1

Chapter 1: Types of measurement scales

1. Nominal – not a true measurement more of categorical 1= female, 2=

male.
2. Ordinal – for ranking or order eg in beauty contest 1=Mary, 2=Jane
3. Interval – equal interval scores eg marks (0= arbitary not true zero)
4. Ratio - equal ratio, true zero (height =0 m, weight = 0 Kg)

Two types of Variables

1. Discrete variables - counting numbers (1,2,3)

2. Continuous variables – defined range of values (weight = 45.6 Kg,
marks = 72.5%)

Statistical Techniques

1. Descriptive – describe the main features of eah variable

(a) Univariate statistics : average age, no of people
(b) Bivariate statistics : relationship between 2 or more variables
(correlation coefficient)
2. Inferential statistics: findings based on sample and Hypothesis testing
to find significant different and correlation between variables.

Research Design

1. Related measures : correlated/ paired measures with little variability

(a) mean of same sample for 2 or more variables taken at different
time eg test or attitude score
(b) 2 or more groups carefully matched

2. Unrelated measures: uncorrelated or unpaired measures eg. Means of

2 different samples compared for certain variable

Types of statistics to use for analysis

1. All types of study: Descriptive stTo atistics, f tables and diagrams,

pie-charts, ar charts, histogramTo
2. To assess relationship between 2 variables: correlation coefficient,
regression
 2

3. To compare set of scores 1 to score 2: related/unrelated/t

/ANOVA/F ratio test, Mann-Whitney, Wilcoxon-matched pairs
4. Comparing means of 2 or more set of scores: related/unrelated
ANOVA, Multiple comparison
5. Complex experiment: 1 dep Var with 2 or more indp var : For
related and unrelated scores – 2 or more way ANOVA or mixed
design ANOVA. If other var may affect scores on dep var use
ANCOVA
6. Correlation between Var 1 and Var 2 may be affected by 3 rd Var use
Partial Correlation
7. Finding predictors for score/ variable: simple regression, stepwise
multiple regression, hierarchical multiple regression , log-linear
analysis
8. Finding predictors for Category variable: multinomial logistic
regression/ Binomial logistic regression
9. Analysing questionnaire: Factor analysis/ Alpha reliability/ Split-
half reliability/ Recoding/ Computing new variables
10. Comparing f data: Chi-square/ Fisher test/ McNemar test/ log-
linear analysis
11. Coding open-ended data using raters: Kappa coefficient K/ Inter-
rater measures

Descriptive Statistics

Tables and diagram clearly labeled and titled

1. Frequency table – counting numbes
2. Pie-Chart – for small number of variables with numbers and %
3. Bar-Chart – large number of variables (category scale)
4. Histogram – numerical scores and no space in between

Ex.
Occupation f %f

Teacher 17 21.25
Nurse 3 3.75
TV presenters 23 28.75
Students 20 25.00
Other 17 21.25
 3

Summarize f data by weighting: click on [Var view] then [Data View] to

define the variable and to enter data

Click on right side of

[Values] to open
dialogue box and Type
[1] in the [Value] and
[Teachers] in the [Label]
then [Add] Repeat until
[5]

Fill up on [Variable View]

Select [Data View] at lower right and enter the data

To [Weight Cases] use [Data] then [Wt
cases] at bottom

Move f to this box and select [Weight

cases by] then [OK]

To show the percentage f for the different Occupation

 4

Select [Analyze] then [Descriptive Statististics] then [Frequencies…]

Move occupation to Variable box

then [OK]

To Interprete the Results in the Table

This column gives % f for

each category including
Thi column add eg. 21.3 + 3.8 =
missing values if you have
25.0 then 25 + 28.7 = 53.8 then
any of them
53.8 + 25 =78.8 till 100%

This column gives

% excluding
missing values

When reporting the results, simplify the table, then report only the Category,
Frequency and the Percentage frequency. Omit Valid from the table.