Abando, Dylan Royce A.

MAEd- English

History of Grammar
Grammar – it was derived from the Greek word “grammatikĕ”, when “gram” means
something written, and “tikĕ” derives from the word “technĕ” which means art. Hence grammar
is the art of writing.
In ancient Greece and Rome the terms grammatikĕ and grammatica respectively denoted the
whole apparatus of literal study.
In the middle ages, grammar was the study of Latin.
The first grammar of English – “Bref Grammar for English” was published in 1585 by William
Bullokar.
The most influential grammar of English which is published in 1762 was R. Lowth’s “Short
Introduction to English Grammar”. It started the age of Prescriptive Grammar
To a prescriptive grammarian, grammar is rules of correct usage. It aims to prescribe what is
judged to be correct rather than to describe actual usage.
A new modern understanding of grammar appeared only by the end of the 19 th century wherein
the period of scientific (descriptive) grammar began.

Main Theoretical Grammar Schools and Approaches

English Grammars, according to their general aims and objectives, can be divided into:
a. Traditional (prescriptive and non-structural descriptive)
-It is a type of grammar as it was before the advent of structural linguistics
Traditional Grammar in Ancient Greece
The origin of its principles were formulated by the scholars of Ancient Greece and Rome in the
works of: Dionysuis Thax, Protagoras, Plato, Aristotle, Varro, and Priscian.

 Dionysuis Thrax ( c. 100 B.C)

o He was the first to represent a comprehensive grammar of Greek
o Distinguished two basic unit of description- (1) the sentence (logos), which is the
upper limit of grammatical description, (2) the word, which is the minimal unit of
grammatical description.
o Distinguished onoma (noun), class words, rhema (verb), metochĕ (participle),
arthron (article), antxnymia (pronoun), prythesis (preposition), epirrhĕma
(adverb), and syndesmos (conjunction).
 Appolonius Dyscolus- he introduced and studied syntax. He based his syntactic
description on the relations of the noun and the verb to each other and of the other
remaining word classes to this two.
o The achievements of the Greek Scholars lie in devising and systematizing a
formal terminology for the description of the classical Greek language, a
terminology which has become part and parcel of the grammatical equipment of
the linguistics of our day.
Traditional Grammar in Ancient Rome
The first latin grammar was written by Varro (116-27 B.C.), his De Lingua Latina is comprised by
25 volumes, and one of his merits is the distinction between derivation and inflection.
Inflectional formulations are characterized by great generality; they do not vary in use.
Devirational formulations are characterized by acceptability from person to person and from one
root word to another.

 Varro’s System of Four Inflexionally Contrasting Classes

o Those with case inflection (nouns including adjectives)
o Those with tense inflection (verbs)
o Those with case and tense inflection (participles)
o Those with neither (adverb)
 Priscian (c. A.D. 500) – his aim was to transfer the grammatical system of Thrax’s and
Appolonius grammar to Latin. He uses classical system of eight word classes laid down
by Thrax and Appolonius, with the omission of the article and the inclusion of the
interjection.
o His work was based on the language of the best writers (e.g. Cicero, Virgil), i.e.
not on the language of his own day.
Prescriptive Grammar
-R. Lowth’s Short introduction to English Grammar (1762)
The aim of this grammar was to teach us to express ourselves with propriety, and to
enable us to judge of every phase and form of construction, whether it be right or not.
They described English in terms of Latin forms and imposed the same grammatical constraints.

 Nominative: the house

 Genitive: of the house
 Dative: to the house
 Accusative: the house
 Ablative: in, at, from the house
 Vocative: house
The prescriptive grammar could be characterized by the following features:

 Patterning after Latin in classifying words into word classes and establishing
grammatical categories;
 Reliance on meaning and function in definitions;
 Approach to correctness: the standards of correctness are logic, which was identified
with Latin, and the past.
 Emphasis on writing rather than speech.
 Prescriptive grammarians could be called the first standardizers of English, unfortunately
their standardization work was often based on subjective criteria and other languages.
However, those works written in the prescriptive era which did not ignored actual usage
paved way to standard English, which has today become an objective standard for
correct English. Those grammarians who adhere the norms of standard English (the
English of government, education, broadcasting, news publishing, and other public
discourse) are also prescriptivists in a good sense.
Non-Structural Descriptive Grammar (between 1900-1930)
-Henry Sweet was the first to introduce the term scientific grammar meaning reliance on
facts and the use if the inductive method, to undermine the old tradition in linguistic studies
where the function of grammar was to prescribe what is judged to be correct grather than
describe its actual usage.

 Unlike prescriptivists, descriptivists focus their attention on actual usage without

trying to settle the relative correctness of divergent usages.
 Descriptivists rely on the English of the best authors of their day as well as the
English of the past. To them, change in language is not associated with corruption.
 Similar to prescriptivists, they use meaning and function in their definition of parts of
speech.
Structural Descriptive Grammar
-the father of American structuralism is generally called “Leonardo Bloomfield” in his book
Language he presented the new approach. The study of language can be conducted, only so
long as we pay no attention to the meaning of what is spoken (1933).
The principal approaches of Structural Descriptive Grammar is to study the structure of a
language as objectively as possible, without references to meaning and other languages. They
focused their attention on structural i.e. grammatical meaning. English was regarded as a
language having its specific structure. The structuralists based their conclusions on the analysis
of sentences that they had collected from native speakers of English, giving priority to Spoken
English.
To structuralists, language is a highly organized affair where the smaller units are built
into larger ones, until the largest unit is reached. Such building blocks are phonemes and
morphemes. The structures that we build out of the bricks are lexemes. Lexemes served to
build the largesr unit, the sentence, i.e. the predicative unit.
Four devices used in English to indicate structural meaning:
1. word form
2. function words
3. word order
4. intonation and accent patterns (prosodic patterns).
Methods of Linguistic Analysis
-Structural grammarians used formal methods of linguistic analysis
-immidiate constituent
-distribution
-substitution
-transformation
Transformational-Generative Grammar
The transformational-generative grammarian is interested in possible sentences, i.e. the
speaker’s-hearer’s knowledge of a language (competence), rather than in his actual use of it
(performance). There are two types of transformational-generative grammar: 1. The Harris-
Chomsky grammar and 2. The Chomsky grammar.
It is also a language consists of a limited number of kernel sentences (i.e. structurally the
most simple sentences), and their transforms, i.e. structures derived from them. Kernel
sentences are generated by the use of the IC model. The set of rules showing how a sentence
is generated is called rewrite rules, or rewriting rules.
N. Chomsky (1962)- distinguished two levels of the sentence- surface and deep. A deep
structure is a structure generated only by phrase-structure rules and lexical rules. A deep
structure that has been transformed into a grammatical English sentence is called a surface
structure.
Grammatical Terms
Here is a list of grammar terms and their definitions.
adjective
Identifies, describes, limits or qualifies a noun or pronoun.
For example, awesome, best, both, happy, our, this, three, whose and yellow are adjectives.
adverb
Identifies, describes, limits or qualifies a verb, an adjective, another adverb or a group of words.
For example, almost, also, eloquently, not, often, rapidly, really, someday, thus and very are
adverbs.
antecedent
Is a noun, noun phrase or pronoun referred to by a pronoun. The antecedent usually comes
before the pronoun replacing it. For example, Lexus is the antecedent of one in the sentence I
wanted a Lexus for my birthday, but did not get one.
case
Indicates how a noun or pronoun functions in a sentence. Personal pronouns have three cases:
subject (for a subject or subject complement), object (for the object of a verb or preposition) and
possessive. For example, for the pronoun he, he is the subject case, him is the object case,
and his is the possessive case. Nouns and indefinite pronouns generally have two cases: the
common case for both subject and object (e.g. writer, someone) and the possessive
(e.g. writer’s, someone’s).
clause
Consists of a group of related words containing a subject and a predicate. For example, there
are two clauses in the sentence Although we looked for errors, we found none. Note
that Although we looked for errors is a dependent clause (i.e. it cannot stand alone) and we
found none is an independent clause (i.e. it can stand alone).
collective noun
Represents a group of people, animals or objects. Collective nouns are singular in form and
take a singular verb when they refer to the group as a single unit. Common collective nouns
include audience, government, herd and public.
compound adjective
Identifies, describes, limits or qualifies a noun or pronoun. Contains more than one word
(e.g. bone-chilling).
compound noun
Combines two or more words that are then used as a single concept.
 hyphenated compound connects the words with a hyphen (e.g. free-for-all).
 open compound remains as separate words (e.g. decision making).
 solid compound fuses the words together (e.g. housekeeper).
compound subject
Consists of two or more parts joined by a conjunction (e.g. Jack and Jill, either you or I). If its
parts are joined with and, the compound subject is usually plural, except when the parts form a
single unit (e.g. drinking and driving) or refer to the same person or thing (e.g. senior writer and
editor). If a compound subject contains or or nor, the verb agrees with the part nearest the verb.
conjunction
Links words, phrases or clauses.
  coordinating conjunction connects elements of equal rank such as two nouns
(e.g. bread and butter), two adjectives (e.g. short and sweet), two clauses (e.g. the party
was over, so they went home). And, but, or, nor, for, so and yet are the coordinating
conjunctions.
 correlative conjunction consists of two elements that work together (e.g. either…
or, neither…nor, not only…but also).
 subordinating conjunction begins a dependent (or subordinate) clause and joins it to
an independent (or main) clause (e.g. John woke the children after he ate
breakfast). After, although, because, if, when and while are a few examples of the many
subordinating conjunctions.
conjunctive adverb
Joins two clauses together. Some of the most common conjunctive adverbs
include consequently, furthermore, hence, however, nevertheless, nonetheless and therefore.
Conjunctive adverbs are not strong enough to join two independent clauses without the aid of a
semicolon.
definite article
Precedes a noun and restricts its meaning by referring to a specific thing (e.g. the server
crashed) or person (e.g. the minister spoke briefly). The word the is the only definite article in
the English language.
direct object
Receives the action of a transitive verb. The direct object answers the
question what? or whom? after the verb. For example, the noun report is the direct object in the
sentence I handed in my monthly report. It answers the question I handed in what?
ellipsis (plural: ellipses)
 The omission of a word or words needed to grammatically complete a phrase, clause or
expression.
 Set of three dots […] indicating an omission.
elliptical clause
Is a grammatically incomplete clause because some key words have been omitted, usually to
avoid repetition. Generally, the meaning can easily be understood from the context. For
example, after reading that Jean has five dollars; Mary, three, most people will understand that
Mary has three dollars, even though the words has and dollars have been omitted from the
elliptical clause. When an ellipsis is marked by a comma within the second clause, the clauses
must be separated by a semicolon, as in the example given.
gender
Refers to the classification of nouns and pronouns as masculine (e.g. man, he), feminine
(e.g. woman, she) and neuter (e.g. laptop, it).
gerund
Is a verb form ending in -ing that acts as a noun. For example, the gerund smoking acts as a
noun in the sentence Smoking can be hazardous to your health.
indefinite article
Precedes a noun (either a thing or a person) whose specific identity is unknown to the reader
(e.g. a pilot project, an auditor). The words a and an are the only two indefinite articles in the
English language.
indirect object
Names the person or thing affected by the verb. The indirect object answers the question to
whom?, for whom?, to what? or for what? For example, the noun Liette is the indirect object in
the sentence Don gave Liette a set of fishing lures. It answers the question To whom did Don
give a set of fishing lures?
infinitive
The unconjugated, uninflected base or stem form of a verb, often preceded by to. For
example, to consider, to extinguish, to be and to drink are infinitives.
interjection
Expresses surprise or sudden, strong emotion. Some commonly used interjections
are darn; hey, you; oops; rats; uh-uh; and wow. The interjection, which is generally followed by
an exclamation or a question mark, is often placed at the beginning or the end of a sentence.
intransitive verb
Does not require a direct object to complete its meaning. Examples of intransitive verbs
include growl (e.g. The bear is growling), crash (e.g. My computer crashed) and ring (e.g. The
bell rang).
linking verb
Does not express an action. A linking verb connects the subject to its subject complement. The
verbs be (e.g. My team leader is efficient), become (e.g. Julia became a doctor)
and seem (e.g. The customer seems satisfied) are all examples of linking verbs. Verbs of
sensing (look, feel, smell, sound, taste) can also be used as linking verbs: e.g. This stew smells
good.
noun
Designates an idea (immortality), a person (astronaut, Gretzky), a place (penalty box), a thing
(canoe), an entity (Group of Seven), a quality (determination) or a point in time (tomorrow).
noun phrase
Consists of a noun or pronoun and all of its modifiers, including articles, adjectives and other
nouns (e.g. a shiny new Lexus, a glass of chocolate milk, the emergency room).
number
Refers to the form of a noun, pronoun, demonstrative adjective or verb indicating whether it is
singular (e.g. book, it, this, is) or plural (e.g. books, they, these, are).
participle
Is a verb form that works with a helping (auxiliary) verb to create compound verb tenses or
stands alone as an adjective.
 past participle often ends in -ed (e.g. produced), but may be formed irregularly
(e.g. eaten).
 present participle ends in -ing (e.g. reading).
person
Refers to the form of a verb or pronoun indicating whether the subject is speaking (first person
—I am, we are), spoken to (second person—you are) or spoken about (third person—
he, she, or it is; they are).
phrase
Consists of a group of related words that does not have a subject, a predicate or both. Different
types of phrases (e.g. noun phrase, verb phrase, prepositional phrase) frequently function as
single parts of speech (e.g. noun, verb, adverb). In the sentence They were arguing in a heated
manner, the prepositional phrase in a heated manner acts as an adverb modifying the verb
phrase were arguing.
predicate
Makes a statement about the subject. The predicate consists of the verb and its objects,
complements and modifiers. For example, handed in my application for the job is the predicate
of the sentence I handed in my application for the job.
preposition
Precedes a noun or pronoun to form a phrase that identifies, describes, limits or qualifies a part
of a sentence. Common prepositions
include about, before, except, for, into, near, of, to, underneath and via. A preposition may
follow a verb to form a phrasal verb: e.g. make use of (something), run into (someone).
prepositional phrase
Begins with a preposition; may include articles, adjectives or adverbs; and ends with a noun or
pronoun (or a word or word group acting as a noun). Here are some examples: for
Sue, between us, in a surprisingly short time, without looking, by whatever means are available.
pronoun
Generally acts as a substitute for a noun. The
words I, you, it, me, them, mine, yours, herself, ourselves, someone, anything, few, each
other, who and which are all examples of pronouns.
relative pronoun
Relates a clause to its antecedent. For example, in the sentence The book that won the award
is non-fiction, the relative pronoun that introduces the relative clause that won the award and
relates it to its antecedent the book. That, which, who and whoever are all relative pronouns.
subject
Names what or whom a sentence is about. A subject is always a noun (or noun phrase), a
pronoun, or a word or word group acting as a noun (such as a gerund or a noun clause). For
example, the pronoun I is the subject of the sentence I handed in my application for the job. The
noun clause Whatever you want to do is the subject of the sentence Whatever you want to do is
fine with me.
subject complement
Follows a linking verb (e.g. be, become, seem) and completes the meaning of the subject by
renaming it (e.g. supervisor in Janet is my supervisor) or describing it (e.g. tired in Jack seems
tired). A subject complement may be a noun, a pronoun or an adjective.
transitive verb
Requires a direct object to complete its meaning. Some transitive verbs may also take an
indirect object. The verbs find (e.g. You found your keys), glue (e.g. He glued the parts
together), and put (e.g. I put the file on the desk) are all examples of transitive verbs.
verb
Expresses an action (break, call, tremble, skate), an occurrence (happen, occur) or a state of
being (appear, become, seem). Auxiliary (or helping) verbs are placed in front of a main verb to
form a verb phrase. They have several functions; for example, they may help to create a
different tense (e.g. will and be in the verb phrase will be going) or add an idea (e.g. the idea of
obligation expressed by must in the verb phrase must go).
verb phraseConsists of a verb and its auxiliaries. A verb phrase may also act as a predicate.
For example, can swim is a verb phrase made up of the verb swim and its auxiliary can. This
verb phrase also functions as the predicate in the sentence Rajiv can swim.
Grammatical Analysis

Grammatical analysis is the discovery of the grammar of a language (“grammar”

means “rules”) by comparing samples of the language. The theory is that with enough
examples, the entire rule system can be discovered. As such, grammatical analysis is a
scientific method, and as a scientific conclusion, it is subject to revision if new evidence
requires it.

An analysis is examining or evaluating information. It is done by breaking up information

into their key details to reveal the interrelationships. It can be used to help understand certain
information, and cause and effect falls into this category. Problem solving is also related with
analysis. Analysis is the opposite of synthesis, which is combining components to form a whole
piece.

Grammatical analysis (grammatical parse). The process of correlating the line sequence
of lexemes (words) of the language with its formal grammar. The result of this is usually a parse
tree or an abstract syntactical tree. It is explained by that the grammars of more general types in
Homsky's hierarchy (context-dependent and, moreover, unlimited) are much more difficult to be
analyzed, and simpler grammars (regular grammars) do not allow you to describe the
embedded language constructions and thus are not enough expressive.

Grammatical parse methods can be divided into two large classes - ascending and
descending - according to the order of building the parse tree. Descending methods (top-down
methods) begin with the grammar rule defining the purpose of analysis from the parse tree's
root and try to develop it so that the following tree's nodes correspond the syntax of the
sentence being analyzed. Ascending methods (bottom-up methods) begin from the final parse
tree's nodes and try to unite them by building nodes of higher and higher levels till the tree's
root is reached. (https://www.viva64.com/en/t/0016/)