12 HPGD2103 T8

Topic  School
Counselling
8 and Ethical
Issues in
Counselling
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain why school counselling is important;
2. Describe some of the issues that school counsellors have to deal
with;
3. Elaborate on the approaches in school counselling;
4. Discuss the five moral principles of counselling;
5. Describe the ethical decision-making model; and
6. Elaborate on the dimension of confidentiality.
 INTRODUCTION
Over five million students are registered in primary and secondary schools in
Malaysia. These students come from diverse backgrounds and abilities. Some are
developmentally ready and eager to be in school. Others are disadvantaged
because of physical, mental, cultural and socioeconomic factors. There are also
students who carry the burden of traumas rooted at home such as physical and
emotional forms of abuse.
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

202  TOPIC 8 SCHOOL COUNSELLING AND ETHICAL ISSUES IN COUNSELLING
School counsellors have an important role in addressing these concerns and

problems of the students. The focus of most school counselling programmes is
basically to address issues relating to academic performance, career choice as well
as personal and social concerns which can have an impact on the lives of students.
It should be noted that counselling involves a person revealing his or her intimate
and private thoughts and feelings to another person or to group members.
Hence, the issue of ethics is of utmost importance. On the other hand, counselling
is not a value-free or neutral activity but rather it is a profession which involves
orienting an individual or group of individuals towards achieving something
good (Cottone & Tarvydas; Bergin, 1995). In this topic we will discuss the issues
relating to ethics of counselling as well as some legal aspects of counselling.
8.1 IMPORTANCE OF THEORY IN

COUNSELLING
According to Suradi and Rafidah (2005), „the development of counselling services
in Malaysia is closely related to the history of guidance and counselling in
schools.‰ There are records to show that guidance services were introduced by the
English during colonial Malaya in 1939 with the publication of a booklet entitled
Careers in Malaya: A Guide for Parents, Teachers and Pupils. In 1963, Dewan
Bahasa dan Pustaka published a book entitled Perkhidmatan Panduan di Sekolah.
In the same year, the Ministry of Education Malaysia set up Bahagian Bimbingan
dan Kaunselling (The Guidance and Counselling Section) which was established
under the Educational Planning and Research Division (EPRD).
In 1968, the Ministry of Education Malaysia issued a circular (KP5209/30/13)

which directed all State Education Departments to instruct their principals in
secondary schools to appoint guidance teachers to provide guidance and
counselling services for their students. In 1993, the Ministry of Education
introduced a guidebook titled Panduan Perlaksanaan Perkhidamatan dan
Kaunseling di Sekolah-sekolah Menengah (Guide Towards the Implementation of
Guidance and Counselling Services in Secondary Schools). The guidebook
proposed the following four goals for guidance and counselling services in schools
(see Figure 8.1).

TOPIC 8 SCHOOL COUNSELLING AND ETHICAL ISSUES IN COUNSELLING  203
Figure 8.1: Goals of guidance and counselling services in Malaysian schools

Source: Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia (1993)
Schools were required to provide enrichment services for the overall development
of students. Opportunities and facilities have to be made available in line with the
capabilities and potential of the students. Preventive measures have to be
introduced, especially with regard to disciplinary problems, inappropriate
behaviours and drug abuse.
In addition, efforts should be made to provide remedial services especially with

regard to helping students with academic problems and career choice. It was also
proposed that schools provide crisis counselling for students who need such
service.
In 1996, the Ministry of Education Malaysia issued a circular (KP SB-HEP

8543/60/91) requesting primary and secondary school principals to appoint
full-time counsellors in their schools to better plan and coordinate guidance and
counselling services in schools (Suradi & Rafidah, 2005). The goal was to achieve
a ratio of one counsellor for every 500 students.
SELF-CHECK 8.1
1. Trace the history of guidance and counselling in Malaysian schools.
2. What other events have influenced the development of counselling

in Malaysian schools?

8.2 WHY ARE SCHOOL COUNSELLING

SERVICES IMPORTANT?
The purpose of having guidance and counselling services in schools is to help
students understand themselves and the world around them. It is the process of
helping students maximise their abilities, capabilities and talents (Suradi Salim,
1996). This is based on the premise that there are individuals in our schools who
are unable to realise their potentials and the responsibility of realising their
potential lies within the individual themselves. The guidance and counselling
services aim to help and not to direct the individuals or make decisions for them.
Every day, individuals make decisions that affect themselves and others in society.
Individuals who fail to make the right decisions and are unable to adapt
accordingly are more likely to encounter problems. For example, a student who
chooses to spend his time playing video games rather than practise solving
assigned mathematics problems is more likely to find it difficult to cope with the
subject. School counselling services in primary, secondary and tertiary level
institutions aim to help individuals make choices and adapt to the environment.
The following are the reasons for having a comprehensive counselling programme
in schools (see Figure 8.2).
Figure 8.2: Reasons for school counselling services

Let us now look at each of these reasons in detail.
(a) Holistic Development of Students

Most education systems seek to develop students holistically. The Malaysian
education philosophy attempts to develop a well-balanced individual ă
intellectually, physically, emotional and spiritually. However, in reality
excellence in academic performance is given top priority. Overemphasis on
examinations has led to the neglect of other areas of the studentÊs
performance such as sports, leadership, social skills, music, creative writing,
appreciation of fine arts and performing arts. These areas, if properly
developed, will lead to the development of a well-balanced individual.
(b) Making Decisions

Many facets of a studentÊs life in school have been predetermined and
presented in a didactic manner. There is little that is left requiring students
to make decisions on their own. Hence, their decision-making skills are
rarely developed and when faced with issues relating to behaviour, emotions
and thoughts, students are ill-equipped to make the right decision.
For example, some students would rather spend their time at the shopping
mall during school hours than to be in school. Counselling programmes in
schools can play an important role in helping students make good decisions.
(c) Motivating Students

Motivating students to learn and take an interest in school activities is a
difficult task. Not all students are motivated to learn or are interested in
school activities. The problem of motivating students becomes even more
critical when dealing with academically weak students. It is like the chicken
and the egg story! Which comes first? Low academic performance leads to
low motivation and low motivation leads to low academic performance.
How do we break the cycle? Perhaps, this may be the most important task
for the counsellor. Enhancing student motivation may perhaps prevent other
types of inappropriate behaviours.
(d) Career Choice

The original focus of most counselling programmes in schools was to help
students with their career choice. Types of jobs and careers have become
more varied due to the complexities at the workplace. Many jobs which are
available today did not exist a decade ago. Similarly, students today have to
be prepared for jobs that have not been created. Counsellors have to be
well-informed as to what is currently available and what will be available in
the next decade and to match job types with aptitudes and abilities of
students. More sophisticated career guidance methods have to be developed
to provide information that is useful in helping students make their career

choices. Students have to be oriented towards believing that there are other
equally exciting jobs other than being a doctor, lawyer, engineer or
accountant.
8.3 ISSUES IN SCHOOL COUNSELLING

PROGRAMMES
As society becomes more complicated, the same goes for schools have which have
become more complex with large student numbers. Student populations in many
secondary schools range between 1,500 and 2,000 students. Imagine the different
personalities and socio-emotional backgrounds of students who are attending
school each day. With the large student numbers, it is unlikely that the individual
needs of each and every student are being attended to. The likelihood of students
being alienated and ignored is very high. What are the issues that school
counselling programmes are likely to address?
Figure 8.3: Issues emphasised in school counselling programmes
A comprehensive school counselling programme will provide guidance and

counselling services in three main areas in order to address personal issues,
educational issues and vocational issues (see Figure 8.3).
(a) Personal Issues

These include problems and concerns relating to personality, physical and
emotional development, interpersonal relationships and other related issues.
(b) Educational Issues

Focus on learning problems (such as motivation to study, unable to cope with
studies, unable to read and write adequately), selection of courses (especially
in higher education), time management, adapting to the school (for students
from various primary schools who joined the same secondary school),
language difficulties (difficulties with the English language) and other
related issues.

(c) Vocational Issues

Focus on career choices, preparation for a particular career, placement
and adaptating to the working world. These services would be most needed
by students who are at the end of their schooling years, although choice of
careers can begin earlier in a studentÊs life.
The following are some of the common negative behaviours of students which
are found in Malaysian schools:
(a) Not interested in learning;
(b) Playing truant (loitering in shopping complexes, video arcades, internet

cafes or snooker centres);
(c) Vandalism;
(d) Stealing school property;
(e) Owning, viewing and distributing pornographic materials;
(f) Behaving rudely;
(g) Smoking;
(h) Drug abuse;
(i) Extortion;
(j) Gangsterism (belonging to or claiming to belong to gangs outside of

school or using the services of gangsters); and
(k) Violating school rules (dress code, length of hair).

ACTIVITY 8.1
1. How serious is the issue of negative student behaviour in your

school or college?
2. How has management dealt with these negative behaviours?
3. Do you think schools are doing enough to reduce the occurrence of

such negative behaviours?
Share your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online

forum.
8.4 APPROACHES IN SCHOOL COUNSELLING

Counsellors are also needed in schools. The tasks of school counsellors are not as
difficult or hard as counsellors in hospitals or rehab centres where they need to
deal with complex problems or situations that may involve mental disturbance.
School counsellors are needed for the following approaches as shown in
Figure 8.4.
Figure 8.4: Approaches in school counselling

Each of these approaches in school counselling will now be discussed in detail.
(a) Counselling for Academic Success

One of the major roles of school counsellors is to help students achieve
academic success. There are two major interventions that school counsellors
can use to help students succeed academically. Firstly, school counsellors can
intervene to help students create a school climate which promotes academic
success. Secondly, direct counselling interventions can be used with
individual students or groups of students whose academic success remains
a challenge. Now let us look at the interventions:
(i) Creating a Climate of Learning

Purkey and Schmidt (1996) identified several characteristics of creating
a climate of learning in the school environment. They found that
students are more likely to want to perform well academically in a
school where they are recognised for their accomplishments and
encouraged to fulfil their potentials. School counsellors can be part of
team which develops this climate by conducting award programmes
and recognising studentsÊ achievements. This is a popular practice in
many Malaysian schools.
It is easy to encourage and reward students who are motivated to

succeed. But the school experience is not always perceived as positive
by all students. Some students detest the structure and demands of the
school curricula. They have difficulty conforming to the school
environment and the expectations of others. School counsellors should
focus on students who struggle academically and who are struggling
to get through the day at school. Direct counselling interventions are
needed to support whatever goals which are perceived as important to
the students and success ă no matter how small it should be celebrated.
Creating a climate for academic progress includes engaging students in
their own learning. School counsellors can be instrumental in
identifying the factors that facilitate learning for all students.

(ii) Counselling Interventions

Let us study counselling interventions closely.
 Assessing the Present Problem

School counsellors should be aware that issues which are presented
as academic problems may, in fact, be symptomatic of other issues.
The purpose of the school counsellorÊs initial intervention should
be to determine the sources of the academic problems.
 Is the issue solely academic?
 Is the problem more psychological, social or emotional?
 Is the source of the issue outside the school environment?
The answers to these questions will influence how the school

counsellor proceeds with the appropriate intervention.
 Setting Goals
When students have educational and career goals, they are more
likely to be successful academically. Therefore, school counsellors
must focus on helping students establish their goals. This is not
always easy as some students have difficulty determining what
they want in life. Goals may need to be short-term and very
concrete such as „My goal is to complete all my mathematics
homework‰. Goals must be concise, precise and most of all,
meaningful. The counsellor could ask, „How would completing all
your mathematics homework help you?‰ The student might
respond, „Well, it can mean a difference between D and an F, and
I need a pass in mathematics‰. This is a meaningful sub-goal.
When setting goals for the studentÊs academic success, it is critical

that the student is committed to the goals. School counsellors must
determine whose goals are being addressed during the counselling
session. There may be a tendency to set goals based on the teacher
or parentÊs opinion rather than the studentÊs needs. It must be
remembered that it is the studentÊs commitment to the established
academic goals that will ultimately determine the studentÊs success.

 Selecting Appropriate Intervention Strategies

When a student struggles academically, it is important that
intervention begins as soon as the difficulty is identified. If the
struggle goes untreated for too long, the studentÊs self-concept and
social interactions may be affected.
(b) Counselling for Career Development

The school counsellorÊs role in the studentÊs career development is one of the
foundations of the school counsellorÊs job. Since vocational counselling was
the central focus of counselling services in the early school counselling
history, it is only natural that career counselling is still a primary
responsibility of school counsellors. In the past, career counselling focused
solely on helping students discover what suitable jobs or careers that they
wished to pursue and helping them decide which paths they may take to
achieve their goals. More recently, the emphasis is on students exploring for
themselves and determining their own career paths with some guidance
from the counsellor.
Students explore for themselves as to how their likes and interests relate to
different jobs or careers. It is also important for students to be aware of what
is available in the job market. This is usually done through career talks by
professionals from various occupations or taking field trips to a variety of
workplaces.
In primary schools, counsellors may organise activities which require pupils

to interview people from various occupations. Often, this creates important
dialogues between pupils and adults such as parents, neighbours and
community leaders about the many opportunities and challenges in the
working world. This awareness may help them move through the phases of
their career development.
In secondary schools, emphasis should be on how various occupations play

a role in the economy and how work influences the way we live. The
organisation of Career Day or Career Week is encouraged whereby students
will be able to learn about the different career options. Interactive software
programmes, questionnaires and test instruments can be administered to
students to obtain profiles of their personalities, interests, abilities and
values. Based on the inputs received, students will be able to obtain profiles
or information regarding potential occupational matches. Students can
explore specific occupations by accessing information about how much
education is needed, the salary range and the outlook for job opportunities.

Students typically enjoy this activity because they not only learn about
themselves but they also begin to think about their future. Student
counsellors initiate dialogues which can help students explore the results
of the programmes and how well they believe the results match their
self-perceptions.
To help students prepare for their careers, counsellors could maintain

portfolios at the beginning of early secondary school. A portfolio is a
collection of activities which students have completed during their time in
secondary school. The portfolio may contain the following:
(i) Listing and description of school activities (sports and club activities);
(ii) Grades and test scores;
(iii) Work and/or volunteer experiences;
(iv) Courses attended;
(v) Hobbies or interests outside of school; and
(vi) Projected future plans (university, college, technical or vocational,

work).
The portfolio is to be updated as the student progresses through the

secondary school. By the time the student reaches Form 5, there should be
enough information to help the student in his college or university
application process, or his job application process. Much of the school
counsellorÊs role in secondary school career development is consultative and
supportive. If a student has a question or concern about careers, the school
counsellor can explore options with the student and help the student come
to an acceptable conclusion. The question of „What am I going to do after
secondary school?‰ can be an overwhelming question for some students.
Therefore, the school counsellorÊs role is to assist in any way possible to
alleviate the anxiety and worry that often come with making major life
decisions.

(c) Counselling for Personal and Social Development

In an ideal world, we would be able to protect children from life events that
cause them stress and pain. The reality is that studentsÊ lives are affected by
significant events that are usually expected. School counsellors may identify
extreme changes in student behaviours or attitudes as a result of significant
events or changes in their lives. Students frequently seek out school
counsellors because of upsetting or stressful life events. School counsellors
must help students address the thoughts, feelings and behaviours that result
from the stressful events in their lives.
For example, with the increasing number of divorces, many students are
experiencing changes in family situations. School counsellors may need to
provide services for students who are facing the issue of a parent moving
out, going to court, living in two places, parents remarrying or having
step-parents or step-siblings. Most children hope that their parents will get
back together. Emotions range from depression to anger to confusion
because of the divorce. Sometimes, children feel responsible and express
their emotions through destructive behaviours such as violence or fighting.
Students sometimes believe that if their behaviours are extreme enough,
their parents will focus on them rather than the divorce.
In addition to divorce, there are other significant experiences of griefs or loss

that children and adolescents may encounter such as the death of a relative
or a friend, moving to a new school, friends moving away or parental change
as a result of job loss. Most students will experience some form of loss events
and school counsellors should be prepared to help them work through the
related issues. Other personal and social issues which the school counsellor
may have to deal with are anger, jealousy, lack of motivation, friendship
issues, gang involvement, relationship issues, self-concept, drug use and
abuse and peer pressure, to name a few.
One aspect of being an effective counsellor is the ability to identify and

understand the issues that studentsÊ face. The following are general
guidelines which counsellors may use when counselling the students:
(i) Listen to the Story

Students need to be heard and perhaps they need to hear themselves.
Often, they just need someone who will objectively listen without
interfering.

(ii) Help Students Identify Their Concerns

There may be multiple issues to be addressed. Which seems to be the
most pressing? Which issue the number one distraction in the studentÊs
life?
(iii) Meet the Student where the Student Is

If a student is not ready to talk or not ready to work on a problem,
do not force him. Counselling services are to be offered, not imposed.
(iv) Help the Student Set Goals

If the student is ready, talk about the goals that the student has set in
order to deal with the problem. What would be different as a result of
these goals? What would the student need to do differently to reach
these goals?
(v) Consider Challenges Along the Way

Discuss the possible consequences of the studentÊs decisions. What if
something does not go as planned? Are there alternatives?
(vi) Be Available and Check with the Student

Often, after something is resolved, the student may not come back to
the counsellor. It is important for the counsellor to find the student and
check to see how things are going with him.
It is inaccurate to assume that there is no relationship between a studentÊs personal

life and his academic behaviour. We cannot assume that students leave their
problems at the school door and become completely focussed on the academic
tasks at hand. The school counsellor can be a bridge between personal and social
concerns, and academic progress. To view a studentÊs personal, social, emotional
or academic development as if it exists in a vacuum or in isolation is a narrow
vision that will ultimately neglect the full potential of the student.
School counsellors must take a holistic approach. The unique training that school
counsellors receive enables them to discover how each developmental area is
intertwined with others and understand how each issue interacts or interferes with
the development in other areas. Counsellors must help students solve problems
and work through important issues that will ultimately affect their overall
functioning.

ACTIVITY 8.2
1. What are some counselling approaches for academic success?
2. To what extent do you agree with the proposed approaches

mentioned in subtopic 8.4?
3. Do you think schools are doing enough to help academically weak

students?

forum.
ACTIVITY 8.3
1. What is the role of the school counsellor in the aspect of career

development?
2. How is career development implemented in your school?
3. How can career development in your school be improved?
8.5 WHAT IS ETHICS?

Ethics is generally defined as a philosophical discipline that is concerned with
human conduct and moral decision-making. Ethics are normative in nature and
focus on principles and standards that govern relationships between individuals
such as those between counsellor and clients (Gladding, 2003). For most
professions, ethics are usually presented in the written form. Most professions
have their own Code of Ethics and the counselling profession is no exception.
For example, it is unethical for a counsellor to have intimate sexual relations with
his client. The term ethics is often referred to rather loosely to be similar with
morality.

It is common to encounter conflicts between legal and ethical or moral issues in

counselling. For example, a counsellor who refuses to provide confidential
information about a client even though he is ordered to do so by the court is
ethically right but is legally wrong (if the law provides for it). Another example is
when a counsellor applies counselling techniques which are not covered by the
law but are prohibited by the Code of Ethics. In this case, it may be legal since there
is no provision in the law but it is unethical and morally wrong.
The following are some examples of unethical behaviour in counselling:
(a) Violation of confidentiality.
(b) Claiming expertise that one does not have.
(c) Imposing oneÊs values on a client.
(d) Sexual activity with a client.
(e) Negligent practices include:
(i) Applying techniques that may harm the client;
(ii) Not giving due attention to clientÊs needs; and
(iii) Not serious about attending to clientÊs needs.
ACTIVITY 8.4
1. What is the difference between ethics, morality and law?
2. Give examples of situations in daily life where „it is legal but

unethical‰.

forum.

8.6 SOME GENERAL ETHICAL GUIDELINES

FOR COUNSELLORS
Most countries developed ethical guidelines to regulate the counselling profession
in order to address ethical issues. In most cases, the institution responsible for
drawing up these guidelines is the national counselling association. It is
responsible for drawing up a set of codes and standards of practice that have been
agreed upon by all parties in the counselling profession. For example, the British
Association for Counselling (BAC) ensures that counsellors practise their
profession according to ethical standards of practice developed by the association.
In the United States, ethical guidelines have been published by the American
Association for Counselling and Development (AACD). In Malaysia, the
Malaysian Counselling Association (Persatuan Kaunseling Malaysia or
PERKAMA) which was founded in 1980 was tasked with the responsibility to
formulate its own Code of Ethics. In 1998, the CounsellorsÊ Act (580) was
introduced. It outlined the procedures for licensing and certification of new
counsellors. The Malaysian Counsellors Advisory Council (Lembaga Kaunselor)
functions as a registrar and an accreditation body for the licensure and certification
(Suradi & Rafidah, 2005).
If one was to examine these different ethical guidelines, there are some common
general principles adopted by various countries. It should be noted that although
these guidelines are undoubtedly helpful, they are open to interpretation. It is
important to note that these ethical codes have been developed not only to protect
clients against abuse or malpractice but also to protect the counselling profession.
Listed in the following are some general guidelines governing the practice of
counselling (ACA Code of Ethics and Standards of Practice, 2015):
(a) The Counselling Relationship

Let us look at the counselling relationship in detail.
(i) Non-discrimination
Counsellors must respect diversity and must not discriminate against
clients because of age, colour, culture, disability, ethnicity, gender, race,
religion, sexual orientation, marital status or socioeconomic status.
(ii) Disclosure to Clients

Counsellors must adequately inform clients, preferably in writing,
regarding the counselling process and counselling relationship at or
before counselling begins and throughout the counselling sessions.

(iii) Sexual Intimacies with Clients

Counsellors must not engage in any types of sexual intimacies with his
clients.
(iv) Client Protection during Group Counselling

Counsellors must take steps to protect his clients from physical or
psychological trauma resulting from interactions during group
counselling.
(v) Termination
Counsellors must assist in making appropriate arrangements for the
continuation of his clientÊs treatment, when necessary, following the
proper procedures of termination.
(b) Confidentiality
Each of the confidentiality will now be discussed in detail.
(i) Confidentiality Requirement

Counsellors must ensure that information relating to counselling
services be kept confidential unless disclosure is in the best interest of
client or it is required for the welfare of others, or it is required by law.
When disclosure is required, only information that is essential is
revealed and the client is informed of such disclosure.
(ii) Confidentiality in Group Work

Counsellors must clearly inform group members that confidentiality
cannot be guaranteed in group work.
(iii) Confidentiality of Records

Counsellors must maintain appropriate confidentiality in creating,
storing, accessing, transferring and disposing of counselling records.
(iv) Disclosure or Transfer of Records

Counsellors must obtain clientÊs consent to disclose or transfer his
counselling records to third parties.

(c) Professional Responsibility

Let us study the professional responsibility closely.
(i) Boundaries of Competence

Counsellors must only practise within the boundaries of their
competence.
(ii) Continuing Education

Counsellors must engage in continuing education to maintain their
professional competence.
(iii) Impairment of Professionals

Counsellors must refrain from offering professional services when their
personal problems or conflicts may cause harm to his client or to others.
(d) Assessment and Interpretation

Now let us look at assessment and interpretation.
(i) Use of Assessment Instruments

Counsellors must perform only testing and assessment services for
which they are competent. Counsellors must not allow the use of
psychological assessment techniques by unqualified persons under
their supervision. Counsellors must use assessment instruments in the
manner for which they were intended.
(ii) Assessment Explanations to Clients
 Counsellors must provide explanations to his clients prior to the

assessment about the nature and purposes of the assessment and
the specific uses of the results.
 Counsellors must ensure that accurate and appropriate

interpretations accompany any releases of testing and assessment
information.
 Counsellors must not base their assessment or intervention

decisions or recommendations on data or test results that are
obsolete or outdated for the current purpose.

(e) Research and Publication

Let us now look at research and publication closely.
(i) Precautions to Avoid Injury in Research

Counsellors must avoid causing physical, social or psychological harm
or injury to subjects during research.
(ii) Confidentiality of Research Information

Counsellors must ensure that the information obtained about research
participants are kept confidential. Counsellors must not distort or
misrepresent research data, fabricate or intentionally cause biasness in
the research results.
(f) Resolving Ethical Issues

Now we will look at how and what do to in resolving ethical issues.
(i) Ethical Behaviour Expected

Counsellors must take appropriate actions when they possess
reasonable doubts of other counsellors not acting in an ethical manner.
(ii) Cooperation with Ethics Committees

Counsellors must cooperate with investigations, proceedings and
requirements of the ethics committees of the association or board in
their country which have a jurisdiction over those charged with a
violation.
ACTIVITY 8.5
1. Do you think the list of ethical guidelines for the counselling

profession is adequate?
2. What other guidelines would you suggest?

forum.

8.7 MORAL PRINCIPLES

The ethical guidelines discussed earlier are based on five moral principles, namely
autonomy, justice, beneficence, non-maleficence and fidelity (Kitchener, 1984).
Although you may not have come across some of these words, it is useful for
counsellors to apply these five moral principles when addressing issues that are
not well defined.
Figure 8.5: Five moral principles

Source: Kitchener (1984)
Figure 8.5 illustrates the five moral principles and its brief explanation will be
discussed as follows.
(a) Autonomy is the principle that addresses the concept of independence.

The essence of this principle is to allow an individual the freedom of choice
and action. It addresses the responsibility of the counsellor to encourage
clients, when appropriate, to make their own decisions and to act on their
own values. There are two important considerations in encouraging clients
to be autonomous:
(i) Firstly, help clients to understand how their decisions and their values
may or may not be received within the context of the society in which
they live and how they may impinge on the rights of others; and
(ii) The second consideration is related to the clientsÊ ability to make sound
and rational decisions. Individuals who are not capable of making
competent choices (such as children and individuals with mental
handicap) should not be allowed to act on decisions that could harm
themselves or others.

(b) Non-maleficence is the concept of not causing harm to others. Often

explained as „above all do no harm‰, this principle is considered by some to
be the most critical of all the principles (Rosenbaum, 1982). This principle
reflects both the idea of not inflicting intentional harm and not engaging in
actions that could risk harming others.
(c) Beneficence reflects the counsellorÊs responsibility to contribute to the

welfare of the client. Simply stated, it means to do good, to be proactive and
to prevent harm when possible (Forester-Miller & Rubenstein, 1992).
(d) Justice does not mean treating all individuals to be the same. Kitchener (1984)
pointed out that the formal meaning of justice is „treating equals equally and
unequal unequally but in proportion to their relevant differences‰. If an
individual is to be treated differently, the counsellor needs to be able to offer
a rationale that explains the necessity and appropriateness of treating this
individual differently.
(e) Fidelity involves the notions of loyalty, faithfulness and honouring

commitments. Clients must be able to trust the counsellor and have faith in
the counselling relationship if growth is to occur.
When exploring an ethical dilemma, you need to examine the situation and see
how each of the above principles relates to that particular case. At times this alone
will be able to provide clarification to the issues, so much so that resolving the
dilemma will become obvious to you. In more complicated cases it is helpful to be
able to work through the steps of an ethical decision-making model and to assess
which of these moral principles may be in conflict.
SELF-CHECK 8.2
1. What do you understand by autonomy, non-maleficence,

beneficence, justice and fidelity?
2. How are these principles useful in making ethical decisions in

counselling?

8.8 ETHICAL DECISION-MAKING

At some point in the counselling practice, the counsellor will have to face the
situation of whether he will need to apply the Code of Ethics of the counselling
profession. There are no ready-made answers and professional organisations may
not be of much help. Unfortunately, professional organisations only provide broad
guidelines for responsible practice and not the solutions for specific cases.
Therefore, the counsellor will be left with the task of making a decision involving
some ethical issues. Determining the appropriate course to take when faced with
a difficult ethical dilemma can be a challenge. In the United States, the American
Counselling Association (ACA) has developed A PractitionerÊs Guide to Ethical
Decision-Making to meet such challenges. The intent of this document is to offer
professional counsellors with a framework for sound ethical decision-making.
The guiding principles proposed are useful for any counsellors (even in Malaysia)
who are involved in ethical decision-making ă a model that professionals can
utilise to address ethical questions in their work.
8.8.1 Ethical Decision-making Model

Forester-Miller and Davis (1996) has synthesised the model of ethical
decision-making (Van Hoose & Paradise, 1979; Kitchener, 1984; Stadler, 1986;
Haas & Malouf, 1989; Forester-Miller & Rubenstein, 1992; Sileo & Kopala, 1993)
into a practical, sequential, seven-step ethical decision-making model.
Figure 8.6: Seven-step ethical decision-making model

Case
A student who has been in counselling for about a semester was arrested
for stealing a motorbike. The juvenile court has requested that the counsellor
appear in court to tell the court about the student. As a counsellor, are you
obliged to inform the court what your client has confided in you? What can you
tell or cannot tell to the court? This may be an ethical dilemma.
Let us analyse the case using the seven-step ethical decision-making model as
shown in Figure 8.6.
(a) Identify the Problem

In identifying the problem, as a counsellor, you need to gather as much
information as you can. It is essential to be as specific and as objective as
possible. You may write ideas on paper to outline the facts, separating the
assumptions, hypotheses or suspicions in order to gain clarity. There are
several questions that you can ask yourself: Is the problem an ethical, legal,
professional or clinical one? Is it a combination of more than one of these?
If it is a legal question, seek legal advice. Evaluate the rights, responsibilities
and welfare of all those involved in the situation.
(b) Look up the Code of Ethics

You need to refer to the Code of Ethics after you have clarified the problem
to see if the issue is addressed there. Find an applicable standard that you
can use that will resolve the problem. You may have a true ethical dilemma
if the problem is more complex and a resolution does not seem apparent.
If that is the case, you need to proceed with to the next step in the ethical
decision-making process.
(c) Determine the Nature and Dimensions of the Dilemma

There are several ways to ensure that you have examined the problem in all
its various dimensions. You need to consider the moral principles of
autonomy, non-maleficence, beneficence, justice and fidelity (which we have
discussed earlier). Then you need to decide which principles apply to the
specific situation and determine which principle takes priority for you in this
case. In theory, each principle is of equal value, which means that it is your
challenge to determine the priorities when two or more of them are in
conflict.
(i) Review the relevant professional literature to ensure that you are using
the most current professional thinking in reaching a decision;

(ii) Consult with experienced professional colleagues. As they review with

you the information you have gathered, they may see other issues that
are relevant or provide a perspective which you may not have
considered. They may also be able to identify aspects of the dilemma
that you have not viewed objectively; and
(iii) Consult your national professional association (such as PERKAMA)

to see if they can provide help with the dilemma.
(d) Generate Potential Courses of Action

You need to be creative and consider all the options when you brainstorm
for possible courses of action. It is best if you can engage the assistance of
at least one other colleague to help you generate more options.
(e) Consider the Potential Consequences of All Options and Determine a Course
of Action
You need to evaluate each option and assess the potential consequences for
all the parties involved after you have considered the information that you
have gathered and the priorities you have set. The implications of each
course of action for the client, for others who will be affected as well as for
yourself (as the counsellor) must be considered thoughtfully. You need to
eliminate the options that might cause even more problematic consequences
or those that clearly will not produce the desired results. Review the
remaining options to determine which option or combination of options best
fits the situation and address the priorities you have identified.
(f) Evaluate the Selected Course of Action

Review the selected course of action to see if it presents any new ethical
considerations. Stadler (1986, as cited in Forester-Miller & Davis, 1996)
suggested the application of three simple tests to the selected course of action
to ensure that the selected course of action is appropriate.
(i) In applying the test of justice, assess your own sense of fairness by
determining whether you would treat others in the same manner as in
this situation;
(ii) For the test of publicity, ask yourself whether you would want your
behaviour to be reported in the press; and
(iii) For the test of universality, assess whether you would recommend the
same course of action to another counsellor under the same situation.

If you can answer in the affirmative to each of the three questions suggested
and you are satisfied that you have selected an appropriate course of action,
then you are ready to move on to the implementation stage.
(g) Implement the Course of Action

It is often difficult to take the appropriate action in an ethical dilemma.
The final step involves strengthening your ego in order to allow you to carry
out your plan. It is a good practice to follow up on the situation after
implementing your course of action in order to assess whether your actions
had the anticipated effects and consequences.
There is seldom one answer to a complex ethical dilemma. Thus, it is crucial to be

aware that different professionals may employ different courses of action for the
same situation. However, you will definitely be able to give a professional
explanation for the course of action that you have chosen if you follow a systematic
model. Van Hoose and Paradise (1979, as cited in Forester-Miller & Davis [1996])
suggested that a counsellor „is probably acting in an ethically responsible way
concerning a client if:
(a) He has maintained personal and professional honesty, coupled with:
(b) The best interest of the client;
(c) Without malice or personal gain; and
(d) Can justify his actions as the best judgment of what should be done based
upon the current state of the profession‰. Following this model will help to
ensure that all these four conditions have been met.
8.9 DIMENSION OF CONFIDENTIALITY

Confidentiality is central to the counselling process. No counselling session can
take place unless the client trusts in the privacy of the relationship with the
counsellor. Counsellors have an ethical responsibility to discuss the nature and
purpose of confidentiality with their clients early in the counselling process.
Clients have a right to know that their counsellor may be discussing certain details
of the relationship with school authorities or colleagues.

Although most counsellors agree on the essential value of confidentiality, they also
realise that it cannot be considered as an absolute confidentiality. There are times
when confidential information must be divulged. There are many instances in
which the decision whether to keep or to break the confidentiality becomes a
cloudy issue. In general, confidentiality must be broken when it becomes clear that
clients might do serious harm to either themselves or others.
For example, there is legal requirement to break confidentiality in cases involving

child abuse. The counsellor, after hearing a student tells about the fact that she has
being sexually abused at home, may have to break confidentiality to protect the
client from further harm. The following are circumstances in which counsellors
may break confidentiality:
(a) When the counsellor believes that a client (a student) is the victim of incest,
rape, child abuse or some other crimes;
(b) When the counsellor determines that the client needs hospitalisation;
(c) When the information is made an issue in a court action; or
(d) When clients request that their records are released to themselves or to a
third party.
In general, however, it is a counsellorÊs primary obligation to protect his clientÊs

information as a vital part of the counselling relationship. When assuring clients
that what they reveal in counselling sessions will generally be kept confidential,
counsellors should also inform them of any limitations on confidentiality. This
practice does not necessarily inhibit successful counselling.
 Schools are required to provide enrichment services for the overall

development of the students.
 Opportunities and facilities have to be made available in line with the

capabilities and potential of the students.
 Preventive measures have to be introduced, especially with regard to

disciplinary problems, inappropriate behaviours, drug abuse and other
maladaptive behaviours.

 Efforts should be made to provide remedial services especially with regard to

helping students with academic problems and career choice.
 The purpose of having guidance and counselling services in schools is to help

students understand themselves and the world around them. It is the process
of helping students to maximise their abilities, capabilities and talents.
 One of the major roles of school counsellors is to help students achieve

academic success. There are two major ways that school counsellors can
intervene to help students succeed academically:
 Firstly, school counsellors can help to create a school climate that promotes
academic success; and
 Secondly, direct counselling interventions can be used with individual

students or groups of students for whom academic success is a challenge.
 Ethics are normative in nature and focus on principles and standards that
govern relationships between individuals such as those between the counsellor
and his clients.
 Morality involves judgement or evaluation of action. It is associated with

words such as good, bad, right, wrong, ought and should.
 Law is the precise description of governing standards that are established to

ensure legal and moral justice.
 Most countries have developed ethical guidelines to regulate the counselling

profession. In most cases, the institution responsible for drawing up these
guidelines is the national counselling association.
 Some general guidelines governing the practice of counselling include:
 The counselling relationship;
 Confidentiality;
 Professional responsibility;
 Assessment and interpretations;
 Research and publication; and
 Resolving ethical issues.

 At some point in the counselling process, counsellors will be faced with the
situation where he or she will have to apply the Code of Ethics of the
counselling profession.
 Ethical decision-making model offers professional counsellors a framework for

sound ethical decision-making.
 Confidentiality is central to the counselling process. No counselling session can

take place unless the client trusts in the privacy of the relationship with the
counsellor.
 There are times when confidential information must be divulged. There are
also many instances in when deciding whether to keep or to break
confidentiality becomes a cloudy issue.
Academic success Holistic development

Autonomy Interventions for academic success
Career choice Justice
Climate for learning Law or Legal
Code of Ethics for counsellors Moral principles
Counselling for career development Morality
Counselling for personal development Non-maleficence
Decision-making PERKAMA
Dimension of confidentiality Preventive measures
Ethical decision-making Remedial services
Fidelity Vocational issues

American Counselling Assoction (ACA). (2015). ACA code of ethnics. Alexandria,

VA: American Counselling Association.
Forester-Miller, H., & Davis, T. (1996). A practitionerÊs guide to ethical decision

making. American Counseling Association.
Gladding, S. T. (2003). Group work: A counselling specialty. UK: Prentice Hall.
Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia. (1993). Panduan perlaksanaan perkhidmatan

bimbingan dan kaunseling di sekolah menengah. Unit Bimbingan dan
Kaunseling, Bahagian Sekolah.
Kitchener, K. S. (1984). Intuition, critical evaluation and ethical principles:

The foundation for ethical decisions in counseling psychology. Counseling
Psychologist, 12(3), 43ă55.
LaypersonÊs Guide to Code of History. http://www.counseling.org/Files/FD.

ashx?guid=606b5973-315c-4118-8b2c-2fbfd8194f82
Purkey, W. W., & Schmidt, J. J. (1996). Invitational learning for counseling and
development. USA: Caps Pr.
Suradi Salim & Rafidah Aga Mohd Jaladin. (2005). Development of counselling
services in Malaysia in Contemporary Issues of Malaysia Psychology
(eds Zafar Afaq Ansari & Noraini M. Noor). Kuala Lumpur: Thomson
Learning.
Suradi Salim. (1996). Bimbingan dan kaunseling. Kuala Lumpur: PTS Professional.

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Topic  School

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

School counsellors have an important role in addressing these concerns and

8.1 IMPORTANCE OF THEORY IN

In 1968, the Ministry of Education Malaysia issued a circular (KP5209/30/13)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Figure 8.1: Goals of guidance and counselling services in Malaysian schools

In addition, efforts should be made to provide remedial services especially with

In 1996, the Ministry of Education Malaysia issued a circular (KP SB-HEP

1. Trace the history of guidance and counselling in Malaysian schools.

2. What other events have influenced the development of counselling

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

8.2 WHY ARE SCHOOL COUNSELLING

Figure 8.2: Reasons for school counselling services

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Let us now look at each of these reasons in detail.

(a) Holistic Development of Students

(b) Making Decisions

(c) Motivating Students

(d) Career Choice

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

8.3 ISSUES IN SCHOOL COUNSELLING

Figure 8.3: Issues emphasised in school counselling programmes

A comprehensive school counselling programme will provide guidance and

(a) Personal Issues

(b) Educational Issues

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

(c) Vocational Issues

(a) Not interested in learning;

(b) Playing truant (loitering in shopping complexes, video arcades, internet

(d) Stealing school property;

(e) Owning, viewing and distributing pornographic materials;

(f) Behaving rudely;

(h) Drug abuse;

(j) Gangsterism (belonging to or claiming to belong to gangs outside of

(k) Violating school rules (dress code, length of hair).

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

1. How serious is the issue of negative student behaviour in your

2. How has management dealt with these negative behaviours?

3. Do you think schools are doing enough to reduce the occurrence of

Share your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online

8.4 APPROACHES IN SCHOOL COUNSELLING

Figure 8.4: Approaches in school counselling

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Each of these approaches in school counselling will now be discussed in detail.

(a) Counselling for Academic Success

(i) Creating a Climate of Learning

It is easy to encourage and reward students who are motivated to

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

(ii) Counselling Interventions

 Assessing the Present Problem

 Is the issue solely academic?

 Is the problem more psychological, social or emotional?

 Is the source of the issue outside the school environment?

The answers to these questions will influence how the school

When setting goals for the studentÊs academic success, it is critical

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

 Selecting Appropriate Intervention Strategies

(b) Counselling for Career Development

In primary schools, counsellors may organise activities which require pupils

In secondary schools, emphasis should be on how various occupations play

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

To help students prepare for their careers, counsellors could maintain

(ii) Grades and test scores;