1.

The lexicography is a subject OF linguistic which includes writing,editing and compiling

dictionaries. A dictionary is a list of lexemes from the lexicon of one or more
specific languages, frequently arranged alphabetically , which may also consist
of records on definitions, usage, etymologies, pronunciations, translation, etc.. .
The earliest dictionaries in the English language were glossaries of French,
Spanish or Latin words along with their definitions in English. The word
"dictionary" was invented by an Englishman called John Garland, he had written
a book Dictionarius to help pupils learn Latin "diction"in the middle ages when
Latin was the lingua franca.. There are two functions of dictionaries. The store
house function when the user use dictionary to find different types of information on
words. the court house function when its used for distinguishing correct and wrong
usage .for a creating a good dictionary all sources should be investigated thoroughly and
the information in it ought to be easily accessible. As a science, lexicography is split into
two branches: the theoretical and the PRACTICAL. The PRACTICAL lexicography refers
back to the creating of dictionaries ,as the theoretical (its also known as
Metalexicography) department refers with the evaluation and outline of meanings, and
examples for the knowledge of the terms. Lexicography, each PRACTICAL and
theoretical, has a long history, which predates the improvement of MODERN linguistics
and has developed independently of it. Samuel Johnson’s “Plan of a Dictionary” is an
Instance of an early contribution to theoretical lexicography.
we must be acquainted with lexicons to understand lexicography better.
A lexicon is the vocabulary of a language or branch of knowledge ( for example
a medical lexicon). In linguistics its used to point out the archive of lexemes. The
term lexeme comes from Greek and means word or speech. Lexemes are
minimal unit of language and used to refer to a word with a distinctive meaning
and often a specific cultural concept attached to it.

2. In Europe lexicography developed in middle ages, when Latin was the lingua franca of the
Europe and a variety of manuscript lexicons of Latin with glosses were compiled for studying
Latin. the earliest examples of such a glossary is dates back from 8th c and consists of over
500 words. England also has an great example of such glossary called Promptarium
Parvulorum and created by Galfridus Anglicus in 1440. It was consist of 10000 entries and
they were copied by hand and only nine years later the printing was invented by
Gutenberg.after that printing copies were available for everyone who wanted
one .lexicographic work became more popular because of the rise of national languages
such as French, Italian, English etc and it let the compiling of dictionaries and even
academicians were founded for this purpose. A major contribution in development of
lexicography had Dr Samuel Johnson, he created a dictionary called “A Dictionary of the
English language” in less than 8 years. This was the first scholarly description of English
language, there are 114,000 quotations in the dictionary and he’s method that greatly
influenced the style of future dictionaries. The process of making dictionaries continued and
in 19th century Jacob Grimm and he’s brother created a dictionary ‘Deutsches Worterbuch”
 helped by a hundred scholars. But finished only letters from A to F and this dictionary
inspired many scholars and dictionaries became more consistent.
Dictionaries and glossaries were compiled and used from the early ages in Greece. The
earliest examples were insert glosses into manuscript copies of the Homer and they were
explaining unusual and ancient words to readers. As a result of the puristic linguistic
movement (Atticism) a new form of Greek lexicography appeared in the second century
AD. The precursors of this movement wanted to change some words which they considered
as incorrect or impure. A dictionary therefore needed that would present correct forms of
words.
3

Dictionary is a reference work containing an alphabetical list of words, with

information given for each word, usually including meaning, pronunciation,
and etymology. There are several types of dictionaries: explanatory dictionaries,
monolingual ,dictionaries, bilingual dictionaries, etc. explanatory
dictionary and monolingual dictionary are usually meant for the native speakers of the language.
They give additional information (pronounciation, meaning,rtymology etc) and explanations
In the same language. Bilingual also known as a translation dictionaries used
to translate words or phrases from one language to another and this type of dictionary is very
important for language learners. They provide equivalents. Equivalency indicates the relarionship
between words from two or more languages which have the same meaning. Its also very interesting
detail that how two words belonging completely different languages have equivalence.for example
a word sharp has different meanings in English
1. sudden, rapid and large
2. quick to notice or understand things or to react
3. (of clothes or the way somebody dresses) fashionable and new
These are the only three meanings of sharp, in georgian we have a word ბასრი( Having the ability to
cut easily.). and the components of the English word sharp are not represented in the explanation
of Georgian word ბასრი. That’s the difficultness of equivalency.
Lexila meanings of words contains donotatum and designatum. donotatum implies deferent concrete
meanings ofan actually existing object referred to by a word,
sign, or linguistic expression. Designatum something that is
referred to by a word, sign, or linguistic expression whether
actually existing or not,the class of objects referred to by a
sign. So complexity of meaning make it harder to develop
equivalency while compiling dictioanary. But later in the 19th
and 20 centuries Georgian linguists created the so-called definitiononal method of analysis.they
th

considered meaning as a structure components of which were arranged in a hirercial order.(it

consists of core and potentiall semes.)According to Mary Iankoshvili’s ( theory, the core
consists of a grammatical categorical semantic component (a lexical categorical semantic
component (hyponymic) and one or more differential semes. The potential semes are arranged
around the core.
In the late 19th century Traditional lexicographic practice regarded word meaning with the same
way and analytically defined the words by breaking them down into more basic semantic
components. The methodology of defining meaning on the one hand described
hyponymic and differential features of meaning, on the other hand described
supplementary features of
meaning, different potential semes, which served as the basis for the development
of transferred meanings of polysemous words and were the basis of metaphor,
metonymy and other mechanisms of semantic change.

The Principles of Forming a Word-entry in a Dictionary: Spelling, Transcription, Polysemy;

Dictionary is a reference work containing an alphabetical list of words, with

information given for each word, usually including Spelling, Transcription, Polysemy
etymology etc. the principles such as spelling, transcription which forms
word- entry in a dictionary they are the main components of the dictionariy.
Every word- entry begins with a spelling of a word,it is a forming words with
the correct letters in the correct order and is very important for those
languages which has more than one options for writing. this two options
separated from each other by comma or word “or”.
Transcription is the visual representation of speech sounds by means of symbols and there are
specific symbols for transcription. In a dictionary transcripted words are written in square brackets.
For English learners trabscription is very important thing for correct pronounce , because we know
that not every word is read as it is written. For example the word function /ˈfʌŋkʃn/. also there
are languages such as Azerbaijani,French, Georgian, which don’t need transcription
because they have plain reading rules.
Another important elemnt of a word-entry in a dictionary is polysemy. Polysemy
is a word which carries several meanings. To be considered a polysemy, a word must have
different meanings that can be various but are related to each other. The words must have the
same spelling, pronunciation and origin. Most of the English words are polysemous,For example
the word head has many meanings.
1.boss of a business
2. brain
3 top of anything
4, title etc
Its also worth to mention that English polysemy can be influenced through metaphor.
A metaphor is an imaginative manner of describing something by referring to something else
which is the same in a particular way. For example, if you want to say that someone is
very shy and frightened , you might say that they are a mouse.
6 The Principles of Forming a Word-entry in a Dictionary: Homonymy, Qualifications;

Dictionary is a reference work containing an alphabetical list of words, with

information given for each word, usually including Spelling, Transcription,
homonym,Polysemy etymology etc. the principles such as spelling, transcription
which forms word- entry in a dictionary they are the main components of
the dictionariy. One of the important elements of word- entry is homonym.
Homonyms are two words that are spelled the same and sound the same but have different
meanings. A simple example of a homonym is the word right, this can mean both correct and
direction opposite of left. Homonyms can be more confusing for people learning English as a
second language, because they aren't yet familiar with alternate definitions of a word. That why
dictionaries have important role in language learning, that you can find different meanings of
given words. There are one more vital component of word-entry “qualification”, it divided into
several types. temporal, stylistic and local qualifications. Temporal qualification is shows how the
word is used in language, whether its rarely used, archaic or outdated. Also words can be dated,
obsolute and old fashioned. The term ''archaic'' is a Greek word meaning ancient or
beginning. These words are no longer in everyday use or have lost a particular meaning in
current usage but are sometimes used for special contexts.
,.the English language is always changing therefore there are so many archaic words like beldam it
means an old woman . In contrast, an obsolete word is one that is no longer used at all.stylistic
qualifications connected with the coolegual speech and bookish style.collequal vocabulary contains
word classes such as 1) general colloquial vocabulary; 2) slang; 3) jargon; 4)
dialects; 6) vulgarisms; 7) colloquial neologisms. The bookish vocabulary contains
words which do not have dialectial and local properities. For example 2) terms; 3)
poetic words; 4) archaisms; 5)foreign words and borrowings; 6) neologisms and
occasional words.the last one is the local qualifications. As we know there six main
version of English language : British, American,
Australian and New Zealand, Canadian and South African we can say that they are
important dialectical forms English. Also like English there are some widely
spoken languages like german and Spanish the qualification is also important for
them.

9. machine translation
Machine translation, computer assisted translation and human translations are
major types of translation nowadays. All the process of translation are carried out
by special computers. The advancement of computers and computer technologies
developed this branch and it means that a text from a source language should be
transferred in to a target language. In the case of Mt the only task of a person who
is interested in translating is to take a text to input in a special program and wait
for the results, such programs are google translate or Microsoft translate etc.
actually a person who is interested in translation and who uses Mt may not know a
source and target language very well this may cause many mistakes. In the case of
CAT a person makes an input into special program and he or she receives the
translated version but he is a specialist of a target language and is ready to edit the
final version. In the case of human translation the major person is a translator who
takes a pen and writes down new texts in a target language, however he or she may
use online dictionary but he\she is undertaken the whole task. From the beginning
of our era all the translations were created only by humans. In the 17th century the
idea related to the creation of a machine special translating tool appeared. However
only in the 20th century first proposals were made. in 1993 two independent
proposals were made by two scholars, one of them was George Artsrouni and
another was Petr Smirnov-Troyanskii.the first prototype appeared only in1937. The
first proposal was made by Artsrouini and he somehow presented the device
which was located on paper tape and it paid equivalence to all the words which
were presented in a source language. The Troyanskii’s model differed because it
was quite complicated and it consisted of three major stages.
The first stage was the stage of analysis , another was transfer stage and the final
one was the stage which presented by the final version of the translation. It was
very difficult to carry out all the tasks presented in the proposal and only after
world war 2 the so called cryptology was created and it helped the scholars to
carry out all the stages. There are 4 major types of machine translation. The first
one is Machine Translation for Watcher, this type was created when the necessity
of the translation of military texts appeared. This was the type of MT envisaged by
the pioneers. Machine Translation for Revisers in this case the MT assists the
translators and interpreters because it mades a major tasks it somehow prepares
draft of a text of a target language . it should be mention that this type of
translation is time consuming. Machine Translation for Translators aims at helping
human translators do their job by providing on-line dictionaries, thesaurus and
translation memory. Some authors want their books to be translated in more than
one languages ,so this task can be carried out by special machine programs .
however the only satisfactory version will be created. There are three different
strategies of Mt. the first one is The direct strategy somehow has the source
and target language and necessarily the direct counterparts. The transfer
strategy depicts 3 stages: analysis, transfer and generation stage. During the
analysis stage all the words presented in the source language are analyzed
linguistically afterwards during the transfer stage the special equivalence are
presented in the target language and they directly matched the words witch
were presented in the source language. The generation stage produces a
document in a target language on the basis of the linguistic data of a source
language by means of a target language dictionary.
The pivot language strategy is based on the idea of creating a representation of
a text independent of any particular language. it consists of only two stages.
analysis and generation. This strategy is connected to the artificial intelligence.
8. In linguistics, a corpus is a collection of linguistic data used for research,
scholarship, and teaching. corpus includes no new information about language,
but it gives new perspectives to linguistic researches and helps in the development
of different processes such as translation. Dictionary makers were collected examples of
languages to define words and before the invention of computers, those examples of a language
have been basically accrued on small slips of paper and prepared in pigeon holes. The first
systematically organized computer corpus was the Brown corpus, compiled in the
1960s by linguists Henry Kučera and W. Nelson Franci. Lexicographers have known
that the best way to avoid missing words or phrases is to have a big corpus, and a computer.
The computer can then find all the words so a lexicographer can check the list to make sure
that words are not missed.there are different types of corpora.

1. general corpora- General corpora' consist of general texts, texts that do not belong
to a single text type or subject field. An example of a general corpus is the British
National Corpus. The earliest electronic corpora of written language used to
contain one million words, while those of spoken language were generally
much smaller, but the British National Corpus contains 100 million words
or more and often comprise both written and spoken language. A Specialized
corpus is a corpus which includes a particular type of texts. Such corpus is
used to study how the specialized language is used. Nottingham Corpus of
Discourse in English and the Michigan Corpus of Academic Spoken English
are the popular examples of specialized corpora. Parallel corpora are those
consisting of texts with their translations into two or more languages, eg. a
medical article translated into Spanish, Finnish, and French. They can be of
great help in searching equivalent expressions in each language.
Comparable corpus is a corpus consisting of texts of the same type and
content in different languages. For example a various corpora made from
Wikipedia are examples of comparable corpora. Historical also known as a
diachronic corpora is containing texts from different periods and is used
to study the development or change in language. The most famous
diachronic corpora are the Helsinki Corpus with 1.5-million words and the
ARCHER with 1.7 million words . A monitor corpus is used to monitor the
change in language. It is a corpus which is regularly updated, new texts
are added as they are produced. The final ones are the heterogeneric and
monogeneric corpora. Heterogenic corpora contain texts of many
different types, generally as many different types as the compilers can
practically and legally get. However monogenic corpora easy to compile
and created by individual researchers with a special interest in a
particular text-type.

7. Georgian corpora.
In linguistics, a corpus is a collection of linguistic data used for research,
scholarship, and teaching. corpus includes no new information about language,
but it gives new perspectives to linguistic researches and helps in the development
of different processes such as translation. German professor Jost Cipper created the
first electronic resources for the Georgian language. He collaborated with Georgian
scholars while creating Georgian corpora. The Georgian national corpus is
comprehensive corpus of the Georgian language covering all stages of its historical
development. The corpus witch is still under development contains subcorpora of
old , middle and modern Georgian also transcribed records of spoken language .
there is a important fact that Georgian national corpus combines the work of
scholars and students of Tbilisi state university. They generally worked on two fields
digitalization of Georgian literary monuments and annotation of already-existed
texts
Annotation is the act of adding explicit information to a corpus. Different types of information can be
added: textual, such as part of speech information ,syntactic annotation , semantic annotation etc;.
Depending on the type of information, annotation takes place at word, sentence or paragraph. The
most complete form is a multi-level annotation, which characterizes a word from a
lingual point of view, presents the data of alliteration and equivalency.

by Stefano Paolini with

The first bilingual dictionary, Georgian-Italian was compiled
the assistance of Georgian diplomat Niceforo Irbachi and published in 1629 in Rome.
Between 1629 and 1870 approximately ten European-Georgian and Georgian-European dictionaries
were compiled. At the beginning of the 19th century Georgia became a part of the Russian Empire
and since that time the major emphasis has been placed on Russian-Georgian and Georgian-
Russian lexicography, both general and specialised dictionaries. As a result of such an approach
bilingual lexicography of the Georgian language suffered in respect to European languages. Even
when the first English-Georgian, or other European-Georgian dictionaries appeared from the 1940s,
they were mere translations of English-Russian or European-Russian dictionaries.

The idea to create the dictionary was conceived back in the 1960s at the Chair of English Philology of the
University on the initiative of a prominent Georgian scholar and translator, then Head of the Chair, Prof.
Givi Gachechiladze. The lack of an academic dictionary was especially acutely felt by translators and
perhaps not accidentally, the creation of such a dictionary was primarily determined by the need to
adequately translate English language literature into Georgian. Since then, the work on the dictionary
has gone through many difficult stages. Many mistakes were made too, mainly due to the fact that the
specialists and teachers of English participating in the project lacked proper previous experience of
lexicographic work.
In 1992, the Editorial Board decided to digitalize the edited entries of the Dictionary and to start
publishing the Dictionary in fascicles on a letter-by-letter basis. In 1995, the first fascicle of the
Comprehensive English-Georgian Dictionary, the letter A, was published which was soon (1996) followed
by two more fascicles, letters B and C. In 2009, the Editorial Board made the decision to develop an
online version of the Dictionary and to post it on the Internet. In February 2010, the Dictionary was
posted on the Internet. The Online Dictionary is by no means a stereotyped version of the printed
edition of the Comprehensive English Georgian Dictionary. First fascicles of the English Georgian
Dictionary, which were prepared and published back in the 1980s and 1990s, have undergone a
thorough revision. The online version has also comprised letters from Q to Z, not published yet as
fascicles. The Comprehensive English Georgian Dictionary presently contains up to 110 000 entries.
Taking into consideration the fact that dictionary entries fully represent the polysemy of English words,
contain numerous collocations, phrasal verbs, phraseological units, ample amount of scientific and
technical, economic and artistic terms, as well as terms from various other fields – the total material
contains several hundred thousand units. The search system of the online dictionary makes it possible to
look up English as well as Georgian words, collocations and phrases.

The first bilingual Georgian-Italian dictionary was compiled by Stefano Paolini with the help of the
Georgian diplomat Niceforo Irbachi and published in Rome in 1629. Between 1629 and 1870
approximately ten European-Georgian and Georgian-European dictionaries were compiled. At the
beginning of the 19th century Georgia became part of the Russian Empire, and since then there
has been a greater emphasis on Russian-Georgian and Georgian-Russian lexicography, both
general and specialized dictionaries. Even if the first is english-Georgian or another European-
Georgian From the 1940s onwards, dictionaries appeared that were merely translations of
English-Russian or Russian-European dictionaries. The idea for the creation of the dictionary
was developed in the 1960s at the Department of English Philology at the university on the
initiative of a well-known Georgian scholar and translator. Professor Givi Gachechiladze. The lack
of an academic dictionary was particularly felt by the translators, and perhaps not accidentally,
the creation of such a dictionary was mainly the work of the Need to properly translate English
language literature into Georgian. Since then, dictionary work has gone through many difficult
phases. Mistakes were also made, mainly because the English specialists and teachers
participating in the project lacked sufficient prior knowledge of lexicography. In 1992, the
editorial team decided to digitize the edited entries in the dictionary and to begin publishing the
dictionary in letter-by-letter fascicles.The first edition of the comprehensive English-Georgian
dictionary was published, the letter A, which was soon (1996) followed by two more editions, the
letters B and C. In 2009, the Editorial Committee made the decision to develop and publish an
online version of the dictionary It on the internet. In February 2010 the dictionary was published
on the Internet. The online dictionary is by no means a stereotypical version of the printed
version of the Comprehensive EnglishGeorgian Dictionary.The first parts of the English Georgian
Dictionary, which were created and published in the 1980s and 1990s, were extensively revised.
The online version also includes letters from Q to Z that have not yet been published as
fascicles. 110,000 entries. Taking into account that the dictionary entries fully represent the
polysemy of English words, they contain numerous collocations, phrase verbs, phrase-related
units, and a large number ofscientific and technical, economic and artistic terms as well as terms
from various other areas - the entire material contains several hundred thousand units. The online
dictionary search system allows you to search for English and Georgian words, collocations and
phrases.

In the 19th century, Georgia became a part of the Russian Empire, a fact which
affected the status of Georgian bilingual lexicography. In the 19th century
important bilingual dictionaries were created, mainly Russian-Georgian and
Georgian-Russian ones. French-Georgian dictionaries also belong to this
period, reflecting considerable interest of Georgian nobility in the French
language. In the course of the 17th and the 18th centuries, bilingual
dictionaries were initiated and created by foreigners. The situation began to
change in the 19th century. There were published bilingual dictionaries
created by Georgian authors

Consequently, the English-Georgian Online Dictionary is primarily intended

for English language specialists, teachers, translators and specialists from
various fields, who have to work on special terms; the Dictionary is also
intended for learners of English in general, as well as for the individuals,
interested in English.

Even nowadays when we use dictionary.ge is quite usefull and it is created

by scholars of Tbilisi state university.