09 HPGD2103 T5

Topic  Behaviourist
Counselling
5
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Identify what are the principles of behaviourism theory;
2. Explain how behaviourism approaches form the basis for
behaviourism counselling theory;
3. Identify adaptive and maladaptive behaviours;
4. Explain why maladaptive behaviours in some individuals continue
to persist even after the counselling process; and
5. Explain the strategies to help clients through behaviourism theory
approaches.
 INTRODUCTION
This topic introduces behaviourism counselling theory. For learners who have just
enrolled in the counselling course, they will need assistance in understanding
how an individual whom they wish to help functions in his or her environment.
They must not make decisions by solely relying on their own assumptions without
thinking rationally on why a certain action is taken. By applying the chosen theory,
they will be able to understand why a behaviour happens the way it happens
and the appropriate strategies to maintain or change the behaviour based on the
theory. Most importantly, as a counsellor, you will act more consistently towards
the client by applying the adopted theory.
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 5 BEHAVIOURIST COUNSELLING  121
Through this topic, you will be able to understand the functions of the various
theories and follow the explanations of a theory which is widely used by
professional counsellors and behaviourism theorists. Firstly, you will comprehend
the concepts and techniques in behaviourism theory. In addition, there will be
explanations on how an individual continues on with his his maladaptive
behaviour. Several examples are provided to facilitate your understanding on the
implementation of the behaviourism theory.
5.1 NEED FOR COUNSELLING THEORY

Theory is a presumption which consists of several ideas to explain an event or a
phenomenon. The purpose of a theory is to:
(a) Explain an event after making a few observations;
(b) Use the theory to overcome certain situations; and
(c) Use the theory to make predictions.
Whether counselling theories are needed or not depends on the professional

counselling practitioner. For example, Lazarus (1981) stated that counselling or
therapy does not require a theory. There are also other views which have
mentioned that there has been too much emphasis on theories in some counselling
practices (Smith & Glass, 1977). This view has a notion that all counsellors and
therapists conduct the same activities, achieve the same results and there are some
who even use techniques which do not relate at all to the theory that they support.
This means the theory which they support does not bring any benefit.
Frank (1971) asserted that theory is very important for those who practice it. In his
opinion, theory is important because it gives meaning, confidence and direction to
the counsellors. Thus, we can conclude from FrankÊs statement that theory helps
the counsellor focus on what he is doing to his client. As such, the counsellor will
be able to give his full attention and energy to what he believes to be the source of
his clientÊs problem.
A counsellor who carries out his tasks according to theory will be able to make
plans and devise change strategies for his client and make preparations before he
advises his client. This will indirectly increase the clientÊs trust towards the
counsellor because the counsellor demonstrates professionalism in carrying out
his responsibilities.

122  TOPIC 5 BEHAVIOURIST COUNSELLING
ACTIVITY 5.1
To check your comprehension, answer these questions:
(a) State the purpose of a theory and provide an example for each
theory.
(b) Why are theories important for a counsellor?
5.2 BEHAVIOURISM COUNSELLING THEORY

The history of the behavioural approach in counselling begins with three
components. We will now examine each component one by one.
5.2.1 First Component

The first component is taken from the classical conditioning principle, sometimes
referred to as respondent conditioning. It is based on the studies by Pavlov (1960
as cited in Elford, 2014) and Hull (1943 as cited in Erford, 2014). In one study,
Watson (1920, as cited in Elford, 2014) used PavlovÊs classical conditioning
principle to train Little Albert, a 9-month-old infant to be afraid of white mice,
white cotton as well as WatsonÊs white hair!
Figure 5.1: John B. Watson

In the experiment, Watson (refer to Figure 5.1) used unconditioned stimulus

(loud ringing of a bell) combined with conditioned stimulus (white mouse).
This experiment was known as the Little Albert experiment. The pairing of a load
bell with the white mouse has resulted in a conditioned response in Little Albert
(feeling startled and fearful). It is important to understand this experiment because
it is the foundation towards understanding the behaviourism theory. It showed
that an individualÊs emotions can be learnt and modified by using the learning
principle. Figure 5.2 illustrates the classical conditioning learning principle.
Figure 5.2: Classical conditioning learning principle

Source: Watson (1960 as cited in Erford, 2014)
This approach was used many times by Wolpe (1954; 1958; 1961, as cited in Palmer,
2015) when he introduced systematic desensitisation. Systematic desensitization is
a type of behavioral therapy based on the principle of classical conditioning. This
therapy aims to remove the fear response of a phobia, and substitute a relaxation
response to the conditional stimulus gradually using counter conditioning.

ACTIVITY 5.2
Provide an example of how you have used the classical conditioning

principle in your learning. Share your answer in the myINSPIRE online
forum.
5.2.2 Second Component

The second component is the operant conditioning which was proposed by
B. F. Skinner in 1953 (Palmer, 2015) (refer to Figure 5.3). In operant conditioning,
reinforcement is used to ensure the repetition of certain behaviour. Reinforcement
is the presence of a stimulus to increase a desirable behaviour.
Examples of positive reinforcement are the use of money or giving compliments.

An example of negative reinforcement is the application of electric shock to the
mice whenever it did not produce the desired behaviour. Negative reinforcement
also reinforces the repetition of behaviour.
In the experiment, the rat will press the lever more often when the ringing bell
is turned down slowly. Punishment and extinction will hinder the behaviour
from being repeated. You may visit this link to find out about the experiment
https://www.simplypsychology.org/operant-conditioning.html. Punishment is
the presence of hurtful or uncomfortable stimulus to decrease undesirable
behaviour. One example is giving electric shock whenever a person smokes (in an
effort to stop smoking). Extinction is to lessen the unwanted behaviour such as
interrupting older peopleÊs conversation. To decrease these unwanted behaviours,
it is adequate to ignore it or not give any response towards the person who is
interrupting the conversation.
Figure 5.3: B. F. Skinner

The use of the operant conditioning principle as a technique to modify an

individualÊs behaviour is known as behaviour modification technique or
behaviour modification. From the implementation aspect, this technique
sometimes corresponds with behaviour therapy technique. Skinner used
behaviour modification on an individual and in small groups.
5.2.3 Third Component

The third component is known as cognitive behaviour therapy. This therapy is the
combination of two different trains of thoughts, where one focuses on behavioural
approaches while the other emphasises on cognitive approaches.
We are not able to explain the human occurrence or behaviour only through
behavioural perspective because we also have to take into account their thinking
process. The thinking process is the cognitive process.
ACTIVITY 5.3
1. What are the combinations of the three components which became

the behaviourism counselling theory?
2. Gather external information on the meaning and the procedures of

behaviour modification.
Share your answer in the myINSPIRE online forum.
5.3 BEHAVIOURISM PERSONALITY THEORY

In reality, there is no single specific personality theory which can be called
behaviourism personality theory. The theorists in the behaviourism domain were
not interested in proposing a single theory which can be referred to as the
behaviourism personality theory. They emphasised more on the learning theory
instead of developing a model theory of human personality. Behaviourists
presumed that the common behaviour consistently posed by an individual
(referred to as attribute or personality) is actually a symbol of maturity and
learning laws which the individual has experienced. Hence, the behaviourists
believed that the most similar element to personality theory is actually learning
theory.

However, there are several areas that all behaviourists agreed upon about
personality which all of us must understand. They are as follows:
(a) Firstly, the determiner of learning, attitude, habit or nature and other aspects
related to personal development is the behaviourism of an organism, not the
mental phenomenon;
(b) Secondly, personality development is deterministic whereby the environment

and experiences determine the personality development;
(c) Thirdly, individual differences come from differences in experience;
(d) Fourthly, dualism such as mind-body and body-soul does not have scientific
evidence to explain about the human development, to predict what will
happen about the human behaviour or to motivate human behaviour to do
something; and
(e) Lastly, even though personality development usually has a genetic

constraint which cannot change or be changed anymore, it is the result of the
influence of internal environment and stimulus which play dominant roles.
5.3.1 Skinner’s Principle of Adaptation

In 1966, a counselling expert named R.W. Lundin (Lundin, 1966) explained how
SkinnerÊs principles can be adapted with one personality theory. We have already
learnt that the foundation of SkinnerÊs principle is that the development of human
personality depends on operant reinforcement. Lundin has developed the view of
operant reinforcement to model personality by listing some of the principles
described in the following:
(a) In shaping the behaviourism personality theory, the most important element
is to predict and control our behaviour. There is no question of free will here.
Environmental variables will determine the type of responses.
(b) All behaviours can be divided into categories of operant and respondent.
This means that the individual responds to something (operant) or acts
(respondent) according to the environment. Thus, all behaviours are
subjected under the control of environmental stimuli and as such, voluntary
behaviour does not exist.

(c) An individualÊs personality is moulded by reinforcements. Apart from main

reinforcements such as food, water and air, specific conditioned positive
reinforcements such as money and compliments will also help to mould the
personality. Removal of negative reinforcements also strengthens behaviour
and helps in personality development.
(d) Behaviour can be modified by weakening or restraining the reinforcement ă

a process called extinction. One example of behaviour modification using
extinction is to ignore a childÊs behaviour as he tries to attract his or her
parentÊs attention by whimpering and sulking (see Figure 5.4).
Figure 5.4: A baby whimpers and wants his motherÊs touch
It might take a long time to change an individual, for example, a childÊs behaviour
once the child has been given reinforcements based on undesired behaviour.
Modelling also facilitates personality development. An individualÊs behaviour can

be modelled by observing the nearest person and when reinforcement is given for
the behaviour which is similar to the behaviour of the observed person. The use of
role-play technique to teach assertive behaviour is one way of modelling.
Apart from positive reinforcement, an individualÊs personality can also be

controlled by unpleasant reinforcements which can keep the individual away from
or to avoid the behaviour.
Personality is maintained by continuous conditioned reinforcement. Conditioned

reinforcement begins from neutral stimuli but when it is combined with the
primary reinforcement, it can be reinforcement in itself.

Behaviour can persist if the reinforcement is constantly or frequently applied.

Constant reinforcement is given for constantly needed behaviour. This means that
after each response (desired behaviour) is achieved, it will be followed by
reinforcement. However, if this method is used excessively, the desired effect will
gradually weaken or lose its effect. Some frequent reinforcements are given
according to a certain schedule. Frequent and scheduled reinforcements are the
most effective behaviour modification techniques.
ACTIVITY 5.4
In your opinion, what are the most apparent differences between the
approaches proposed by Watson and Skinner?
Post your answer on the myINSPIRE online forum.
5.4 INAPPROPRIATE BEHAVIOUR

An inappropriate or prohibited behaviour in society is known as maladaptive
behaviour. If maladaptive behaviour continues to be practised by the individual,
he will be regarded as a person who could not adjust himself to the society
(maladjusted person). An act such as taking other peopleÊs properties or showing
aggressiveness is one example of maladaptive behaviour. Such behaviour is
considered as inappropriate behaviour in society. On the other hand, helping
someone in trouble and contributing to society, for example, social work is
regarded as adjustive behaviour which is the desired behaviour.
According to the behaviourism approach, behaviour (regardless of adjustive or

maladaptive) is learnt. This also means that something which is learnt can also be
stopped. For instance, if an individual has the habit of smoking as illustrated in
Figure 5.5 which is an act that he has learnt, theoretically this maladaptive habit
can be stopped.

Figure 5.5: A group of people smoking outside the office
Maladjustive behaviour is determined and influenced by culture, time, social class

and situation. What is termed as maladjustive behaviour in one society might be
considered as adjustive behaviour in another society. The difference is that the
individual receives the reinforcement from the people in his immediate
environment, people who can influence giving the reinforcement. In a group of
people, the person who is close to the members of the group and has control in
giving the reinforcement to its members is usually the group leader. For example,
orders from a gang leader to kill or rob will be followed by the gang members
because there is reinforcement. In this context, the action by the criminal gang is
considered as adjustive behaviour in the criminal society but it is maladaptive
behaviour in the common society.
Time or period can also determine what is considered as adjustive or maladjustive

behaviour. Fifty years ago, Malay children were forbidden to study at English
medium schools for fear that they would become Christians. Those who still
attended English medium schools despite the prohibition were regarded as
adopting maladaptive behaviour and suffered much pressure from their relatives.
Some were even forced to quit school. But Malay parents nowadays do not suffer
from such pressures when they send their children to English schools. Some even
send their children to study in America and England. Studying in English schools
nowadays is considered as adjustive behaviour.

All social classes have their own interpretations on what is considered as adjustive
and maladjustive behaviours. They have their own way to handle themselves in
order to avoid the discomfort when performing the maladaptive behaviour. In the
West, these interpretations exist whereby individuals from the middle social class
are able to control themselves better, always feel guilty and humble towards
maladjustive behaviours while individuals from the lower social class tend to
show aggressive behaviour, have the tendency to rebel and violate the laws as
shown in their maladjustive behaviours (Myers & Roberts, 1959).
SELF-CHECK 5.1
What is maladaptive behaviour? What are the factors that influence them
to become criminals?
5.4.1 Troubled Individuals

How do the advocates of behaviourism view an individual who is having
problems or is „unwell‰? They believe that all learning occurs through the
respondent or operant experience. As such, behaviours which are regarded as
maladaptive are believed to be learnt in order to obtain positive reinforcements or
to lessen the pain or uncomfortable feeling.
From the perspective of respondent learning, if the painful stimulus is combined

with neutral stimulus, the neutral stimulus will gradually produce maladaptive
response after the learning has occurred, and the maladaptive response will recur
even at the mention of the real event. For example, a boy suffers from stomach
ache (uncomfortable stimulus) on the night that he had planned to go camping
together with some of his friends (neutral stimulus). After some time, when it is
time to go for another camping trip, he starts to experience the same stomach ache
again (combination). As time goes by, he feels uncomfortable and feels like
vomiting (conditioned response) whenever he hears the word „camping‰
(conditioned stimulus) (see Figure 5.6).

Figure 5.6: Illustration of how camping can cause

uncomfortable feelings for the boy mentioned in the example
Maladaptive behaviours are often learnt through operant conditioning. The

behaviour will be shaped, enhanced and continued because of further
reinforcements. For example, the boy who had stomach ache was given full
attention, love, sympathy and very comfortable care by his parents when he was
sick. This may cause the boy to take advantage of the situation if he decides that
he does not want to go to school. By saying that he has a stomach ache, he will be
able to avoid doing something which he dislikes such as going to school.
If we look deeper into this example, generalisation will occur. Whenever the boy
wants to avoid a situation which he considers as uncomfortable, he will
„experience‰ stomach ache. Why does this happen? The answer is because it
works. Although he has learnt that avoiding uncomfortable stimulus will bring a
„good‰ effect on him, in reality, this is a maladaptive behaviour. Unfortunately,
this behaviour will be a burden for him in the future. For instance, he might
experience stomach ache before he sits for an examination. The individual might
want to change his maladaptive behaviour. However, it will be difficult for him to
quit the „stomach ache‰ behaviour unless he goes for therapy or counselling
sessions.

ACTIVITY 5.5
1. Explain how behaviour is learnt from the perspective of

behaviourism counselling theory.
2. Think of a behaviour which you regard as maladaptive and try to

detect how the behaviour is learnt.
Share your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online

forum.
5.5 THE COUNSELLING PROCESS

When carrying out the counselling process, behaviourism approach counsellors
must also master the following skills as proposed by Erford (2014):
(a) Listen attentively;
(b) Appreciations the clients;
(c) Acceptance; and
(d) Understand that the client is unique.
These skills have been explained in Topic 4. A counsellor needs to build a positive
relationship with the client in order to ensure that the counsellor truly understands
the clientÊs problem before initiating a strategy for the client. A positive
relationship can also motivate the client to succeed in changes towards adjustive
behaviour.
In the counselling process, the client will be engaged in analysing, planning,

processing and evaluating his behaviour management programme. The
behaviourism counsellor will try to eliminate various behaviours which are
regarded as maladaptive behaviours. At the same time, the client will learn
adjustive behaviours that he will maintain according to the plan. The role of the
counsellor is to encourage and help his client make the change(s).

To implement the behaviourism counselling process, a counsellor must have

received training and experience in human behaviour modification and is willing
to be a consultant, teacher, advisor, reinforcer and facilitator. In terms of
personality, he needs to be friendly, inquisitive, willing to help others and sincere.
What are the duties of a counsellor? He should be able to help the client analyse
his behaviour and to interpret the problem as well as to choose an objective to be
achieved.
The counselling process will be simpler if the counsellor and the client manage to
create a means of communication which is effective for the both of them, having
trust in each other and be cooperative. The good relationship factor must be
maintained for as long as the client and the counsellor work together in finding
ways to help the client make the necessary changes. More specific ways to do this
are explained in Topic 3 on communication skills.
5.6 STRATEGIES TO HELP CLIENTS

Several strategies on how to help clients will be explained in this subtopic.
A counsellor can use the chosen strategy for the purpose of reinforcing a desired
behaviour or eliminating an unwanted behaviour. Most importantly, the
involvement and cooperation between the client and the counsellor must be
maintained. The selected strategies which are explained in the following are only
related to external behaviour:
(a) Role play;
(b) Assertive practice;
(c) Token economy;
(d) Self-management;
(e) Self-monitoring; and
(f) Self-reinforcement.

5.6.1 Role Play

Role play is being used regularly by counsellors as a strategy to train clients in
various behaviours which they find very difficult to do before. It can be referred
to as acting and training which are guided by the counsellor with a specific
purpose. Professional counsellors who follow the behaviourism counselling
approach use role plays when they conduct assertive practice, modelling (imitate
otherÊs behaviour) and career counselling.
Role play is the best technique to expanding the counsellorÊs awareness and
showing clients that there are many alternatives to acting behaviours of others.
For example, to teach an extremely shy student to talk in a group discussion,
counsellors can use role play whereby the student is asked to give an opinion to
his counsellor.
Figure 5.7: Role play whereby a student (acting as a teacher)

tells a story in front of his group in the classroom
The rationale is to help students practise giving out their opinions within a safe
environment. When the counsellor (or teacher) feels that the student is confident
enough, he will be allowed to return to his respective group (see Figure 5.7).
The class teacher must cooperate with the student by helping him to adjust
gradually and not to force the student because if the student is still nervous and
shy, his feelings will be jeopardised.

Role play techniques can also be used to help the student to be more assertive
especially when he finds himself having difficulties to respond whenever other
people take advantage of him. Role play gives the individual an opportunity to try
out a new behaviour in a safer situation or environment before it is practised in
places or situations where trouble frequently arises.
Limitations of Role Play

Even though the use of the role play technique is effective, it also has its limitations
as follows:
(a) It depends on the counsellorÊs skills and eagerness in administering it; and
(b) It also depends on the clientÊs own desire to experience, listen and feel the
new behaviour which may be difficult for him to do before.
5.6.2 Assertive Practice

Assertive practice is a technique which is used to teach a client how to gain his
confidence in coping with those whom he perceives as a threat (Palmer, 2015).
We must remember that this technique must not be used to teach the client how to
be aggressive. The main purposes of the assertive practice are:
(a) To actively give strength to initiate any chosen desired behaviour. In other
words, to act without causing any physical and emotional injuries to other
people; and
(b) To guide clients who are passive, dependent and unmotivated so that they
will find an alternative to a more productive solution.
Many counsellors find that their clients need to develop their assertive skills in
enhancing their self-management and problem-solving skills. Clients would lose
their self-esteem if they allow other people to take advantage of them, if they are
unable to face their parents, employer, husband/wife or other people in an
appropriate manner or if they behave aggressively instead of assertively and cause
unwanted responses by other people.

Assertive practice or exercise is usually carried out in the following ways:
(a) Role playing and modelling passive, aggressive and assertive situations
which the client usually experiences;
(b) Through problem exploration and interpreting;
(c) Repeating the selected role play exercises several times;
(d) Role-reversal, which is to act out situations in which the client is unable to
behave assertively; and
(e) Implement the desired assertive behaviour gradually (successive

approximation).
Through assertive practice, not only will the client be able to shape his new
behaviour in a safe environment with his counsellor, but the client, together with
the counsellor, will also be able to analyse his behaviour which can be gradually
shaped. When the client finally feels comfortable and is able to respond with the
new behaviour, he can try it in his daily life.
5.6.3 Token Economy (Rewarding Gifts)

One of the common behaviourism techniques used is the token economy or
rewarding gifts (Kazdin, 1977, as cited in Palmer, 2015). This is an organised
procedure where token or gifts are given as reinforcements for appropriate
behaviours. The token can be in the form of tangibles such as plastic coins, points
or anything that can be cashed in for valuable things or special privileges. The use
of token economy is proven to be effective. It is used in many institutions such as
hospitals, clinics, nurseries as well as prisons.
This procedure is very versatile and can be used in various situations (see
Figure 5.8). For example, in the school environment, a counsellor can prepare a
token economy structure to be used as reinforcements for students who behave
positively. On the other hand, to list down the types of punishments, penalties or
loss of privileges if a student breaks the rule or fails to carry out his responsibility.
This technique is very effective when used with clients who have problems with
everyday behaviour or with more complex behaviour. Users of this technique
discovered that it is very suitable to be used especially to eliminate maladaptive
behaviours or to mould adjustive behaviours.

Figure 5.8: Token economy is applied during School Achievement Day
The question now is, „Can a behaviour which was modified through this strategy
be maintained or would the behaviour diminish after a short while?‰ For example,
after a student who behaves aggressively (has the tendency to get into fights and
likes to disturb other students) underwent the changing process with the
technique, there seems to be some positive changes in his behaviour. Are the
positive changes sustainable?
Professional behaviourism counsellors assert the effectiveness of the token

economy strategy. However, they also agree that some problems do exist in
ensuring that the achieved changes are maintained and sustained. Counsellors
who plan and prepare the token economy structure must be prepared to ensure
that the changes can be maintained by implementing the following steps:
(a) Ask for assistance from other workers such as the class teacher, teachers who
have taught or are still teaching the student, request for parents to make
commitments to help and to understand the concept as well as the objective
of token economy;
(b) Select behaviours which would most probably receive reinforcements from
the society and the environment;
(c) Adhere to behaviourism modification principle such as reward token or gifts

instantly, be fair and consistent;

(d) The token or gifts used as a reward must have reinforcement value; and
(e) Ensure that the modified behaviour is also a desired behaviour other than in
the school environment.
ACTIVITY 5.6
How can we ensure that the modified behaviour continues to be

practised by the client? Post your suggestions on the myINSPIRE online
forum.
5.6.4 Self-management, Self-monitoring and

Self-reinforcement
Erford (2014) suggested a technique called self-management, self-monitoring
and self-reinforcement which is gaining popularity. The technique involves the
client as a collaborator participant who is active in the counselling process.
In comparison, earlier behaviourists viewed the client as being passive. The
characteristics of this technique are as follows:
(a) Clients play an active role in each counselling phase;
(b) Clients give their own opinions, follow the counsellorÊs advice and construct
their own specific and effective plan;
(c) ClientsÊ thinking process is given attention and focus;
(d) Clients are expected to be more responsible and diligent in achieving the
desired changes;
(e) Clients learn how conduct self-reinforcement;
(f) Clients are asked to observe, monitor, record, self-reinforce and sometimes
asked to interpret behavioural data that they have recorded; and
(g) The counsellorÊs role is more of a mentor or educator instead of an expert or

instructor.

According to the proponents of behaviourism theory, the said procedures can be

made into a framework to be applied to the selected strategy. Self-management
strategy has specific steps to be adhered to in order to achieve the desired objective.
You must understand the steps described in the following so that the discussion
on the behaviourism concept is more comprehensible.
Steps to Self-manage, Self-monitor and Self-reinforce
(a) Step 1: Conceptualisation, Definition of Problem and Choosing Objective in

Behavioural Form
(i) Conceptualisation happens when you are forming a concept of what

you want to achieve. Before you could define or choose your objective
of behavioural change, you need to first know what is the concept or
term that you are heading for.
(ii) After gaining or finding the concept, you then need to define the
problem that you have with the concept, or issues that are relevant to
the concept found.
(iii) Decide the target objective to be achieved individually.
(iv) The objective must be:
 Comprehensible, important and valuable to the client;
 Analysed and measured objectively;
 Realistic and achievable; and
 Positive and constructive.
(v) Statements about target objective must include:
 The clientÊs needs at an achievable standard, or be eliminated; and
 Gradual achievement of target objective according to the agreed

scheduled dates.

Example
Counsellor : What you really want to do is to achieve your target to lose

your weight and this time, it will be maintained.
Client : Yes, thatÊs right because what IÊm focusing on now is my
health.
Counsellor : Alright, I think you have already made a commitment

to lose weight and you want to start it as soon as possible.
LetÊs decide how many kilograms you want to lose and
plan a realistic and safe schedule. LetÊs schedule the dates
to achieve your objectives.
Figure 5.9: A client who has a weight problem asks the counsellor for his opinion
Source: https://cdn.newsapi.com.au/image/v1/
8273ad54564d7558eb1829a6523781ea?width=1024
(b) Step 2: Managing and Monitoring Target Behaviour
(i) Choose appropriate aims based on clientÊs objectives.
(ii) Start baseline assessment before implementing behaviour modification

strategies.

(iii) Start monitoring and take note of any related targets.
To monitor, the client needs to:
 Take note of his behaviour right after it happens;
 Use paper and pencil, a watch or any appropriate recording device

to record behavioural data; and
 Implement frequency calculation, time recording or use other

monitoring strategies to record the behaviour.
Example
Counsellor : How are you going to change the way you record and
monitor your behaviour this time in order to ensure that
you stick to the schedule and achieve the targeted weight?
Client : Oh, IÊve already figured it out ă weight-lifting, calorie
count, types of exercises and how I am going to track my
daily activity. I have also thought about several methods
to monitor what I do so as not to lie to myself.
Counsellor : You mentioned „several methods‰. What are the methods

that you intend to use? I really want to see you make it this
time. LetÊs take a look at the details on the things that you
want to do and how you are going to do it.
Client : Alright. I want to show you what IÊve written in the record
about my activities.
Counsellor : This is a good list (while examining the note). LetÊs check
and discuss together. Maybe we could think of other ways
which can help make your activity monitoring a little
easier.

(c) Step 3: Environmental Changes and Taking the Right Step

Continue to take notes or to record target behaviour.
(i) At the beginning, try to avoid the environment and situations which
will surely cause unwanted response or maladaptive behaviour.
(ii) Change the atmosphere, situation and/or environment to make sure

that you:
 Realise what you are doing;
 Limit the stimulus that causes unwanted behaviour; and
 Simplify behaviour which gives satisfaction.
Example
Counsellor : This is one step where you have to change to other ways.
If you continue with your past behaviour, it will be hard
to instil this new behaviour. You will still be eating like
you used to eat back then and performing the same
physical activities. This will not help you at all. In my
opinion, you need to make a drastic change if you want
to achieve your target weight.
Client : Yes, I do realise there are a few things that I must do.
Firstly, I must try to eat less fattening food. Secondly,
lower the calorie intake during each meal.
Counsellor : OK, is there anything else?

Client : Well, IÊm thinking of going for daily exercise ă maybe
every morning.
Counsellor : ThatÊs really good. Let us discuss that. We should also

think of a way to avoid the cravings to eat like you used
to. This will ensure that your plan will work.

(d) Step 4: Generating Appropriate Reinforcement and Determining Meaningful

and Effective Outcome for Client
Continue recording target behaviour.
(i) Identify reinforcement and its result. Positive reinforcement results

in positive outcome while negative reinforcement is regarded as
unpleasant.
(ii) Some characteristics to the implementation of reinforcement are:
 Appropriate behaviours are given immediate reinforcement;
 Criteria for reinforcement should be realistic and easy to perform;
 People who are close to the client need to support him in achieving
the desired behaviour target;
 Set up a phased schedule so that the achievement for each phase

will be reinforced;
 Provide extrinsic and intrinsic reinforcements;
 Reinforcement has the ability to affect behaviour; and
 Reinforcement is scheduled for short-term, mid-term, and long-

term incentives.
Example
Counsellor : I want you to have sufficient rewards to ensure that you

follow the plan but be careful not to set up a target that is
too high and unachievable. And donÊt regard yourself as
the only one who can offer rewards and reinforcements.
I want to know the people whom you regard as strong
supporters, those who can administer the rewards. This
will increase your chance to achieve your target.
Client : IÊm sure my wife will help me with this. After all, if I lie to
myself when IÊm eating, IÊm sure my wife will stop me.
Counsellor : Good! Put in another few names of people who can help
you. Then we will plan a strategy where you can divide
specific tasks to them for your sake as well as theirs.
Client : OK. This time I really want to lose weight.

(e) Step 5: Maintaining the Achievement and Counting the Success

Continue to take notes and observations.
Continue to think of suitable rewards for the desired behaviour.
(i) Create an effective evaluation or feedback system to make sure that

the self-management, self-monitoring and self-reinforcement can be
modified and enhanced or can be used again to maintain the targeted
objective; and
(ii) Maintain the learnt behaviour by:
 Lessening self-noting;
 Lessening reinforcement;
 Getting social support; and
 Using the strategy to change some areas which the client regards as
important.
Example
Client : What I want is to seriously involve my wife in helping

to control my weight and to maintain it even after I have
achieved my target.
Counsellor : Is there any possibilities that she might offer
reinforcement for your behaviour?
Client : Certainly not! She takes good care of my health.

Counsellor : If that is so, I suggest that you ask your wife to be your
assistant in your quest to maintain the target objective.
Try to think of a few other names, people who can
continuously support you to refrain from going back to
your old eating habits. It would certainly be a pity if you
return to your old habits after all the physical activities
that you had put in all this while.
Client : OK. Thank you.

 The purpose of a theory and why counsellors need theory before conducting
counselling process are to explain an event after making few observations,
to use the theory to overcome certain situations and to make behavioural
predictions.
 Behaviourism counselling theory was derived from various related learning

theories from proponents such as Pavlov, Watson, Wolpe, Skinner and other
cognitive behavioural therapists.
 Counsellors need to understand how their clients view their own problems.
 By using the behaviourism approach, counsellors will be able to explore their

clientsÊ problems based on the counsellorsÊ understanding of adjustive and
maladaptive behaviours.
 Several practical techniques such as role play, assertive practice, token

economy as well as self-management, self-monitoring and self-reinforcement
are effective to reinforce a desired behaviour or to eliminate an unwanted
behaviour.
Adjustive behaviour Rewards

Assertive practice Role play
Behaviourism Self-management
Behaviourism counselling theory Self-monitoring
Inappropriate behaviour Self-reinforcement
Maladaptive behaviour Token economy
Reinforcement

Erford, B. T. (2014). 40 techniques every counsellor should know (2nd ed.). Boston:
Pearson Education.
Frank, J. D. (1971). Therapeutic factors in psychotherapy, American Journal of

Psychotherapy, pp. 350ă361.
Lazarus, A. A. (1981). The practice of multimodal therapy. New York: McGraw-

Hill.
Lundin, R. W. (1966). Principles of psychopathology. USA: Charles E. Merrills.
Myers. J. K., & Roberts, B. H. (1959). Family and class dynamics in mental illness.
New York: Wiley.
Palmer, S. (2015). The beginnerÊs guide to counselling and psychotherapy

(2nd ed.). London: SAGE Publication Ltd.
Smith, M. L. & Glass, G., (1977). Meta-analysis of psychotheraphy outcomes

studies. Journal of American Pscyhologist. pp. 752ă754.

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Topic  Behaviourist

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

5.1 NEED FOR COUNSELLING THEORY

(a) Explain an event after making a few observations;

(b) Use the theory to overcome certain situations; and

(c) Use the theory to make predictions.

Whether counselling theories are needed or not depends on the professional

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

To check your comprehension, answer these questions:

(b) Why are theories important for a counsellor?

5.2 BEHAVIOURISM COUNSELLING THEORY

5.2.1 First Component

Figure 5.1: John B. Watson

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In the experiment, Watson (refer to Figure 5.1) used unconditioned stimulus

Figure 5.2: Classical conditioning learning principle

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Provide an example of how you have used the classical conditioning

5.2.2 Second Component

Examples of positive reinforcement are the use of money or giving compliments.

Figure 5.3: B. F. Skinner

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The use of the operant conditioning principle as a technique to modify an

5.2.3 Third Component

1. What are the combinations of the three components which became

2. Gather external information on the meaning and the procedures of

Share your answer in the myINSPIRE online forum.

5.3 BEHAVIOURISM PERSONALITY THEORY

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(b) Secondly, personality development is deterministic whereby the environment

(c) Thirdly, individual differences come from differences in experience;

(e) Lastly, even though personality development usually has a genetic

5.3.1 Skinner’s Principle of Adaptation

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(c) An individualÊs personality is moulded by reinforcements. Apart from main

(d) Behaviour can be modified by weakening or restraining the reinforcement ă

Figure 5.4: A baby whimpers and wants his motherÊs touch

Modelling also facilitates personality development. An individualÊs behaviour can

Apart from positive reinforcement, an individualÊs personality can also be

Personality is maintained by continuous conditioned reinforcement. Conditioned

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Behaviour can persist if the reinforcement is constantly or frequently applied.

Post your answer on the myINSPIRE online forum.

5.4 INAPPROPRIATE BEHAVIOUR

According to the behaviourism approach, behaviour (regardless of adjustive or

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Figure 5.5: A group of people smoking outside the office

Maladjustive behaviour is determined and influenced by culture, time, social class

Time or period can also determine what is considered as adjustive or maladjustive

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5.4.1 Troubled Individuals

From the perspective of respondent learning, if the painful stimulus is combined

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Figure 5.6: Illustration of how camping can cause

Maladaptive behaviours are often learnt through operant conditioning. The

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1. Explain how behaviour is learnt from the perspective of

2. Think of a behaviour which you regard as maladaptive and try to

Share your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online

5.5 THE COUNSELLING PROCESS

(a) Listen attentively;

(b) Appreciations the clients;

(c) Acceptance; and

(d) Understand that the client is unique.