Sim - MT 111l - Ulo1

College of Health Sciences Education
3rdFloor, DPT Building

Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082)
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 117
Big Picture
Week 1-3: Unit Learning Outcomes (ULO): At the end of the unit, you are expected to
a) Define the General concepts of the human organism.

b) Discuss the chemical basis of life.
c) Explain Cell structures & their Functions
d) Differentiate the types of tissues in the human body.
Big Picture in Focus:

ULO a. Define the General concepts of the human organism.
ULO b. Discuss the chemical basis of life.
Metalanguage
In this section, the most essential terms relevant to the study of the course and to
demonstrate ULO a and ULO b will be operationally defined to establish a common frame of
reference as to how the texts work in your chosen field or career. You will encounter these
terms as we go through the content of this course. Please refer to these definitions in case
you will encounter difficulty in the in understanding concepts of Human Anatomy & Physiology
with Pathophysiology.
1. Atom- It contains the chemical characteristics of an element.

2. Atomic number- It identifies the number of protons and electrons in an element.
3. Anatomical Position- It refers to an individual standing straight with the face directed
forward, the upper limbs hanging to the sides, and the palms of the hands facing
forward.
4. Buffers- Chemicals that resist changes in pH when either acids or bases are added to
a solution.
5. Cell Physiology- The scientific investigation of the processes involved in a single cell.
6. Chemical Bonding- It is the attraction between atoms, ions or molecules that enables
the formation of chemical compounds.
7. Chemical reaction- It is a process wherein one or more substances, the reactants,
are converted to one or more different substances, the products.
8. Colloid- A mixture in which a dispersed substance is distributed throughout a
dispersing substance.
9. Compound- It is the resulting substance of the chemical combination of two or more
different types of atoms.
10. Developmental Anatomy- A particular branch of science that deals with the structural
changes occur between conception and adulthood.
11. Electrolytes- These are cations and anions that dissociate in water.
12. Electron- Subatomic particle that contains one negative charge.
13. Element- Considered as the simplest form of matter containing unique chemical
properties.
14. Energy- It is a power-derived capacity to do work.
15. Human Anatomy- The scientific investigation of the human body’s structure.
16. Homeostasis– Considered as the maintenance of a variable around an ideal normal
value, or setpoint.
17. Isotopes- They are two or more forms of the same element that have the same number
of protons and electrons but a different number of neutrons.
18. Mass- Considered as the concentration of matter in an object.
19. Mixture- A combination of two or more substances physically blended together, but
not chemically combined.
Telefax: (082)
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 117
20. Molecule- A substance composing two or more atoms chemically combined to form a
structure that behaves as an independent unit.
21. Neutron- Subatomic particle which has no electrical charge.
22. pH scale- it refers to the concentration of hydrogen in a solution.
23. Pathophysiology- The scientific investigation of the abnormalities occuring in an
organisms body/structure.
24. Physiology- The scientific investigation of the processes involved among living
organisms.
25. Proton- Subatomic particle that contains one positive charge.
26. Solubility- It is refered to as the ability of a particular substance to be dissolved.
27. Solute- Substance dissolves in a solvent.
28. Solution- It could be liquid, gas, or solid in which the substances are homogenously
distributed.
29. Suspension- A mixture containing materials separating from each other unless they
are continually, physically blended together.
30. Weight- It is the gravitational force acting on an object of a given mass.
[1]
Telefax: (082)
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 117
Essential Knowledge
Anatomy is the scientific discipline that investigates the body’s structure—for example, the
shape and size of bones. In addition, anatomy examines the relationship between the structure
of a body part and its function. Thus, the fact that bone cells are surrounded by a hard,
mineralized substance enables the bones to provide strength and support.
Understanding the relationship between structure and function makes it easier to understand
and appreciate anatomy. Anatomy can be considered at different levels.
Developmental anatomy studies the structural changes that occur between conception and
adulthood.
Embryology a subspecialty of developmental anatomy, considers changes from conception
to the end of the eighth week of development. Some structures, such as cells, are so small
that they must be studied using a microscope.
Cytology examines the structural features of cells, and histology examines tissues, which
are composed of cells and the materials surrounding them.
Gross anatomy, the study of structures that can be examined without the aid of a microscope,
can be approached from either a systemic or a regional perspective.
Surface anatomy is the study of the external form of the body and its relation to deeper
structures.
Anatomical anomalies are physical characteristics that differ from the normal pattern.
Anatomical anomalies can vary in severity from relatively harmless to life-threatening.
Physiology is the scientific investigation of the processes or functions of living things. The
major goals when studying human physiology are to understand and predict the body’s
responses to stimuli and to understand how the body maintains conditions within a narrow
range of values in a constantly changing environment.
Like anatomy, physiology can be considered at many levels.
Cell physiology examines the processes occurring in cells, and systemic physiology
considers the functions of organ systems.
Neurophysiology focuses on the nervous system, and cardiovascular physiology deals
with the heart and blood vessels.
Physiology often examines systems rather than regions because a particular function can
involve portions of a system in more than one region.
Pathology is the medical science dealing with all aspects of disease, with an emphasis on
the cause and development of abnormal conditions, as well as the structural and functional
changes resulting from disease.
Exercise physiology focuses on the changes in function and structure caused by exercise.
The body can be studied at six levels of organization: the chemical, cell, tissue, organ, organ
system, and whole organism levels
1. Chemical level. The chemical level involves interactions between atoms, which are tiny
building blocks of matter.
Atoms combine to form molecules, such as water, sugar, fats, and proteins.
2. Cell level. Cells are the basic structural and functional units of plants and animals.
Molecules combine to form organelles, which are the small structures that make up cells.
3. Tissue level. A tissue is composed of a group of similar cells and the materials surrounding
them. The characteristics of the cells and surrounding materials determine the functions of the
tissue.
[2]
Telefax: (082)
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 117
4. Organ level. An organ is composed of two or more tissue types that perform one or more
common functions.
5. Organ system level. An organ system is a group of organs that together perform a common
function or set of functions and are therefore viewed as a unit.
6. Organism level. An organism is any living thing considered as a whole—whether composed

of one cell, such as a bacterium, or of trillions of cells, such as a human.
The Human Organ Systems
[3]
Telefax: (082)
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 117
Source: Vanputte, C. (2019). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy & physiology. 10th Ed. New
York: McGraw-Hill Education.
Homeostasis is the existence and maintenance of a relatively constant environment within

the body. A small amount of fluid surrounds each body cell. For cells to function normally, the
volume, temperature, and chemical content of this fluid—conditions known as variables
because their values can change—must remain within a narrow range. Body temperature is a
variable that can increase in a hot environment or decrease in a cold one. Homeostatic
mechanisms, such as sweating or shivering, normally maintain body temperature near an ideal
normal value, or set point. Note that these mechanisms are not able to maintain body
temperature precisely at the set point. Instead, body temperature increases and decreases
slightly around the set point to produce a normal range of values. As long as body
temperature remains within this normal range, homeostasis is maintained. Keep in mind that
the fluctuations are minimal, however.
[4]
Telefax: (082)
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 117
Negative Feedback
Most systems of the body are regulated by negative-feedback mechanisms, which maintain
homeostasis. Negative means that any deviation from the set point is made smaller or is
resisted; therefore, in a negative-feedback mechanism, the response to the original stimulus
results in deviation from the set point, becoming smaller.
An example of important negative-feedback mechanisms in the body are those maintaining

normal blood pressure. Normal blood pressure is critical to our health because blood pressure
helps move blood from the heart to tissues. The blood transports essential materials to and
from the tissues. Because a disruption of normal blood pressure could result in a disease
state, maintaining homeostasis through negative feedback is a critical activity.
Most negative feedback mechanisms have three components: (1) a receptor, which
monitors the value of a variable; (2) a control center, which receives information about the
variable from the receptor, establishes the set point, and controls the effector; and (3) an
effector, which produces responses that change the value of the variable.
A changed variable is a stimulus because it initiates a homeostatic mechanism. Several

negative-feedback mechanisms regulate blood pressure. Receptors that monitor blood
pressure are located within large blood vessels near the heart and the head. A control center
in the brain receives signals sent through nerves from the receptors. The control center
evaluates the information and sends signals through nerves to the heart. The heart is the
effector, and the heart rate increases or decreases in response to signals from the brain.
Positive Feedback
Positive-feedback mechanisms occur when a response to the original stimulus results in the
deviation from the set point becoming even greater. At times, this type of response is required
to re-achieve homeostasis. For example, during blood loss, a chemical responsible for blood
clot formation, called thrombin, stimulates production of even more thrombin.
In this way, a disruption in homeostasis is resolved through a positive feedback mechanism.

Eventually, the components needed to form a clot will be depleted in the damaged area and
no more clot material can be formed. Birth is another example of a normally occurring positive
feedback mechanism. Near the end of pregnancy, the baby’s larger size stretches the uterus.
This stretching, especially around the opening of the uterus, stimulates contractions of the
uterine muscles. The uterine contractions push the baby against the opening of the uterus and
stretch it further. This stimulates additional contractions, which result in additional stretching.
This positive-feedback sequence ends only when the baby is delivered from the uterus and
the stretching stimulus is eliminated. Two basic principles to remember are that (1) many
disease states result from the failure of negative-feedback mechanisms to maintain
homeostasis and (2) some positive-feedback mechanisms can be detrimental instead of
helpful.
[5]
Telefax: (082)
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 117
Terminology and Body Plan
Anatomical position refers to a person standing erect with the face directed forward, the
upper limbs hanging to the sides, and the palms of the hands facing forward.
Source: Seeley's Anatomy & Physiology - 10th edition page 13
Source: Seeley's Anatomy & Physiology - 10th edition page 14

Planes
At times, it is useful to describe the body as having imaginary flat surfaces, called planes,
passing through it. A plane divides, or sections, the body, making it possible to “look inside”
and observe the body’s structures. A sagittal plane runs vertically through the body,
separating it into right and left portions. A median plane is a sagittal plane that passes through
the midline of the body, dividing it into equal right and left halves. A transverse (horizontal)
plane runs parallel to the ground, dividing the body into superior and inferior portions. A
frontal (coronal) plane runs vertically from right to left and divides the body into anterior and
posterior parts. A cut through the long axis of the organ is a longitudinal section, and a cut
at right angles to the long axis is a transverse (cross) section. If a cut is made across the
long axis at other than a right angle, it is called an oblique section.
[6]
Telefax: (082)
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 117
Chemical Basis of Life
Living and nonliving things are composed of matter, which is anything that occupies space
and has mass. The amount of matter in an objects is termed as mass while weight is
considered as the gravitational force acting on an object of a given mass.
Elements and Atoms
About 96% of the body’s weight are from the elements oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and
nitrogen. The majority of the body’s weight comes from oxygen which is also the most
abundant element in the earth’s crust. Carbon is also considered very significant due to its
part to its prosperity to form covalent bonds with itself and other molecules. The characteristic
of matter result from the structure, organization, and behavior of atoms. Atoms are composed
of subatomic particles, some of which have an electrical charge.
Electrons and Chemical Bonding
As mentioned in the early discussions, the human body has six levels of organization. To
understand the first level (chemical level), is the mechanisms of how atoms interact to form
molecules by transferring and sharing their outermost electrons forming chemical bonds. Note
that the chemical behavior of an atom is dependent on its electron.
Chemical Bonds
1. Ionic Bond- Known as a complete transfer of electron between two atoms results in
separate positively charged and negatively charged ions.
2. Polar Covalent Bond- It is the unequal sharing of electrons between two atoms results
in a slightly positive charge on one side of the molecule and a slightly negative charge
on the other side of the molecule.
3. Nonpolar Covalent Bond- A bond with equal sharing of electrons between two atoms
results in an even charge distribution among the atoms of the molecule.
Intermolecular Bonds
1. Hydrogen Bond- It is the attraction of oppositely charged ends of one polar molecule
to another polar molecule holds molecules or parts of molecules together.
Source: https://www.online-sciences.com/chemistry/chemical-bonds-ionic-bonds-properties-
types-of-covalent-bonds/
[7]
Telefax: (082)
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 117
Source: https://chemistryonline.guru/hydrogen-bond/
Chemical Reactions and Energy
1. Synthesis Reactions- It is a reaction where the chemical combination of two or more

substances for a new larger substance.
2. Decomposition Reactions- It is a reaction where the chemical breakdown of a larger
substance form two or more different and smaller substances.
3. Reversible Reactions- These are reactions that produce an equilibrium condition in
which the amount of reactants relative to the amount of products remains constant.
4. Oxidation-Reduction Reactions-These reactions involve the complete or partial
transfer of electrons between atoms.
5. Energy can either be potential energy (stored energy) or kinetic energy (energy in
motion).
a. Chemical Energy
i. Chemical bods are a form of potential energy
ii. Chemical reactions in which the products contain more potential energy
than the reactants require the input of energy.
iii. Chemical reactions in which the products have less potential energy
than the reactants release energy.
b. Heat Energy
i. Heat energy is an energy which flows between objects that are at
different temperatures.
ii. Heat energy is released in chemical reactions and is responsible for
body temperature.
[8]
Telefax: (082)
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 117
Inorganic Chemistry
This branch of chemistry is concerned mostly with non-carbon-containing substances but does
include some carbon-containing-substances like carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide that
lack carbon-hydrogen bonds. There are some inorganic chemicals that play important roles in
the body.
Water is considered as a polar molecule which is composed of one atom of oxygen and two
atoms of hydrogen. It is good at stabilizing body temperature, protecting against friction and
trauma, making chemical reactions possible, directly participating in chemical reactions and
serves as a mixing medium.
Acids and Bases
The concentrations of various solutions is illustrated in a pH scale. Neutral solutions have

equal number of Hydrogen and Hydroxyl ions and have a pH of 7.0. Acid solutions have
greater number of hydrogen ions than hydroxyl ions resulting with a less than 7.0 pH. Alkaline
or basic solutions have greater hydroxyl ions compared to hydrogen ions resulting with a pH
above 7.0.
Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide

Oxygen is vital for the reactions that extract energy from food molecules in living organisms.
When the organic molecules are broken down during metabolism, carbon dioxide and energy
are released.
Organic Chemistry
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates can be in the form of monosaccharide, disaccharide, and polysaccharide.

Monosaccharide are considered as the basic building blocks of some carbohydrates like
ribose, deoxyribose, glucose, fructose, and galactose. Glucose is known as an important
source of energy. Disaccharide molecules are formed through dehydration reactions between
two monosaccharides. Hydrolysis reactions can break disaccharide molecules into smaller
monosaccharides. Polysaccharides is composed of many monosaccharides bound together
forming a long chain.
Lipids
Lipid as a biomolecule can be in the form of triglyceride, phospholipid and steroids.

Triglycerides are composed of glycerol and fatty acids. Phospholipids are lipids are a major
structural component of plasma membranes. Steroids are lipids composed of four
interconnected ring molecules. Other
Proteins
Amino acids that are joined by peptide bonds are the building blocks of a protein. The Primary
structure of a protein is determined by the number, kind, and arrangement of amino acids. The
hydrogen bonds between amino acids determine secondary structure, and hydrogen bonds
between amino acids and water determine tertiary structure. The interactions between
different protein subunits determine quaternary structure. Proteins are also known as catalysts
that speed up chemical reactions through lowering their activation energy.
[9]
Telefax: (082)
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 117
Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA
Nucleotide which is a monosaccharide with an attached phosphate and a nitrogenous base is

the basic unit of nucleic acids. DNA nucleotides contain the monosaccharide deoxyribose and
nitrogenous base adenine, thymine, guanine, or cytosine. DNA occurs as a double strand of
joined nucleotides. Each strand is complementary and antiparallel to the other strand. A gene
is known as a sequence of DNA nucleotides which determines the structure of a protein or
RNA. RNA nucleotides are composed of the monosaccharide ribose. The nitrogenous bases
are the same as for DNA except that thymine is replaced with uracil.
Adenosine Triphosphate
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) is where energy derived from catabolism is stored. The
energy released from Adenosine Triphosphate is used in anabolism and other cell
processes.
Self-Help: You can also refer to the sources below to help you
further understand the lesson:
a. Vanputte, C. (2019). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy & physiology. 10th Ed. New York:
McGraw-Hill Education.
b. Tortora, G. (2017). Tortora’s principles of anatomy & physiology. Global edition
https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/uniofmindanao-
ebooks/reader.action?docID=797560
c. Mahon, C. (2015). Textbook of Diagnostic Microbiology. 5 th Ed. Elsevier, Inc.
d. McCullough, J. (2016). Transfusion Medicine. 4 th Ed. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/uniofmindanaoebooks/reader.action?docID=470
7742&query=immunohematology
e. Mc Pherson, R./Pincus, M. (2017). Henry’s Clinical Diagnosis & Management by
laboratory methods. 23rd Ed. China: Elsevier, Inc.
f. Strasinger, S., & Di Lorenzo, M.S. (2014). Urinalysis and body fluids (6 th ed.).
Philadelphia, PA: F. A. Davis company
g. Suba, S, C. & Florida, J, F. (2014). STS: Introduction to Medical Technology with
Science, Technology, and Society. Pasig city: Unit 2105-2106 Raffles
Corporate Center.
[10]
Telefax: (082)
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 117

ULO c. Explain Cell structures and their functions
Metalanguage
In this section, the most essential terms relevant to the study of the course and to
demonstrate ULO c will be operationally defined to establish a common frame of reference as
to how the texts work in your chosen field or career. You will encounter these terms as we go
through the content of this course. Please refer to these definitions in case you will encounter
difficulty in the in understanding concepts of Human Anatomy & Physiology with
Pathophysiology.
1. Cadherins- are proteins that attach cells to other cells.

2. Centriole- An organelle located in the centrosome.
3. Cytoplasmic Organelles- Some of it are attached to endoplasmic reticulum while
some are distribute throughout the cytoplasm.
4. Flagellum- It propels spermatozoa in humans.
5. Hydrophilic substances- water-loving substances.
6. Integrins- are proteins that attach cells to extracellular molecules.
7. Gated ion channels- Channels that open and close depending on certain conditions
of the cell.
8. Golgi apparatus- Flattened membrane sacs stacked on each other.
9. Glycocalyx- A collection of glycolipids, glycoproteins, and carbohydrates on the outer
surface of the plasma membrane.
10. Leak ion channels- non-gated ion channels that are always open and are responsible
for the plasma membrane’s permeability to ions when plasma membrane is at rest.
11. Lysosome- It contains digestive enzymes.
12. Nucleus- Considered as the control center of the cell.
13. Microvilli- Extensions of the plasma membrane containing microfilaments.
14. Mitochondria- These are major sites of ATP synthesis when oxygen is available.
15. Peroxisome- Serves as one site of lipid and amino acid degradation.
16. Plasma Membrane- It is a lipid bilayer composed of phospholipids and cholesterol.
17. Proteasomes- Breakdown proteins in the cytoplasm.
18. Rough endoplasmic reticulum- Synthesizes proteins and transports them to Golgi
apparatus.
19. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum- It manufactures lipids and carbohydrates and
detoxifies harmful chemicals.
20. Microscope- An instrument used to visualize microorganisms.
[11]
Telefax: (082)
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 117
Essential Knowledge
The Human Cell
Trillions of cells are found in the human body. Every cells in the body originate from one a
single fertilized cell. During progress, cell division and specialization give rise to various cell
types, like nerve, muscle, bone and blood cells. Cells are known as the basic unit of all living
things including humans. Cells in the body may be different in structures and functions,
nevertheless they share common several characteristics.
The characteristic functions of the cell include the following:

1. Cell Metabolism and energy use- It involves all chemical reactions occurring inside the
cell. The metabolic reactions often involve energy transfers, meaning the energy
released by one reaction is then used in another reaction.
2. Synthesis of molecules- Different types of cells in the body produce various types of
molecules, which may include proteins, lipids and nucleic acids.
3. Communication- With the use of chemical and electrical signals, cells can
communicate with each other. One example is the communication between nerve cells
[12]
Telefax: (082)
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 117
and muscle cells; nerve cells produce chemical signals that communicate with muscle
cells.
4. Reproduction and inheritance- Most of human cells contain a complete copy of all the
genetic information of the individual. As an individual grows, cells divide and produce
new cells, each containing the same genetic code.
Summary of Cell Parts and Functions
Cell Parts Structure Function

Functions as the outer
Plasma Membrane boundary of the cell; controls
Lipid bilayer composed of phospholipids the entry and exit of
and cholesterol; proteins extend substances; receptor proteins
across or are embedded in either function in intercellular
surface of the lipid bilayer communication; marker mol-
ecules enable cells to
recognize one another
Nucleus
Enclosed by nuclear envelope, a double
Nuclear pores membrane with nuclear pores; contains
Is the control center of the cell;
chromatin (dispersed, thin strands of
DNA within the nucleus
Nuclear envelope DNA and associated proteins), which regulates protein (e.g.,
Nucleolus condenses to become visible mitotic
enzyme) synthesis and
chromosomes during cell division; also
therefore the chemical
contains one or more nucleoli, dense
reactions of the cell
bodies consisting of ribosomal RNA and
proteins
Cytoplasmic
Organelles
Ribosomal RNA and proteins form large
Ribosome and small subunits; some are attached
Serves as site of protein
to endoplasmic reticulum, whereas
synthesis
others (free ribosomes) are distributed
throughout the cytoplasm
Rough endoplasmic
reticulum
Synthesizes proteins and
Membranous tubules and flattened sacs
transports them to Golgi
with attached ribosomes
apparatus
Smooth Manufactures lipids and

endoplasmic Membranous tubules and flattened sacs carbohydrates; detoxifies
reticulum with no attached ribosomes harmful chemicals; stores
calcium
[13]
Telefax: (082)
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 117
Golgi apparatus
Modifies, packages, and
Flattened membrane sacs stacked on
distributes proteins and lipids
each other
for secretion or internal use
Lysosome
Membrane-bound vesicle pinched off
Contains digestive enzymes
Golgi apparatus
Serves as one site of lipid and

Peroxisome
amino acid degradation;
Membrane-bound vesicle
breaks down hydrogen
peroxide
Proteasomes
Tubelike protein complexes in the Break down proteins in the
cytoplasm cytoplasm
Mitochondria
Spherical, rod-shaped, or threadlike
Are major sites of ATP
structures; enclosed by double
synthesis when oxygen is
membrane; inner membrane forms
available
projections called cristae
Centrioles Pair of cylindrical organelles consisting Serve as centers for

of triplets of parallel microtubules; microtubule formation; deter-
located in the centrosome, a mine cell polarity during cell
specialized area of the cytoplasm division; form the basal bodies
where microtubule formation occurs of cilia and flagella
Cilia
Extensions of the plasma membrane
Move materials over the
containing doublets of parallel
surface of cells
microtubules; 10 μm in length
In humans, propels
Extension of the plasma membrane
spermatozoa
Flagellum containing doublets of parallel
microtubules; 55 μm in length
Microvilli
Increase surface area of the
plasma membrane for
Extensions of the plasma membrane
absorption and secretion;
containing microfilaments
modified to form sensory
receptors
[14]
Telefax: (082)
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 117
HOW DO WE SEE CELLS?
Most of human cells are very minute that cannot be seen with the unaided eye. With the use
of the microscope, cell structures are seen and studied accordingly. There are two
microscopes that are used to study cells; light microscope and electron microscope. Light
microscopes enable us to visualize the general features of cells like that of the nucleus. On
the other hand, electron microscopes such as the scanning electron microscope reveal the
features of the cell surface and the surfaces of the internal structures.
The Plasma Membrane
Phospholipids and cholesterol are the predominant lipids of the plasma membrane.
Phospholipids readily assemble to form a lipid plasma membrane which is highly flexible and
can modify its shape and composition through time. There are also membrane proteins that
can be classified as integral or peripheral based on their location among or attached to
phospholipids. Integral membrane proteins penetrate deeply into the lipid bilayer, in many
cases extending from one surface to the other. Peripheral membrane proteins are attached to
either the inner or the outer surfaces of the lipid bilayer.
Marker Molecules are identifiers of other cells or molecules in the cell surface. Most of them
are glycoproteins or glycolipids. The protein portions of glycoproteins can either be integral or
peripheral membrane proteins. The marker molecule functions include the sperm cell’s ability
to recognize the oocyte and the immune system’s ability to distinguish between self-cells and
foreign cells.
Attachment Proteins are considered as integral proteins that allow cells to attach to
extracellular molecules or to other cells. There are also plenty of attachment proteins that
attach to intracellular molecules. Cadherins and integrins are examples of attachment
proteins.
[15]
Telefax: (082)
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 117
Transport Proteins are also integral proteins that enable molecules or ions to move from one
side of the plasma membrane to the other. These proteins have three characteristics that are
important to their function: specificity, saturation, and competition. Specificity illustrates that
each transport proteins binds to and transports only a certain type of ion or molecule.
Competition is the result of molecules with similar shape binding to the transport protein.
Saturation means that the rate of movement of molecules across the membrane is limited by
the number of transport proteins available.
Channel Proteins are one or more integral membrane proteins arranged so that they form a
tiny channel through the plasma membrane. The hydrophobic areas of the proteins face
outward toward the hydrophobic part of the plasma membrane, and the hydrophilic areas of
the proteins face inward and line the channel. These proteins include leak ion channels and
gated ion channels.
Carrier Proteins are also known as transporters and integral membrane proteins that move
ions or molecules from one side of the plasma membrane to other.
Receptor Proteins are membrane proteins or glycoproteins that have an exposed receptor
site on the outer cell surface. Specific substances, such as chemical signals, can attach to
the receptor site. Many receptors and the chemical signals they bind are part of an
intercellular communication system that coordinates cell activities. One cell can release a
chemical signal that diffuses to another cell and binds to its receptor. The binding acts as a
signal that triggers a response. The same chemical signal would have no effect on other
cells that lacked the specific receptor molecule.
[16]
Telefax: (082)
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 117
The Movement through the Plasma Membrane
Transport Substances
Description Example
Mechanism Transported
Passive Transport Mechanisms
Lipid-soluble molecules Oxygen, carbon dioxide,
Random movement of dissolve in the lipid and lipids, such as
molecules results in net bilayer and diffuse steroid hormones,
Diffusion movement from areas of through it; ions and dissolve in the lipid
higher small molecules diffuse bilayer; Cl− and urea
to lower concentration. through membrane move through membrane
channels. channels.
Water diffuses across a
Water diffuses through Water moves from the
Osmosis selectively permeable
the lipid bilayer. intestines into the blood.
membrane.
Carrier proteins combine
with substances and move
them across the plasma Some substances too
membrane; no ATP is large to pass through Glucose moves by
Facilitated used; substances are membrane channels facilitated diffusion into
diffusion always moved from areas and too polar to dissolve muscle cells and
of higher to lower in the lipid bilayer are adipocytes.
concentration; it exhibits the transported.
characteristics of specificity,
saturation, and competition.
Active Transport Mechanisms
Substances too large to
ATP-powered pumps
pass through channels
combine with substances
and too polar to dissolve
and move them across the
in the lipid bilayer are
plasma membrane; ATP is ++ 2+ Ions, such as Na ,
transported;
Active used; substances can be K , and Ca , are
substances that are
transport moved from areas of lower
accu- mulated in
to higher concentration; it actively transported.
concentrations higher
exhibits the characteristics
on one side of the
of specificity, saturation,
membrane than on the
and competition.
other are transported.
Ions are moved across the
There is a concentration
plasma membrane by
active transport, which gradient for Na+ into
establishes an ion intestinal epithelial cells.
concentration gradient; ATP This gradient provides
Secondary is required; ions then move Some sugars, amino the energy for the
active back down their acids, and ions are symport of glucose. As
transport concentration gradient by transported. Na+ enter the cell, down
facilitated diffusion, and their concentration
another ion or molecule gradient, glucose also
moves with the diffusion ion enters the cell. In many
(symport) or in the opposite
cells, H+ are moved in
direction (antiport).
[17]
Telefax: (082)
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 117
the opposite direction of

Na+ (antiport).
Vesicular Transport
The plasma membrane
forms a vesicle around the
Immune system cells
substances to be Phagocytosis takes in
called pha- gocytes
transported, and the vesicle cells and solid particles;
ingest bacteria and
Endocytosis is taken into the cell; this pinocytosis takes in
cellular debris; most cells
requires ATP; in receptor- mol- ecules dissolved in
take in substances
mediated endocytosis, liquid.
through pinocytosis.
specific substances are
ingested.
Materials manufactured by Digestive enzymes,
the cell are pack- aged in hormones, neuro-
Proteins and other
secretory vesicles that fuse transmitters, and
water-soluble molecules
Exocytosis with the plasma membrane glandular secretions are
are transported out of
and release their contents transported, and cell
cells.
to the outside of the cell; waste products are
this requires ATP. eliminated.
c. Mahon, C. (2015). Textbook of Diagnostic Microbiology. 5th Ed. Elsevier, Inc.
ebooks/reader.action?docID=4707742&query=immunohematology
Corporate Center.
[18]
Telefax: (082)
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 117

ULO d. Differentiate the types of tissues in the human body.
Metalanguage
In this section, the most essential terms relevant to the study of the course and to demonstrate
ULO d will be operationally defined to establish a common frame of reference as to how the
texts work in your chosen field or career. You will encounter these terms as we go through the
content of this course. Please refer to these definitions in case you will encounter difficulty in
the in understanding concepts of Human Anatomy & Physiology with Pathophysiology.
1. Adipocytes- also called as adipose cells that contain a large amounts of lipids.
2. Apocrine secretion- involves the release of secretory products as pinched off
fragments of the gland cells.
3. Autopsy- An examination of the organs of a dead body to determine the cause of
death.
4. Biopsy- the process of removing tissue samples from patients surgically.
5. Columnar epithelium- A tall and thin type of epithelium that tends to be taller than
they are wide.
6. Cuboidal epithelium- A cubelike epithelium that is as wide as they are tall.
7. Ectoderm- The outer layer, forms the skin.
8. Endoderm- The inner layer, forms the lining of the digestive tract and its derivatives.
9. Epithelial tissue- Covers and protects surfaces, both outside and inside the body.
10. Fibroblasts- Are cells that form fibrous connective tissue.
11. Glands- are secretory organs composed primarily of epithelium with supporting
networks of connective tissues.
12. Histology- the microscopic study of tissues.
13. Holocrine- involves the shedding of entire cells.
14. Hormones- Are the cellular products of endocrine glands.
15. Merocrine secretion- involves the release of secretory products by exocytosis.
16. Pseudostratified columnar epithelium- A special type of simple epithelium which
appears to be stratified but is not.
17. Simple epithelium- Consists of a single layer of cells that are extending from the
basement membrane to the free surface.
18. Squamous epithelium- A scale-like epithelium that is also flat in figure.
19. Stratified epithelium- Consists of more than one layer of cells.
20. Tissues- are collections of specialized cells and the extra cellular substances
surrounding them.
[19]
Telefax: (082)
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 117
Essential Knowledge
The collection of specialized cells and the extracellular substances surrounding them are
termed as tissue. Body tissues are classified into four types that are based on the structure of
cells, composition of the noncellular substances surrounding the cells, and the functions of the
cells. Tissues are also clinically significant in determining various diseases such as cancer of
different parts of the body.
Epithelium functions to protect the inner and outer surfaces of the body. The following are
common characteristics seen in most types of epithelial tissue:
1. Mostly composed of cells.
2. Covers body surfaces.
3. Distinct cell surfaces.
4. Cell and Matrix connections.
5. Nonvascular.
6. Capable of regeneration.
The major functions of epithelial tissues are the following:

1. Protecting underlying structures.
2. Acting as a barrier.
3. Permitting the passage of substances.
4. Secreting substances.
5. Absorbing substances.
Characteristics of Epithelial Tissue
York:
[20]
Telefax: (082)
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 117
Classification of Epithelium
Number of Layers or Category Shape of Cells

Simple (single layer of cells) Squamous Cuboidal Columnar
Squamous Nonkeratinized (moist) Keratinized
Stratified (more than one layer of
cells)
Cuboidal (very rare) Columnar (very rare)
Pseudostratified (modification of
Columnar
simple epithelium)
Transitional (modification of Roughly cuboidal to columnar when not stretched and
stratified epithelium) squamous like when stretched
York:
Simple Epithelia:
1. Simple Squamous Epithelium

2. Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
3. Simple Columnar Epithelium
York:
Simple Squamous Epithelium
Structure: Single layer of flat, often hexagonal cells; the nuclei appear as bumps when viewed
as a cross section because the cells are so flat.
Function: Diffusion, filtration, some secretion, and some protection against friction.
Location: Lining of blood vessels and the heart, lymphatic vessels (endothelium) and small
ducts, alveoli of the lungs, portions of the kidney tubules, lining of serous membranes
(mesothelium) of the body cavities (pleural, pericardial, peritoneal), and inner surface of the
tympanic membranes.
[21]
Telefax: (082)
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 117
York:
Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
Structure: Single layer of cube-shaped cells; some have microvilli (kidney tubules) or cilia
(terminal bronchioles of the lungs).
Function: Secretion and absorption by cells of the kidney tubules; secretion by cells of glands
and choroid plexuses; movement of particles embedded in mucus out of the terminal
bronchioles by ciliated cells.
Location: Kidney tubules, glands and their ducts, choroid plexuses of the brain, lining of
terminal bronchioles of the lungs, surfaces of the ovaries. 5
York:
[22]
Telefax: (082)
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 117
Simple Columnar Epithelium
Structure: Single layer of tall, narrow cells; some cells have cilia (bronchioles of lungs,
auditory tubes, uterine tubes, and uterus) or microvilli (intestines).
Function: Movement of particles out of the bronchioles of the lungs by ciliated cells; partially
responsible for the movement of oocytes through the uterine tubes by ciliated cells; secretion
by cells of the glands, the stomach, and the intestines; absorption by cells of the small and
large intestines.
Location: Glands and some ducts, bronchioles of the lungs, auditory tubes, uterus, uterine
tubes, stomach, intestines, gallbladder, bile ducts, ventricles of the brain.
Stratified Epithelia:
1. Stratified Squamous Epithelium

2. Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium
3. Stratified Columnar Epithelium
York:
Stratified Squamous Epithelium
Structure: Multiple layers of cells that are cube-shaped in the basal layer and progressively
flattened toward the surface; the epithelium can be nonkeratinized stratified squamous
epithelium, the surface cells retain a nucleus and cytoplasm; in keratinized stratified
epithelium, the cytoplasm of cells at the surface is replaced by a protein called keratin, and
the cells are dead.
Function: Protection against abrasion, a barrier against infection, reduction of water loss from
the body.
Location: Keratinized primarily in the skin; non-keratinized in the mouth, throat, larynx,
esophagus, anus, vagina, inferior urethra, cornea.
[23]
Telefax: (082)
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 117
York:
Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium
Structure: Multiple layers of somewhat cube-shaped cells.
Function: Secretion, absorption, protection against infection.
Location: Sweat gland ducts, ovarian follicular cells, salivary gland ducts.
York:
[24]
Telefax: (082)
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 117
Stratified Columnar Epithelium
Structure: Multiple layers of cells with tall, thin cells resting on layers of more cube-shaped
cells; the cells are ciliated in the larynx.
Function: Protection, secretion.
Location: Mammary gland ducts, larynx, a portion of the male urethra.
Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium and Transitional Epithelium
York:
Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium
Structure: Single layer of cells; some cells are tall and thin and reach the free surface, and
others do not; the nuclei of these cells are at different levels and appear stratified; the cells
are almost always ciliated and are associated with goblet cells that secrete mucus onto the
free surface.
Function: Synthesize and secrete mucus onto the free surface; move mucus (or fluid) that
contains foreign particles over the surface of the free surface and from passages.
Location: Lining of the nasal cavity, nasal sinuses, auditory tubes, pharynx, trachea, bronchi
of the lungs.
[25]
Telefax: (082)
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 117
York:
Transitional Epithelium
Structure: Stratified cells that appear cube-shaped when the organ or tube is not stretched
and squamous when the organ or tube is stretched by fluid; the number of layers also
decreases on stretch.
Function: Accommodate fluctuations in the volume of fluid in organs or tubes; protect against
the caustic effects of urine.
Location: Lining of the urinary bladder, ureters, superior urethra.
Connective Tissue
Every organ in the body has a diverse primary tissue type in the form of connective tissue. It
differs from the other types of tissues because it is consists of cells separated from each other
by abundant extracellular matrix. This type of tissue is diverse in both structure and function.
Functions of the connective Tissue:

1. Enclosing and separating other tissues.
2. Connecting tissues to one another.
3. Supporting and moving parts of the body.
4. Storing compounds.
5. Cushioning and insulating.
6. Transporting.
7. Protecting.
[26]
Telefax: (082)
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 117
Classifications of Connective Tissue
Embryonic Connective Tissue

 Mesenchyme
 Mucous connective tissue
Adult Connective Tissue

 Connective Tissue Proper
o Loose (Fewer fibers, more ground substance)
 Areolar
 Adipose
 Reticular
o Dense (more fibers, less ground substance)
 Dense, regular collagenous
 Dense, regular elastic
 Dense, irregular collagenous
 Dense, irregular elastic
 Supporting Connective Tissue

o Cartilage (semisolid matrix)
 Hyaline
 Fibrocartilage
 Elastic
o Bone (solid matrix)
 Spongy
 Compact
 Fluid Connective Tissue
o Blood
 Red blood cells
 White blood cells
 Platelets
o Hemapoietic tissue
 Red marrow
 Yellow marrow
Tissue Membranes
Tissue membranes are thin sheets of tissues that cover the structure or lines of cavities. Most
membranes are formed from a superficial epithelial tissue and the connective tissue on which
it rests. The three major categories of internal membranes are mucous, serous, and synovial
membranes.
1. Mucous Membranes- lines cavities and canals that open to the outside of the body,
like the digestive, respiratory, excretory, and reproductive passages.
2. Serous Membranes- Lines cavities that do not open to the exterior of the body like the
pericardial, pleural, and peritoneal cavities.
3. Synovial Membranes- line freely movable joints and are made up of only connective
tissue.
[27]
Telefax: (082)
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 117
Tissue Damage and Inflammation
In response to certain tissue damage, inflammation occurs. The inflammatory response

makes use of the body’s defenses that isolates and destroys microorganisms and other
injurious agents, and removes foreign materials and damaged cells so that tissue repair can
proceed. Chemical mediators Chemical mediators stimulate pain receptors and increase the
permeability of blood vessels. The increase in the permeability of blood vessels allows
materials like clotting proteins and white blood cells to move out from it circulate into the tissue,
where they can address the injury directly.
York:
[28]
Telefax: (082)
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 117
Tissue Repair
Tissue repair is the considered as the substitution of viable cells for dead cells by regeneration
or replacement.
1. Regeneration- In this process, the new cells are the same type as those that were
destroyed, and normal function is usually restored.
2. Replacement- In this process, a new type of tissue develops, which eventually
produces a scar and causes the loss of some tissue function.
York:
[29]
Telefax: (082)
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 117
c. Mahon, C. (2015). Textbook of Diagnostic Microbiology. 5th Ed. Elsevier, Inc.
ebooks/reader.action?docID=4707742&query=immunohematology
Corporate Center.
[30]

Sim - MT 111l - Ulo1

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Sim - MT 111l - Ulo1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

College of Health Sciences Education

3rdFloor, DPT Building

a) Define the General concepts of the human organism.

Big Picture in Focus:

1. Atom- It contains the chemical characteristics of an element.

6. Organism level. An organism is any living thing considered as a whole—whether composed

The Human Organ Systems

Homeostasis is the existence and maintenance of a relatively constant environment within

An example of important negative-feedback mechanisms in the body are those maintaining

A changed variable is a stimulus because it initiates a homeostatic mechanism. Several

In this way, a disruption in homeostasis is resolved through a positive feedback mechanism.

Terminology and Body Plan

Source: Seeley's Anatomy & Physiology - 10th edition page 13

Source: Seeley's Anatomy & Physiology - 10th edition page 14

Chemical Basis of Life

Elements and Atoms

Electrons and Chemical Bonding

Chemical Reactions and Energy

1. Synthesis Reactions- It is a reaction where the chemical combination of two or more

Acids and Bases

The concentrations of various solutions is illustrated in a pH scale. Neutral solutions have

Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide

Carbohydrates can be in the form of monosaccharide, disaccharide, and polysaccharide.

Lipid as a biomolecule can be in the form of triglyceride, phospholipid and steroids.

Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA

Nucleotide which is a monosaccharide with an attached phosphate and a nitrogenous base is

Big Picture in Focus:

1. Cadherins- are proteins that attach cells to other cells.

The Human Cell

The characteristic functions of the cell include the following:

Summary of Cell Parts and Functions

Cell Parts Structure Function

Smooth Manufactures lipids and

Serves as one site of lipid and

Centrioles Pair of cylindrical organelles consisting Serve as centers for

HOW DO WE SEE CELLS?

The Plasma Membrane

The Movement through the Plasma Membrane

the opposite direction of

Big Picture in Focus:

The major functions of epithelial tissues are the following:

Characteristics of Epithelial Tissue

Number of Layers or Category Shape of Cells

1. Simple Squamous Epithelium

Simple Squamous Epithelium

Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

Simple Columnar Epithelium

1. Stratified Squamous Epithelium

Stratified Squamous Epithelium

Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium

Structure: Multiple layers of somewhat cube-shaped cells.

Function: Secretion, absorption, protection against infection.

Stratified Columnar Epithelium

Function: Protection, secretion.

Location: Mammary gland ducts, larynx, a portion of the male urethra.

Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium and Transitional Epithelium

Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium

Location: Lining of the urinary bladder, ureters, superior urethra.

Functions of the connective Tissue:

Classifications of Connective Tissue

Embryonic Connective Tissue

Adult Connective Tissue