which MMFs act are
different in the case of salient pole alternators.
Hence the armature and field MMFs are given special importance while given less importance in
a non salient pole alternators. There are some disturbing factors in salient pole alternators which
are analyzed below. The theory which gives the method of analysis of the disturbing effects
caused by salient pole construction is called Two Reaction Theory.
According to this theory, the armature MMF can be divided into two components as,
1. Component acting along the pole axis called direct axis.
2. Component acting at right angles to the pole axis called quadrature axis.
The component which is acting along the direct axis can be magnetizing or demagnetizing. The
component which is acting along quadrature axis is cross magnetizing. These components
produce the effects of different kinds. The below figure shows the stator MMF wave and the flux
distribution in the airgap along direct axis and quadrature axis of the pole
The reluctance offered to the MMF wave is lowest when it is aligned with the field pole axis.
This axis is called the direct axis of pole i.e. d-axis. The reluctance offered is highest when the
MMF wave is oriented at 90° to the field pole axis which is called quadrature axis i.e. q-axis.
The air gap is least in the centre of the poles and progressively increases, on moving away from
the centre. Due to such shape of the pole-shoes, the field winding wound on salient poles
produces the MMF wave which is nearly sinusoidal and it always acts along the pole axis which
is direct axis.
Let Ff be the MMF wave produced by field winding, then it always acts along the direct axis.
This MMF is responsible for producing an excitation EMF Ef which lags Ff by all angle 90°.
When armature carries current, it produces its own MMF wave FAR. This can be resolved into
two components, one acting along d-axis (magnetizing or demagnetizing) and one acting along
q-axis (cross-magnetizing). Similarly, armature current Ia also can in divided into two
components, one along the direct axis and one along quadrature axis. These components are
denoted as,
FAR:
Fd = component along direct axis
Fq = component along quadrature axis
Ia :
Id = component along direct axis
Iq = component along quadrature axis
The positions of FAR, Fd and Fq in space are shown in the below figure. The instant chosen to
show these positions is such that the current in phase R is maximum positive and is lagging Ef by
angle Ψ.
The phasor diagram of MMF wave positions in salient pole machine is shown below.
It can be observed from the figure that Fd is produced by Id which is at 90° to Ef while Fq is
produced by Iq which is in phase with Ef. The flux components of ΦAR which are Φd and
Φq respectively are also shown in the below figure.
It can be noted that the reactance offered to flux along the direct axis is less than the reactance
offered to flux along quadrature axis. Due to this, the flux ΦAR is no longer along FAR or Ia.
Depending upon the reluctances offered along the direct and quadrature axis, the flux ΦAR lags
behind armature current Ia.
Determination of Voltage Regulation of Alternators

1. EMF or Synchronous Impedence or Pessimistic method
2. MMF or Ampere turns or Optimistic method
3. ZPF or Potier triangle method
FOR THE ABOVE TOPIC (EMF, MMF, ZPF) REFER CLASS NOTES

Construction and Types of Armature Windings in Synchronous Generators

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Unit IV Construction, Operation and Voltage Regulation of Synchronous generator

Construction of 3 Phase Alternator or Synchronous Generator

 They are smaller in diameter but having longer axial length.

This number of slots/pole is denoted as 'n'.

Pole pitch = 180° electrical = slots per pole (no. of slots/P) = n

1 slot angle = 180°/n

Single Layer and Double Layer Winding:

Full Pitch and Short Pitch Winding:

Advantages of Short Pitch Coils:

Where α = Angle of short pitch

EMF Equation of Alternator

... EAvg per conductor = ΦP / (60/Ns) …… (1)

EAvg per conductor = 2 f Φ volts

... EMF per turn = 2 x (EMF per conductor)

of the EMF'S per turn.

Average Eph = Tph x (Average EMF per turn)

Average Eph = Tph x 4 f Φ

Zero Leading Power Factor Load

Phasor Diagram of Synchronous Generator

1. Component acting along the pole axis called direct axis.

Determination of Voltage Regulation of Alternators

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