TITLE OF THE PROJECT REPORT

SURVEY ON VARIOUS PATHLOSS MODELS IN

WIRELESS COMMUNICATION
SUBMITTED BY --
NAME REGISTRATION NO. ROLL NO.

AFTAB ALI 091270110185 of 2009-10 09127003092

SREEJIT BARDHAN 091270110279 of 2009-10 09127003063

SOUVIK CHANDA 091270110277 of 2009-10 09127003062

KAUSHIK KARMAKAR 091270110229 of 2009-10 09127003090

Under the guidance of

DOLA BHATTACHARJEE GUPTA

In partial fulfillment for the award of the degree Of B.TECH in ELECTRONICS AND
COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING from

Narula Institute of Technology

81, Nilgunj road

Agarpara

Kolkata – 700 109

 TO WHOM IT MAY CONCERN

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This project is done as a semester project, as a part of course titled SURVEY

ON VARIOUS PATHLOSS MODELS IN WIRELESS COMMUNICATION. We are
really thankful to our respected instructor Prof. Dola Bhattacharjee Gupta,
Assistant Professor, Department of Electronics & Communication, Narula
Institute of Technology, Kolkata, for her invaluable guidance and assistance.
We are thankful to our ECE dept. and DR. M.R.Kanjilal, Head of ECE Dept. for
providing us support throughout the project and for giving us the opportunity
to use the laboratory. In our present project we have chosen the topic- “Path-
loss in wireless communication” and a case study of the same. This report
contains an over view of various path loss during wireless communication.
 INDEX
Pages

Chapter 1 Architecture from 1G to 4G

1.0 Introduction 1
1.1 Introduction of wireless telecommunication
1.1.1 History of mobile telephone 1
1.1.2 1st Generation(1G) 2
1.1.3 2nd Generation(2G) 3
1.1.4 3rd Generation(3G) 4
1.1.5 4th Generation(4G) 5
1.1.6 Network architecture evaluation 7
1.1.7 Comparisons from 1G to 4G 7
1.2 Conclusion 8

Chapter 2 Path loss model

2.0 Introduction 9
2.0.1 Causes 9
2.1 Free space modeling
2.1.1 Introduction 9
2.1.2 Theory 10
2.1.3 Decibel version of free space path loss equation 11
2.1.4 Conclusion 12
2.2 Indoor path loss model
2.2.1 Introduction 13
2.2.2 Partition loss(same floor) 13
2.2.3 Log-distance path loss model 14
2.2.4 Ericson multiple break point model 15
2.2.5 Conclusion 16
2.3 Outdoor path loss model
2.3.1 Introduction 17
2.3.2 Lee model 17
2.3.3 Okumura model 18
2.3.4 Hata model 19
2.4 Conclusion 20
 Pages

Chapter 3 Comparisons of path loss models

3.1 Introduction 21
3.2 Power of Free space model 21
3.3 Power of indoor path loss model 21
3.4 Power of outdoor path loss model 22
3.5 Comparisons of different models
3.5.1 Okumura model vs. Log-distance model 22
3.5.2 Lee model vs. Okumura model 22
3.5.3 Okumura model vs. Hata model 22
3.6 Typical path loss exponents 24

3.7 Conclusion 24

Chapter 4 Applications
4.1 Introduction 25

4.2 Free space path loss model 25

4.3 Indoor path loss model 25

4.4 Outdoor path loss model 27

4.5 Conclusion 28

References
Chapter 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Wireless operations permit services, such as long-range communications, that are impossible or
impractical to implement with the use of wires. The term is commonly used in the
telecommunications industry to refer to telecommunications systems (e.g. radio transmitters
and receivers, remote controls etc.) which use some form of energy (e.g. radio waves, acoustic
energy, etc.) to transfer information without the use of wires. Information is transferred in this
manner over both short and long distances.

The world's first wireless telephone conversation occurred in 1880, when Alexander Graham
Bell and Charles Sumner Tainter invented and patented the photo phone, a telephone that
conducted audio conversations wirelessly over modulated light beams (which are narrow
projections of electromagnetic waves). In that distant era, when utilities did not yet exist to
provide electricity and lasers had not even been imagined in science fiction, there were no
practical applications for their invention, which was highly limited by the availability of both
sunlight and good weather. Similar to free-space optical communication, the photo phone also
required a clear line of sight between its transmitter and its receiver. It would be several
decades before the photo phone’s principles found their first practical applications in military
communications and later in fiber-optic communications.

1.1INTRODUCTION OF WIRELESS TELECOMMUNICATION

1.1.1 History of mobile telephony
The history of mobile phones charts the development of devices which connect wirelessly to
the public switched telephone network. The transmission of speech by radio has a long and
varied history going back to Reginald Fessenden's invention and shore-to-ship demonstration of
radio telephony, through the Second World War with military use of radio telephone links.
Hand-held radio transceivers have been available since the 1940s. Mobile telephones for
automobiles became available from some telephone companies in the 1940s. Early devices
were bulky and consumed high power and the network supported only a few simultaneous
conversations.

Motorola and Bell Labs raced to be the first to produce a handheld mobile phone. That race
ended on 3 April 1973 when Martin Cooper, a Motorola researcher and executive, made the
first mobile telephone call from handheld subscriber equipment, placing a call to Dr. Joel S.
Engel of Bell Labs. The prototype handheld phone used by Dr. Martin Cooper weighed 2.5
pounds and measured 9 inches long, 5 inches deep and 1.75 inches wide. The prototype offered
a talk time of just 30 minutes and took 10 hours to re-charge.

Fig 1 A mobile radio telephone

1.1.2 1G 1st GENERATION

1G (or 1-G) refers to the first-generation of wireless telephone technology. These are the analog
telecommunications standards that were introduced in the 1980s.1G devices used the analog
technology for the communication which includes the communication on certain frequency band (FDMA
- Frequency Division Multiple Access). The conversation was a full duplex meaning both the persons can
talk & listen at a time. Device was equipped with direct dialing hence operator help was no more
required to connect to a call. Since the whole technology was based on the analog system noise
introduction into the signal during communication was a disadvantage.

The main difference between two succeeding mobile telephone systems, 1G and 2G, is that the radio
signals that 1G networks use are analog, while 2G networks are digital.

1G speeds vary between that of a 28k modem (28kbit/s) and 56k modem (56kbit/s),[3] meaning actual
download speeds of 2.9KBytes/s to 5.6KBytes/s.
Figure 2 Architecture of 1G

1.1.3 2G 2nd GENERATION

2G (or 2-G) is short for second-generation wireless telephone technology.1990 was the era of GSM
mobile phones (Global System for Mobile Communications), the Second Generation (2G). 2G
technologies can be divided into Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)-based and Code Division
Multiple Access (CDMA)-based standards depending on the type of multiplexing used.In 1991 the first
GSM network opened in Finland. Each user gets a SIM card from the Operator which stores the
subscriber identity and also provides the authentication to use the Mobile Service. The 2G phone
systems uses the Digital Technology for communication. This means the transmission and reception of
the signal is digital (bits), voice communications are digitally encrypted. It means greater privacy,
efficient data transfer without noise and also less expensive devices. Due to the Digital technology 2G
allowed General Packet Radio Service(GPRS) and also introduced Short Messaging Service (SMS).
Figure 3 Architecture of GSM & GPRS

1.1.4 3G 3rd GENERATION

3G, short for third Generation, is the 3rd generation of mobile telecommunications technology.The
development of 2.5G and 2.75G led to the transition to 3G. There are some features in 3G which are
enhanced versions of its predecessors.Majority of the features mentioned in 3G are already available in
2.5G & 2.75G such as Browsing the Internet, Sending and receiving of the videos, e-mailing. Therefore
we shouldn’t consider 3G as totally a new technology. Instead, we can say 3G is an enhanced version of
the 2G technology with faster data communication rate.

3G telecommunication networks support services that provide an information transfer rate of at least
200 kbit/s.

› Multimedia streaming & download

› High speed mobile broadband

› Live Mobile TV
› Mobile Gaming

› Video calling

›Global Positioning System

Figure 4 Architecture of 3G

1.1.5 4G 4th GENERATION

4G is short for Fourth (4th) Generation Technology. 4G Technology is basically the extension in the 3G
technology with more bandwidth and services offers in the 3G. But at this time nobody exactly knows
the true 4G definition. Some people say that 4G technology is the future technologies that are mostly in
their maturity period. The expectation for the 4G technology is basically the high quality audio/video
streaming over end to end Internet Protocol. If the Internet Protocol (IP) multimedia sub-system
movement achieves what it going to do, nothing of this possibly will matter. WiMAX or mobile structural
design will become progressively more translucent, and therefore the acceptance of several
architectures by a particular network operator ever more common.

4G Technology offers high data rates that will generate new trends for the market and prospects for
established as well as for new telecommunication businesses. 4G networks are projected to provide a
speed of 100Mbps while moving and 1 Gbps when stationery.

4G has an advantage of having the WiMAX as a product because IEEE introduces and releases it already
therefore economic as no need to pay for its manufacturing price. 4G supports two basic equipments;

WiMAX Network system (network infrastructure)

mobile phone set

Figure 5 Architecture of 4G
1.1.6 Network Architecture Evolution

Figure 6 Network architecture evaluation

1.1.7 COMPARISON BETWEEN 1G-4G TECHNOLOGIES

Table 1 Comparison of 1G,2G,3G&4G

1.2 CONCLUSION
Attempts have been made to reduce a number of technologies to a single global standard. Upcoming 4G
systems promise of a standard. So 4G will be best as compared to its predecessors.4G is being
developed to accommodate the quality of service.4G will change the way we work, live & play. It will
make world dynamic, fast & easier to access.
Chapter 2
PATH LOSS
2.0 Introduction
Path loss is the reduction in power density (attenuation) of an electromagnetic wave as it
propagates through space. Path loss is a major component in the analysis and design of the link
budget of a telecommunication system. This term is commonly used in wireless
communications and signal propagation.

2.0.1 Causes
Path loss normally includes propagation losses caused by the natural expansion of the radio
wave front in free space, absorption loss, when
the signal passes through media and it is not
transparent to electromagnetic waves then path
loss is occurred.

Figure 7 Path loss

2.1 FREE SPACE MODEL

2.1.1 Introduction
In telecommunication, free-space propagation model is used to predict received signal
strength when the transmitter and receiver have a clear, unobstructed line-of-sight path
between them. Satellite communication system and microwave line-of-sight radio links typically
undergo free space propagation.
2.1.2 Theory
The surface area of a sphere of radius d is 4πd2. The power density w at distance d from a
transmitter with power and antenna gain is

/ 4

The available power at a receive antenna with gain is given by Friis free space equations

/ 4
Figure 8 Transmitter and receiver at distance d

Where A is the effective area or `aperture' of the antenna, with GR = 4πA / λ2. The wavelength λ
is c / fc with c the velocity of light and fc the carrier frequency. The product is called the
effectively radiated power (ERP) of the transmitter.

Free space propagation can also be expressed in relation to a reference point

Where

Figure 9 Position of reference point

is unitless constant that depends on the antenna characteristic and free space path loss up to
distance .

For indoor =1m, Outdoor = 100m to 1km.

A waveform of free space path loss system is shown in below

Figure 10 Free space propagation

2.1.3 Decibel version of free space path loss equation

Most RF comparisons and measurements are performed in decibels. This gives an easy and
consistent method to compare the signal levels present at various points. Accordingly it is very
convenient to express the free space path loss formula, FSPL, in terms of decibels. It is easy to
take the basic free space path loss equation and manipulate into a form that can be expressed
in a logarithmic format.

FSPL (dB) = 20 log10 (d) + 20 log10 (f) + 32.44

Where:
d is the distance of the receiver from the transmitter (km)
f is the signal frequency (MHz)
2.1.4 Conclusion
At the end of surveying of path loss and free space propagation loss we concluded that path
loss has occurred in every type of communication system which is related to radio wave
frequency. The free space propagation model is used to predict the signal strength.
2.2 INDOOR PATH LOSS MODEL
2.2.1 INTRODUCTION
The field of indoor radio propagation is relatively new , with the first wave of research occurring in the
early 1989s. Cox [Cox83b] at AT&T Bell Laboratories and Alexander [Ale82] at British Telecomm were the
first to carefully study indoor path loss in and around a large number of office buildings.

In general , indoor chanel may be classified either as line-of-sight(LOS) or obstructed(OBS), with varying
digrees of clutter . some of the key models which have recently emerged are now presented.

2.2.2 PARTITION LOSSES (seam floor)

Buildings have a wide variety of partitions and obstacles which form the internal and external
structure. Houses typically use a wood frame partition with plaster board to form internal walls
and have wood or non-reinforced concrete between floors. Office buildings on the other hand
often have large open areas which are constructed by using movable office partitions so that
the space maybe reconfigured easily and use metal reinforced concrete between floors.

For indoor communication, the construction materials that make up the obstructions are the
largest attenuators. The following is a list of common construction materials and their
approximate attenuation at 900 MHz (Thicknesses of materials are given in parenthesis).

Table 2 Attenuation in different materials

Figure 11 Graphical representation

2.2.3 LOG-DISTANCE PATH LOSS MODEL

Indoor path loss has been shown by many researchers to obey the distance power law in Equation

10 ! "#

Where the value of n depends on the surroundings and building type , and "# represents a normal
random variable in dB having a standard daviation of $ dB. Notice that Equation is identical in form the
of the log-normal shadowing model of following equation

% & '''' "# '''' 10 ( ) "#

Figure 12 Log-distance path loss (graphical view)

Typical values for various buildings in following table

Building Frequency(MHz) n * (dB)

Retail store 914 2.2 8.7
office 914 1.8 7.0
Textile/chemical 1300 2.0 3.0
factory
Paper/Cereals 1300 1.8 6.0
Indoor street 900 3.0 7.0
Metal working 1300 3.3 6.8
Table 3 Path loss Exponent & Standard deviation measured in different buildings

2.2.4 ERICSON MULTIPLE BREAKPOINT MODEL

The Ericson radio system model was obtained by measurements in a multiple floor office building. The
model has four break points and considers both an upper and lower bound on the path loss. The model
also assumes that there is 30 dB attenuation at = 1 m , which can be shown to be accurate for
f=900MHZ and unity gain antennas. Rather than assuming a log-normal shadowing component, the
Erickson model provides a deterministic limit on the range of path loss at a particular distance.
Bernhardt used a uniform distribution to generate path loss values within the maximum and minimum
range as a function of distance for in-building simulation.
 Figure 13 Erickson in-building path loss model [from[Ake88]@IEEE]

2.2.5 CONCLUSION
The positioning prototype developed in this project showcases the use of an innovative signal
propagation model to provide a high degree of accuracy in estimating the position of a mobile device in
wireless ad-hoc network. The dual signal propagation model implies that the system can adjust to a line
of sight environment i.e. in indoor environment.
2.3 Outdoor Path loss models
2.3.1 Introduction
Radio transmission in a mobile communications system often takes place over irregular terrain. The
terrain profile of a particular area needs to be taken into account for estimating the path loss. The
terrain profile may be vary from a simple curved earth profile to a highly mountainous profile. The
presence of trees, buildings, and other obstacle also must be taken into account. A number of
propagation models are available to predict path loss over irregular terrain. Most of these models are
based on a systematic interpretation of measurement data obtained in the service area. Some of the
commonly used outdoor propagation models are now discussed.

2.3.2 Lee Model:

Lee Model for Point-to-Point Mode is a radio propagation model that operates around 900
MHz . Built as two different modes, this model includes an adjustment factor that can be
adjusted to make the model more flexible to different regions of propagation.

Application: This model is suitable for using in data collected in a specific area for Point to
Point links.

Coverage: frequency 900 MHz

Mathematical Formula:

L = The median path loss. Unit: decibel (dB)

L0 = The reference path loss along 1 km. Unit: decibel (dB)

= The slope of the path loss curve. Unit: decibels per decade
d = The distance on which the path loss is to be calculated. Unit: kilometer (km)
FA = Adjustment factor.
HET = Effective height of terrain. Unit: meter(m)

2.3.3 Okumura Model:

The Okumura model is a Radio propagation model that was built using the data collected in
the city of Tokyo, Japan. The model is ideal for using in cities with many urban structures but
not many tall blocking structures. The model served as a base for the Hata Model.
Okumura model was built into three modes. The ones for urban, suburban and open areas. The
model for urban areas was built first and used as the base for others. Okumura's model is
considered to be among the simplest and best in terms of accuracy in path loss prediction for
mature cellular and land mobile radio systems in cluttered environments. It is very practical and
has become a standard for system planning in modern land mobile radio systems in Japan. The
major disadvantage with the model is its slow response to rapid changes in terrain, therefore the
model is fairly good in urban and suburban areas, but not as good in rural areas. Common
standard deviations between predicted and measured path loss values are around 10 dB to 14
dB
Coverage: frequency 150Mhz-1920Mhz

Mathematical Formula:

L = The median path loss. Unit: Decibel (dB)

LFSL = The Free Space Loss. Unit: Decibel (dB)

AMU = Median attenuation. Unit: Decibel (dB)

HMG = Mobile station antenna height gain factor.
HBG = Base station antenna height gain factor.
Kcorrection = Correction factor gain (such as type of environment, water surfaces, isolated obstacle
etc.)
Median attenuation (AMU) relative to free space is shown in graph
Figure 14 Median attenuation relative to free space

2.3.4 HATA MODEL

The hata model (Hat 90) is an empirical formulation of the graphical path loss data provided by
Okumura, and is valid from 150 MHz to 1500 MHz. Hata presented the urban area propagation
loss as a standard formula and supplied correction Equations for application to other situations.
The standard formula for median path loss in urban areas is given by

+ ,-./ 69.55 26.16 56 7 13.82 : ;7/ : ; 44.9 7 6.55 : ;

Where 56 is the frequency (in MHz) from 150 MHz to 1500MHz, : ; is the effective transmitter
(base station) antenna height (in meters) ranging from 30m to 200 m , : ; is the effective
receiver (mobile) antenna height (in meters) ranging from 1 m to 10 m , d is the T-R separation
distance (in km) , and / : ; is the correction factor for effective mobile antenna height which is
a function of the size of the coverage area . For a small to medium sized city , the mobile
antenna correction factor is given by
/ : ; 1.1 56 7 0.7 : ; 7 1.56 56 7 0.8 dB

For a large city

/ : ; 8.29 1.54: ; 7 1.1 dB for 56 ≤ 300 MHz
/ : ; 3.2 11.75: ; 7 4.97 dB for 56 300 MHz

To obtain the path loss in a suburban area, the standard Hata formula is modified as
56
+ + ,-./ 7 2 >log !B 7 5.4
28
And for path loss in open rural areas, the formula is modified as

+ + ,-./ 7 4.78 56 18.33 56 7 40.94

Although Hata’s model does not have any of the path-specific correction which are available in
Okumura’s model, the above expressions have significant practical value. The predictions of the
Hata model compare very closely with the original Okumura model, as long as d exceeds 1 km.

2.4 CONCLUSION
The positioning prototype developed in this project showcases the use of an innovative signal
propagation model to provide a high degree of accuracy in estimating the position of a mobile
device in wireless ad-hoc network. The dual signal propagation model implies that the system
can adjust to a non-line of sight environment to a large degree at a larger distances, even
though the typical case is considered that of a line of sight environment. The minimal sampling
and high noise threshold ensures that the prototype can be used in real time applications.
CHAPTER – 3
COMPARISON OF VARIOUS PATH LOSSES
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The design of a communication system involves selection of values for several parameters. One of the
important parameter is the transmit power. Higher transmit power ensures large allowable separation
distance between the transmitter (Tx) and receiver (Rx).
In terrestrial mobile communication system, electro-magnetic wave propagation is affected by reaction,
direction and scattering. These lead to dynamic variation of signal strength as a function of time,
frequency, distance of separation, antenna height, antenna configuration, local scattering environment
etc.

3.2 POWER OF FREE SPACE PATH LOSS MODEL –

Transmitter power is and receiver power is thus,

CD F
CE
= GHI

Where and are the antenna gains . If the gain has unit of dB then the formula will be

20 J
4 K

This simple form applies only under the following ideal condition: when R>>λ

If R<λ , then the equation would give the physically impossible result that the receive power is greater
than the transmit power, a violation of the law of conservation of energy.

3.3 POWER OF INDOOR PATH LOSS MODEL

In a survey of existing indoor propagation models, one researcher indicates that the path loss
exponent has been shown to vary anywhere from 1.5 to 6.0 depending upon the carrier frequency
of the transmitted signal, the building type, and whether the transmitter and receiver are within
LOS range.

3.4 POWER OF OUTDOOR PATH LOSS MODEL

Radio transmission in mobile communication system often takes place over irregular terrain. A number
of propagation models are available to predict path loss over irregular terrain. While all these models
aims to predict signal strength at a particular receiver point or in specific local area, the methods very
widely in their approach, complexity and accuracy. Most of these modes are based on a systematic
interpretation of measurement data obtained in service area.
3.5 Comparison of different models
3.5.1 Okumura models vs. Log-distance models
Okumura's model is one of the most widely used models for signal prediction in urban areas. This
model is applicable for frequencies in the range 150 MHz to 1920 MHz (although it is typically
extrapolated up to 3000 MHz) and distances of 1 km to 100 km. It can be used for base station
antenna heights ranging from 30 m to 1000 m.

Log-distance model is formerly described as

% & '''' "# '''' 10 ( ) "#

In case of no fading "# is 0. In case of only shadow fading or slow fading, this random variable may
have Gaussian distribution with the standard deviation in dB, resulting in log-normal distribution of the
received power in Watt.

So by observation one thing is clear that Log distance model is more efficient because here the
path loss occurred slowly, which is less than the amount of loss in Okumura models.

3.5.2 Lee model vs. Okumura model

Coverage frequency of lee model 900 MHz and coverage frequency of Okumura model 150MHz-1920
MHz

ii) Lee model is suitable for using in data collected in a specific area for Point to Point links and
Okumura model is ideal for using in cities with many urban structures but not many tall blocking
structures. The model served as a base for the Hata Model.

3.5.3 Okumura model vs. Hata model

For Okumura model –
• Slow response to rapid terrain changes.
• Standard and measured path loss ~ 10dB to 14dB.
• It is mainly used in urban area.
• Frequency 150 MHz to 1920 MHz
Distance 1 Km to 100 Km
Base station height 30 m to 100 m.
For Hata model –
• Predicts median path loss for different channels
• Valid over UHF/VHF band from 150MHz to 1.5GHz.
• Standard formula for urban propagation loss
• Frequency 150MHz to 1.5GHz
Base station height
Medium city 3.83
Large city (56 L 300MHz) 3.84
Large city (56 M 300MHz) 3.84

The comparison between Okumura model & Hata model is shown graphically below

Figure 15 Okumura vs. Hata model

3.6 Typical path loss exponents
Empirically, the relation between the average received power and distance is determined by the
expression where N is called the path loss exponent. Relation with received power is
PQ
∞

Environment Path loss exponent; R

Free space 2

Urban area 2.7 to 3.5

Suburban area 3 to 5

Indoor (line-of-sight) 1.6 to 1.8

Table 4 Path loss exponent in various medium

3.7 Conclusion
In this segment we have compared various models and we came to know about various differences
between they have. The path loss exponent which explain the path loss in every type of environments.
CHAPTER- 4 APPLICATIONS
4.1 INTRODUCTION- We discusses about the various path loss models. Now we
are going to know about the applications of these path loss models. It is very important to know
about its application in real life communication system.

4.2 FREE SPACE MODEL –

This model describes the theoretical minimum propagation path loss achievable in free space
conditions. This model is appropriate to use on paths were unobstructed direct-Line-of-Sight
propagation could be expected (e.g. point-to-point fixed service links, links over short distances
in open areas, etc.). The Free space model allows the possibility to include some variations in the
similar manner as it is done for all other built-in models.

Figure 26 Point to point fixed service

4.3 INDOOR PATH LOSS MODELS

a)Partition losses - Suppose there exists a
situation where it is desired to communicate 100
meters through 4 standard sheetrock walls and
one concrete wall. The free-space loss for 100
meters at 900 MHz is approximately 93 db. In this
particular indoor situation, it is necessary to also
take into account the effect the walls will have on

Figure 17 Partition losses

communication. The office walls consist of two pieces of drywall (-0.8 dB each) and lumber (-
2.8 dB) for a total attenuation of about 4.4dB per wall. The concrete wall is 102mm thick and
attenuates the signal by 12dB.

b)Log-distance path loss model - Wi-Fi fingerprint based indoor positioning

methods exploits naive signal strength in each location to predict user's location. But the naive
signal strength may limit the prediction accuracy, because the Wi-Fi signals follow the Log-
distance path loss model in signal propagation. The researchers are proposing to generate Wi-Fi
fingerprint with the consideration of radio propagation model to reflex the characteristics of
Wi-Fi signal. The evaluation result shows that following log-distance path loss model improves
the prediction accuracy in fingerprint based indoor positioning.

Figure 18 Wi-Fi fingerprint based indoor positioning method

c)Ericson multiple break point model – This model is used for measurements
in multi-floor office building . It uses uniform distribution to generate path loss values between
minimum & maximum range, relative to distance 4 break points consider upper and lower
bound on path loss.
 4.4 OUTDOOR PATH LOS MODELS
a)Lee model - Lee model is model is suitable for using in data collected in a specific area
for Point to Point links. The model is ideal for using in cities with many urban structures but not
many tall blocking structures.

Figure 19 Point to point link

b)Okumura model - Okumura model is used for system planning in modern land mobile
radio systems in japan. The model is ideal for using in cities with many urban structures but not many
tall blocking structures.Okumura models was built into three modes. The ones for urban, suburban and
open areas. The model for urban areas was built first a used as the base for others.

Figure 20 Land mobile radio system

Figure 21 Land mobile radio

c)Hata model – In wireless communication the Hata Model for Urban Areas, also known
as the Okumura-Hata model for being a developed version of the Okumura model is radio
frequency propagation model is the most widely used for predicting the behavior of cellular
transmissions in built up areas. This model incorporates the graphical information from Okumura
model and develops it further to realize the effects of diffraction, reflection and scattering caused
by city structures. This model also has two more varieties for transmission in suburban area and
Open area .Hata Model predicts the total path loss along a link of terrestrial microwave or other
type of cellular communications.

Figure 22 Radio frequency propagation

4.5 CONCLUSION - All the models are useful for various purposes and from this
chapter we can get an idea of their usefulness.
Reference
1. Theodore S. Rappaport “Wireless Communication”, 2012.(chapter
2.0,2.0.1,2.1,2.2,2.2.3,2.2.4,2.3.4,chapter3,chapter4 4.3a)

2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Path_loss (chapter 2)

3. http://iopscience.iop.org/0957-0233/8/10/020 (chapter 1)

4. http://www.digi.com (chapter 1)
5.http://www.slideworld.comhttp://www.google.co.in (chapter
1,chapter2 2.3.3,chapter 3 3.6)

6. www.taiwan4g.com/evolution_history_celluar_technology.php
(chapter 1)

7.http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/login.jsp?tp=&arnumber=6027190&url=http%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore.ie
ee.org%2Fxpls%2Fabs_all.jsp%3Farnumber%3D6027190 (chapter 4 4.3b)

8.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okumura_Model (chapter 2 2.3.3)

9 .http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friis_transmission_equation (chapter 2 2.1)

10.EE4367 Telecom. Switching and Transmission by Prof. Murat Torlak (chapter 2
2.1,chapter3 3.6)