r,.,. R.

Morgenstern 1

CONTROL GEOLOGICO DE LA ESTABILIDAD EN GRANDES PROYECTOS

GEOLOGICAL CONTROL OF STABILITY ON LARGE PROJECTS

by

Norbert R. Morgenstern
Professor of Civil Engineering
University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada

SYNOPSIS
The need to understand the geological processes that give rise to
the geotechnical complexity of a site is stressed and the role of
geological model-making for geotechnical objectives is emphasized.

Four case histories that illustrate geological control on stability

are reviewed. Three are concerned with the presence of weak clay
seams while the fourth deals with variability in the undrained
strength of a soft clay.

In the first case the presence of a bentonite layer was correctly

identified but progressive deformations along it during a deep
excavation significantly altered the evaluation of stability. The
second case summarizes advanced site characterization techniques
used to identify critical clay seams in a large scale on-going open
pit mining operation. The third case draws attention to the
influence that glaciotectonic deformations may have on the
deformation and stability of foundation materials; while the fourth
case identifies an environment in which large variations in lateral
stresses can account for a large variation in undrained strength of
a particular soft clay.

INTRODUCTION
The analysis of slope stability problems in geotechnical practice
is undertaken routinely by means of limit equilibrium methods. The
evolution of these methods, at least for two-dimensional problems,
is now mature and a variety of solutions exist that adequately
satisfy the statics of the problem. Since the availability of
computer programs to solve the equations associated with these
solutions is widespread, there is no computational barrier in terms
of limit equilibrium analyses to solving slope stability
problems. There is general agreement that the barriers that do
exist arise from difficulties in defining the operational strength
properties and pore water pressures as opposed to being able to
conduct the analysis.

It is of interest to note that after a slide has occurred, it is

usually a straight forward matter to account for it. Both the
controlling geological strata and the kinematic mechanism become
N.R. Morgenstern 2

apparent and, while the pore pressures at failure may not be known,
it is often possible to ~ound them in a reasonable manner. The
geotechnical - ·1 i terature abounds with case histories, analysed by
1 imi t equilibrium methods, that provide an acceptable explanation
of the circumstances surrounding the particular landslide.
However, the situation associated with the prior evaluation of
landslide potential is much less satisfactory. Here, one has to
interpret from the process of site characterization the most likely
failure mechanism, the operational strength characteristics, and,
if working in terms of effective stress, the appropriate pore
pressure distribution. This is a fraught with many more
difficulties than explaining instability by means of back-analysis.

There are some situations where textbook procedures apply. That

is, the process of undisturbed sampling, representative laboratory
testing either in terms of total or effective stresses, and pore
pressure forecasts as appropriate for drained or undrained
conditions will provide by itself all the correct input for a limit
equilibrium analysis. These situations are generally limited to
medium to soft, uniform intact, homogeneous clays that do not
exhibit significant strain-weakening. As stressed by Morgenstern
(1980), when one surveys the wide variety of geological
circumstances encountered in nature, one realizes that the
application of these textbook procedures, untempered by regional
empiricism, is rarely appropriate. Nowhere is this more true than
when dealing with residual soils, fissured clays and shale-1 ike
materials.

In the broad spectrum of behaviour encountered, the need to take

into account size effects in laboratory testing, anisotropy,
progressive failure, creep and long term changes in both shear
strength parameters and pore pressure distribution over-ride the
easy transfer of laboratory data to the field evaluation of
stability. For many soils both operational strength parameters and
pore pressures vary with time and deformation in a manner that can
only be deduced from the study of field behaviour. A considerable
effort is devoted to this activity in the geotechnical literature.

Even if the processes governing stability in a particular case are

well understood, they are only germane to the resolution of the
stability problem if the geological, including hydrogeological,
circumstances can be characterized. The problems associated with
doing so are illustrated by Figure 1. In this figure Price and
Knill (1974) have related the volume of material that is sampled in
a characteristic site investigation to the volume of material that
is subjected to load. For modern site investigation practice, the
ratio of material loaded to material sampled is about 10 5 • The
number is less in extended projects. Even doubling the number of
borings is not going to alter significantly the relative amount of
material that is sampled. Moreover, many site investigations are
restrained by both limited time and funds.

When the geotechnical characteristics of a site are relatively

uniform, the sparse sampling of modern site investigation practice
provides an adequate basis for material characterization. However,
when confronted with geotechnical complexity, the geotechnical
engineer must turn to geological understanding for site
N.R. Morgenstern 3

characterization. Simply expanding the number of borings is

fruitless without an exploration objective .
1000

-
f f)

.§ 100
0
uJ
..J
~ 10
ct
(I)

uJ
~
3
0
>
0.1
0.001 0.01 0 .1 10 100 1000
VOLUME LOADED x 106 (m 3 )

Figure 1. Relation Between Volumes Sampled and Loaded ( Price and

Knill, 1974)

GEOTECHNICAL COMPLEXITY
Geotechnical matters are generally concerned with the properties of
strength, deformability and permeability of soils and rocks.
Morgenstern and Cruden (1979) suggested, as a definition, that
geotechnical complexity arises when the properties that govern the
geotechnical behaviour of the project vary rapidly across a wide
range within the site. Site is meant to embrace extended linear
projects such as tunnels, highways or pipelines as well as the more
local situations such as arise with dam and building foundations.
Geotechnical complexity arises from heterogeneity in geotechnical
properties.
Morgenstern and Cruden (op.cit.) went on to suggest that
geotechnical complexity at any site may result from one or any
combination of three classes of processes:
1) genetic processes
2) epigenetic processes
3) weathering processes
Each type of process may modify the complexity that the material
has inherited from prior processes and in this way the total
complexity resembles an overlay of the sequence of processes that
have affected the geotechnical properties of the soil or rock under
investigation. Sedimentation is an obvious example of a genetic
process while tectonic deformation is an epigenetic process.

In some environments, stratigraphical correlations can be

established and the control that the geology exercises over the
geotechnical complexity becomes transparent. In other instances,
N.R. Morgenstern 4

where stratigraphy is not evident, a more profound understanding of

the geological processes is needed to unravel the geotechnical
complexity. · Here the concepts of facies, facies associations, and
process models can be used to advantage. Various examples were
provided in the original work.

Since that time, it is encouraging to see these concepts come into

wider acceptance. For example, Mathewson and Cato ( 1986)
illustrate the use of a stratigraphic model of fluvial deposition
over a lignite deposit to identify both the best and worst cases
affecting stability that might be encountered in such an extended
project. During the design stage of an extended project, the worst
case may not have been discovered by borings but can be anticipated
and sought out if the appropriate depositional model is utilized.
For the particular example, the most favourable case for stability
is represented by overbank clays on top of the coal, while the
worse case would be a section with water-bearing abandoned channel
sands between the coal and the clays, Figure 2.

OVERBANK
CLAYS

Figure 2. Slope Stability Models of a Fluvial Lignite, Worst

Case (A), Best Case (B) (Mathewson and Cato, 1986)

The rationalization of geotechnical complexity in the turbidites of

Italy has also been made easier by utilizing the concepts
summarized above (AGI, 1979). Because of their genesis, the
turbidites are composed of materials with distinctly different
properties. The main contrast arises between the argillaceous
component which is often fissile and sheared and the rock component
of high strength which may be arenaceous or calcareous. The
rock/clay ratio is used as a facies indicator to sort out the
possible lithologic associations with both arenaceous-pelitic and
calcareous-pelitic associations. An example is shown in Figure 3.
It is found that the A and P types are not complex if tectonic
deformation is lacking.

Deformation superimposes secondary structure on the original which

may subsequently be modified by weathering. The resulting
structural characteristics can then be used as a basis for
classification prior to geotechnical characterization.

In the following, four case histories are reviewed of

geotechnically complex conditions that controlled stability on
major projects. Three of the cases involve weak argillaceous
N.R. Morgenstern 5

S,_l___) SANDSTONE M MUOSTONE

---·-· -...

--·- ·-... p
A AP AP-PA

ARENACEOUS ARENACEOUS- ARENACEOUS- PELITIC

ASSOCIATIONS PELITIC PELITIC ANO ASSOCIATIONS
ASSOCIATIONS PELITIC-
ARENACEOUS
ASSOCIATIONS

__ ,.._
SANO
SHALE
SAND
SHALE.
»I SANO _ 1
SHALE
~ -o
SHALE

Figure 3. Grouping of Arenaceous-Pelitic Associations for

Engineering Zonation (A.G.I., 1979)

layers that are the dominant feature while the fourth involves
large variations in shear strength of a soft clay over short
distances. In each case an understanding of the geological
circumstances at the site is a prerequisite for representative
geotechnical characterization and the successful resolution of the
associated stability problems.

GEOTECHNICAL COMPLEXITY DUE TO CLAY SEAMS

Commentary
The geotechnical 1 i terature contains many examples of instability
in both soil and rock due to the presence of weak clay seams. The
first step in avoiding instability is to suspect that clay seams
exist in the ground. This might be obvious from prior knowledge,
outcrops, or because of adjacent instability. Alternatively the
presence of such seams would have to be inferred from geological
evidence. The second step is to locate the seams and to evaluate
whether they are pre-sheared to residual or not. Many processes
result in shearing of clay in-situ. As discussed by Morgenstern et
al (1977) the most common are tectonic action, valley rebound,
glacial drag and previous landsliding. Often the evidence of pre-
shearing is subdued and if clay seams exist it is prudent to assume
that they are pre-sheared and prove otherwise if strengths higher
N.R. Morgenstern 6

than residual are to be relied upon. The presence or absence of

weak seams exercises such a dominant influence on stability that
best availab"""le site investigation technology is mandatory when
dealing with them. For major projects this increasingly involves
some combination of continuous triple-tube coring, shaft-sinking
for purposes of mapping and sarnpl ing, and borehole geophysical
investigation s.

Along pre-sheared clay seams, only the residual strength or some

approximatio n to it can be mobilized. If the clay seam is found to
be unsheared, a much higher peak strength can be determined in the
laboratory. However, the degree to which this peak strength can be
relied upon will itself depend upon the extent to which progressive
failure mechanisms along the clay seam can influence stability.
There is still considerable difficulty associated with evaluating
progressive failure reliably in practice.

It should be noted that the heterogeneity associated with the

presence of clay seams also influences pore-water pressure
distribution s and this requires an independent detailed
evaluation. Dramatic variations due to perched water table
conditions can arise in the presence of clay seams.

Excavation for Edmonton Convention Centre

The site for the Convention Centre in the City of Edmonton, Canada
is bounded by a major thoroughfare on the north and the
North Saskatchewan River valley slope to the south. A major
historic landslide exists immediately adjacent to the east side of
the site. The geology of the site consists of a succession of
glacio-lacus trine sediments, glacial till and pre-glacial sands and
gravels overlying soft bedrock.

The glacio-lacus trine sediments comprise slightly over-consolid ated

silt and clay1 whereas the glacial till is a highly
over-consoli dated, well-graded, mixture of clay, silt, sand and
gravel. The gravels and sands are dense and were deposited by
Tertiary period streams flowing on the preglacial bedrock
landforms.

The controlling feature at the site is soft bedrock, the Edmonton

Formation which was deposited during the Upper Cretaceous Period.
This Formation consists of fine-grained bentonitic sandstone and
siltstone, interbedded with silty claystone. Coal and thin
bentonite seams are common throughout the Formation. Significant
features of the upper bedrock units are thin zones of sheared or
weakened materials. These have resulted from unloading and
straining of the bedrock layers due to valley rebound, as discussed
by Matheson and Thomson (1973), and from glacial action.

These weak zones and layers of bentonite have contributed to major

landslides in the Edmonton area, as occurred east of the subject
site in the late 1800's. Although the sliding was likely activated
by river erosion at the toe, early coal mining also exerted some
influence. Drainage of the active areas of the adjacent slide had
a stabilizing effect although some movements persisted to the
present.
N.R. Morgens tern 7

Both the geologic al model and site history indicate d that the
explora tion programm e for the Convent ion Centre developm ent should
concent rate ·on · the presence of weak layers within the bedrock. A
conside rable amount of geotech nical informa tion existed for the
area which was synthesi zed. In addition deep continuo us core
sampling of the bedrock was undertak en using triple-t ube core
barrels. Addition al auger holes were drilled to define
stratigr aphic detail in the overburd en.

When searchin g for weak layers and shear zones, visual examina tion
of disrupte d core is the best techniqu e. While wasteful of core
for potentia l testing of undistur bed samples, the presence or
absence of these layers is of such overridi ng signific ance, that
having fewer to test in the laborato ry is a secondar y issue. Al 1
core was carefull y examined in this way. Bentoni te layers and
pervasiv ely sheared zones, displayi ng shiny slickens ides, were
identifi ed. Some bentonit e layers were not pre-shea red. The
location s of all zones were compiled on stratigr aphic sections and
correlat ed with failure zones from the adjacen t slide area.

Figure 4 illustra tes a section through the site. It is taken from

Balanko et al (1982) who give more details on the site studies,
materia l charact erizatio n, and construc tion of the supporte d
excavat ion. It is seen that the downhil l part of the site is
composed of old landslid e materia l, while the strata are in place
up-hill of the old slide.

Final design of the project required a 20-25m deep excavati on

within the in-place materia ls. The excavati on was supporte d by
tangent pile walls with 6 levels of permane ntly pre-stre ssed
anchors embedded into the adjacen t soil and bedrock. Approxim ately
235,000 cubic metres of soil and soft rock were excavate d.

The tangent piles were straight -shaft concrete piles of lm diamete r

and 30m length. H-piles and wood lagging were used to support the
soil above the top of the tangent piles. The tangent piles
terminat ed in sandston e and shale, penetrat ing below several zones
of weaknes s. A persiste nt layer of bentonit e exists about 15m
below the wall. Al though this layer had been known to control
stabilit y at depth in the adjacen t slope, it was not economi cally
feasible to extend the piles through it. Details of design,
specific ations and performa nce are given by Balanko et al (1982)
and Balanko and Morgens tern (1984).

As illustra ted in Figure 5, several overall stabilit y mechanis ms

had to be investig ated. Only the deepest, which had the lowest
Factor of Safety, need be consider ed here. The overall design
Factor of Safety against sliding on this slip surface was 1. 8.
This analysis relied on a peak shear strength for the deep
bentoni te layer of 14°. Continuo us samples of this bentonit e layer
in the vicinity of the wall had been inspecte d and no evidence of
pre-exi sting shearing had been detected . Therefo re a peak shear
strength was attribut ed to the bentoni te layer in this location
instead of the residual strength which is about 8°.
 .,:;z
.
3:
0
t1
IQ
(1)
::,
(/l
(T

690
-I
ff)
I
Cl)
t1
cr cr 690 I ::,
m m
l&J l&J
680 680
SILT/CLA Y
670 670
TILL IO
...,!660 SANO ANO GR~
I
cr '°crI
m 660
ILi
z SHALE ANO SANDSTONE BEDROCK m
0 l&J
i= 650 650
er a,
> ~BENT ONITE CLAY
l&J I
jj 640 cr
BEDROCK m 640
ILi

630 FIL[ 630

- ~ -EOfW
---ZON - - EAl(N
- - -Ess
-_ --
_-ORGANIC
_1 __ - _-
620 BENTONITE
620
SOFT SANDSTONE
610 610

0 10 20
STRATIGRAPHY BETWEEN BOREHOLE I I I I
LOCATION IS INFERRED HORIZ. SCALE (m)

Figure 4. Cross Section of Edmont on Conven tion Centre Site (Balank o, et al, 1982)
CX)
 .:x,z
.
3:
0
'1
IO
J: (I)
37 kPo-, 14- (0.09H) V ::,
TIED BACK WALL
g CJ)
(1"
680~-...,.-..---- -------------.---. -----,~ ANCHOR LOADS E (I)
I')
aj '1
::,
EQUIVALENT
HORIZONTAL
-J:
ID
670 STRESS g

-_§ l:~~~
DISTRIBUTION
E
CID
l'i
660 1.. ~1
z ASSUMED PIEZOMETRIC 180kPo
...2
C(
SURFACE

> I BEDROCK
ILi
~
650
SHEAR ZONE
--- --- --- ---
BEDROCK
640
BENTONITE ZONE

BEDROCK
630

60 50 40 30 20 10 0 10 20 30 40 50
DISTANCE (m)

Figure 5. Edmonton Convention Centre Excavation

u:>
N.R. Morgenstern 10

Both wall and soil were instrumented to evaluate performance and

detailed results, as already mentioned, have been reported
elsewhere. What is of special interest here is the performance of
the bentonite layer at depth, revealed by Slope Indicator readings
as excavation proceeded. As excavation proceeded to the third row
of anchors, slip became detectable along the bentonite layer. An
excavation about 10m deep below street level was inducing localized
slip along a weak clay layer at a depth of about 45m below street
level.

Slip became perceptible when about 40% of the excavation was

complete and it increased with each excavation lift. Slip
continued to accumulate after excavation was complete although at a
diminishing rate. When readings were abandoned some six months
after excavation was complete about 30mm of slip had accumulated.
This was certainly sufficient to substantially weaken the bentonite
layer. The use of residual strength along the bentonite layer in
the overall stability analysis results in a 20-25% reduction in the
Factor of Safety.

An understanding of the geological environment had identified

correctly the geotechnical significance of the deep-seated
bentonite layer. The potential for progressive failure along it
due to unloading had also been recognized. In order to assess
whether the peak strength of the bentonite could be relied upon as
excavation proceeded, a finite element analysis was conducted.
This analysis employed hyperbolic stress-strain relations and
modelled the excavation and anchor installation in steps. Yielding
in the potential shear zone was investigated by characterizing this
material as transversely anisotropic. If the stress mobilized in
the horizontal direction were to exceed the peak strength, the
horizontal modulus of rigidity would be reduced, together with the
strength, in order to promote slip. This technique is described in
more detail by Simmons and Morgenstern (1982) who have used it to
evaluate movements in the shea·r zone beneath a dam. The finite
element analysis conducted for purposes of design indicated that
localized movements of about 13mm could be anticipated but that the
shear strength of the bentonite would not be exceeded. More
recently an improved analysis has been undertaken to model the
progressive failure type of mechanism revealed by the Edmonton
Convention Centre excavation. Elastic-plastic strain-softening
behaviour has been used to characterize the bentonite. Good
agreement is obtained between observed and calculated response.
The propagation of the shear zone is directly related to the amount
of excavation and the extent of shearing can be calculated by the
finite element model (Chan and Morgenstern, 1987).

Not withstanding advances in finite element modelling, if the

geological model has not isolated those features that control
geotechnical response, subsequent numerical simulation of ground
behaviour can be misleading. This example illustrates that
features a considerable distance from the soil mass under immediate
consideration can exert a dominant influence on its behaviour.

Highwall Stability at Syncrude Canada Ltd.

Syncrude Canada Ltd. operates an oil sand mine about 40km north of
Fort McMurray in northern Alberta. The mine is 4.5km long and is
N.R. Morgenstern 11

split into four quadrants for planning and scheduling purposes.

Each quadrant has an independent dragline/bucketwhe el-
reclaimer/co.n.veyor system. The mine production over the planned 25
year life of the mine is in the order of 250,000 tonnes per day.
In excess of 250 linear kilometres of highwall have been mined with
this system to date.

Syncrude began mining in June 1977 with a single bench dragline

scheme with open pit highwall depths extending up to 60m. Feed
grade oil sand is mined and placed in windrows parallel to the
highwall crest. Oilsand leaner than feed grade which occurs as
reject material both in the top and centre of the highwall is
separated by the draglines and cast back into the mined out area.
The feed is reclaimed from the windrows by a bucketwheel and
delivered to the extraction plant on a conveyor system. Overburden
is prestripped by mobile equipment outside the conveyor system and
disposed of on both in-pit and out-of-pit waste dumps. A schematic
of the mining method is shown in Figure 6.

--r- I- -~
-,-
· --r- Cl)
w
Ct:
u
w
e -.l--
,_
REJECT
WINDROWED

--r- .J
.J

1J:
3
'J:
·1_
-,
IN-PIT

_j-- -f
,' :',

---t-
C>
:f
3
~ . w CUT BEING
z MINEO

OIL SANO
o~, 1,,,

WINDROWED OIL I-
ON BENCH TUB
Cl)
w
Ct:
u
.J
.J
ci
BENCH 3
J:
PIT
~
J:
0
.J
0

Figure 6. Syncrude Dragline Mining Method (Fair and Lord, 1984)

The dragline sits directly on oilsand and relies on its strength

for overall highwall stability. Studies showed that while the
N.R. Morgens tern 12

oi lsand is essentia lly a cohes ionless ma teria 1, it possesse s an

interpen etrative fabric which enhances the strength of the sand.
This class __of materia ls has been called locked sands by
Dusseau lt and Morgens tern (1979). Both natural slopes and
excavati ons can sustain steep slopes in locked sands provided the
sand fabric is undistur bed. Therefor e overall instabil ity through
the oilsand is not anticipa ted to occur at the Syncrude operatio n.

However the oilsand also possesse s clay seams that can give rise to
sudden block slides which jeopardi ze the safety of the dragline s.
The loss of a dragline would have a most serious impact on Syncrude
due to both lost producti on and replacem ent cost. In order to
ensure a safe and efficien t mining operatio n procedu res have been
establis hed to identify and monitor potentia l highwall instabi lity
problems and where appropr iate institut e remedial stabiliz ation.
These procedu res are reviewed in detail by Fair and Lord ( 1984).
Only the geologic al controls on stabilit y of this geotech nically
intensiv e extended project are singled out for discussi on here.

On the basis of experien ce, four distinct modes of highwal l

instabi lity can be identifi ed. Only the block slides on continuo us
clay seams have so far appeared to be potentia lly catastro phic.
However the others merit a brief discussi on. Slabbing failure
develop s with the outward toppling of thin slabs as a result of
stress relief and gas exsoluti on. The crest retrogre sses followin g
mining and a talus accumul ates on the lower slope. Highwal l toe
bulging involves a bulge in the lower third of the highwal l
slope. It occurs in high grade bitumen areas and is the result of
gas exsoluti on. Since this process occurs along new highwal l it is
not a major threat to dragline safety. However it often results in
major crest retrogre ssion and could contribu te to a block slide.
Basal zone failures occur when the highwal l rests on weak basal
materia ls with resultan t instabi lity. They are relative ly rare and
normally occur along new highwal l.

Block slides along clay seams can extend directly beneath the
dragline . Moreove r they evolve very rapidly. Therefor e they are
the most hazardou s instabil ity mechanis m encounte red at Syncrude
and a conside rable effort has been expended to develop methods to
anticipa te the occurren ce of clay seams and mitigate the potenti al
for block slides.

The oils ands occur within the Cretaceo us McMurray Formatio n and
they are an example of a genetic ally complex deposit within which
no simple stratigra phy can be establis hed, at least at a practica l
scale. The McMurray Formatio n was deposite d in a tidal environm ent
and the sedimen ts originat e from successi ve depositi on in fluvial,
estuarin e tidal depositi on where tidal flats develope d without
strong wave energy. Drainage of these inter-ti dal flats was
accompl ished by a network of inter-co nnected meander ing tidal
channel s. Dipping clay beds which are a necessar y feature for the
occurren ce of block slides are thought to have originat ed in the
channels for reasons such as:

i) Abandon ed channels are filled with layers conformi ng to the

shape of the scoured out channels and consequ ently dip toward
the channel axis from both flanks.
N.R. Morgenstern 13

ii) In active migrating tidal channels, the dipping clay beds are
formed by lateral accretion of channel point bars. The beds
dip from . the surface of the point bars toward the channel
axis.

These inclined clay beds can dip to 20° or more norma 1 to the
channel axis. Their lateral continuity depends on the width, depth
and degree of meandering of the channel. Strength properties can
be correlated on a facies basis and generally vary with plasticity
over a wide range. Pore pressures remain fairly high in the
highwall. Gas exsolution inhibits the pore pressure reduction that
would be associated with excavation. Therefore, provided the
geometric circumstance s permit the development of a block slide
over such an extended length it is prudent to assume that it can
develop. Geological information provides the basis for more
refined resolution of this problem. As summarized by Fair and
Lord (1984) the sources of information are:

i) Dipmeter logs
ii) Highwall mapping
iii) Highwall bench trenching
iv) Past highwall performance

The adaptation of the dipmeter tool by Syncrude from larger tools

developed in the oil industry is a major advance in the technology
available to deal with stability problems dominated by hard-to-find
clay seams. The dipmeter log provides a continuous log of bedding
dips at a given borehole location and hence a means of interpreting
structures in advance of mining with a confidence level dependent
on the hole spacing.

The tool fits down a 130mm diameter borehole. Three or four small
pads record the variation in resistivity of the various beds to
produce a continuous structural log. The tool provides sufficient
resolution to determine both dip directions and magnitude. Figure
7 illustrates a typical log. The depth is recorded along the
vertical axis while the dip magnitude is recorded along the
horizontal axis. Rose diagram plots are utilized to illustrate the
dominant dip direction at various depths.

It is evident that continuous dipmeter logs provide a powerful tool

for the prior identificatio n of adverse dipping clay seams. At
Syncrude a hole spacing of 100m is typically utilized to provide
geological structural information up to five years in advance of
mining. In more critical areas the hole spacing is reduced to
SOm. Mine operations require an on-going interpretatio n of all
geological information in order to obtain a thorough understanding
of the depositional environment and any hazardous structures within
it. Longitudinal sections are created for each highwall cut panel
over the length of the mine and transverse sections, established at
100m, are continuously updated as new information becomes
available.

Highwall mapping data is obtained along new cutface and highwall

slopes and is used to check and up-date the sections provided.
This facilitates the prior identificatio n of problem areas for the
next panel. In addition, highwall bench trenching is used to
supplement the geological data base in selected areas. Backhoes
N.R. Morgenstern 14

BEDDING DIPS 0 ORIGINAL GROUND

ELEVATION 289.9 m __,.___
0 ~-"""'-t....._.........,._--r'_--r"_--.-__
N9••9~!!!!!2

BOREHOLE 20-23-7-3/3
5
~
1111
I
MINE
NORTH
10

ROSE DIAGRAM PLOT OF AZIMUTH

READINGS FROM OTO 25m.
DOMINANT AZIMUTH SHOWN BY
SOLID LINE It 246°
... 25
~
~
w
0

30

35

'
DOMINANT AZIMUTH 227° BUT
SIGNIFICANT DIP DIRECTION AT 25°

~AZIMUTH (0-360°)

~DIP

SOLID CIRCLES INDICATE MORE RELIABLE READINGS

THAN OPEN ONES.

Figure 7. Typical Dipmeter Log (Fair and Lord, 1984)

N.R. Morgenstern 15

are utilized to dig trenches about 3m deep, normal to the highwall

crest for a length of 50-75m. This trenching is often able to
provide useful - data at the surf ace regarding the continuity of
particular structures.

If the geotechnical engineer knows what to look for, he can, with

monitoring, bring the full power of the observationa l method to the
resolution of his problem. In an active mine, experience gained
during the mining of previous highwall cuts, when correlated with
the depositional model, provides an effective basis for
anticipating trouble areas. When the threat of a block slide arise
intensive monitoring is undertaken.

This monitoring involves: l) vertical slope inclinometers to

monitor subsurface movement, 2) conventional survey techniques to
monitor surface movements, and 3) visual observations of
cracking. Slope inclinometers have proven to be a very effective
device in this application. A typical layout in a potentially
critical area is shown in Figure 8. If slip movements are
detected, real-time monitoring of the mining panel is implemented
during mining together with visual observations of cracking. Using
criteria developed at Syncrude, mining has been successfully
carried out to within a few hours of substantial slide movements.
Details of monitoring procedures and control of potential block
slides are given by Fair and Lord (1984).
- - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- -·------ - - -

ROW OF SLOPE
INCLINOMETERS LOCATED
ALONG NEW HIGHWALL SLOPE INCLINOMETER
PANEL-READ TO RECORD BURIED THEN RECOVERED
RESPONSE IN TO ALLOW ORAGLINE TO
NEW HIGHWALL ~ MINED THROUGH AREA
R R
II
II II
NEW HIGHWALL 11 DRAGLINE TUB
LOCATION
II
II
CREST II Q
II II II
II II II
u u I
11 OLD HIGHWALL II
11 CREST II
ti II
II U

:OW OF S L O P E /
INCLINOMETERS LOCATED ALONG
OLD HIGHWALL PANEL- READ TO
OE TECT MOVEMENT ALONG OLD
HIGHWALL IN AF.EA OF DRAGLINE

BASE OF FEED

Figure 8. Dragline Monitoring in Critical Area (Fair and Lord,

1984)
N.R. Morgenstern 16

Sync rude, 1 ike many mining operations, continually confronts the

behaviour of soil or rock in a yielding state. Conventional
evaluations i~ - terms of Factor of Safety are not precise enough to
assist the operator who is asking the questions: 11 How much is
failing? 11 and 11 When will it fail? 11 Nevertheless systematic
observationa l procedures, well-founded in geotechnical principles,
can resolve these issues provided the geological controls on the
process of instability are understood.

Tailings Dyke at Syncrude Canada Ltd.

Just as the mining operations at Synrude constitute earthmoving on
a grand scale, so do the tailings operations.

Approximatel y 475 million cubic metres of sand, 400 million cubic

metres of thick sludge and 50 million cubic metres of freewater
will require permanent storage within the Syncrude Tailings Pond.
To accommodate these volumes, approximately 18 km of dyke ranging
from 32 to 90m in final height will be constructed. At completion,
the tailings pond will have a surface area of 17 square kilometers
and in terms of volume of compacted section, will be one of the
largest dams in the world. Present plans call for the completion
of dyke construction by 1992. The pond will be used for sludge
storage until the end of the 25 year mine plan in 2013. Additional
sand storage requirements beyond 1992 will be accommodated in the
mined-out pit area.

The general layout of the tailings pond and perimeter dyke is shown
in Figure 9. For planning purposes, the dyke perimeter has been
divided into 700m long segments, which are referred to as cells.
The cell locations with respect to the dyke perimeter and numbering
sequence are also shown in Figure 9.

Figure 10 illustrates a typical design section for the tailings

dyke. The compacted shell is constructed by utilizing hydraulic
construction techniques first pioneered by Hardy in the
construction of the Tar Island Dyke (Mittal and Hardy, 1977). This
procedure involves sluicing of the tailings stream into
construction cells oriented parallel to the dyke centre-line. The
tailings sand placed in the construction cells is spread and
compacted by wide pad dozers during the sluicing operation. During
the winter months when cell construction is not feasible, the
tailings stream is discharged upstream of the compacted shell. The
coarse sand fraction settles out to form a beach with a 2-3 percent
slope. The water and sludge fractions of the tailings stream flow
into the pond.

The downstream slope angles are largely governed by the underlying

geology and associated shearing resistance as controlled by both
strength parameters and pore pressure response. In general, the
foundation soils underlying the tailings disposal area consist of
Pleistocene and Cretaceous units which overlie the McMurray
Formation (Km). The former Beaver Creek channel defines an
approximate boundary between two distinct foundation geology
conditions, illustrated in Figure 9. The portion of the dyke to
the west of the creek is underlain by glacial till and Clearwater
Formation (Kc). The area to the east of the former creek channel
is primarily underlain by Pleistocene fluvial sand and gravel (Pf)
N.R. Morgenstern 17

I
.,
7
SLIDING
22 [ MICROMETER
LOCATIONS

23

r--1 AREA UNDERLAIN l't

L.....J CLEARWATER FORMATION
t-:SO CELL NUMIERS

Figure 9. Layout of Syncrude Tailings Pond ( Fair and Handford,

1986)
-;:::::::::::===================;;,-

Km-TARSAND

Figure 10. Typical Cross-Sectio n of Tailings Dyke ( Fair and

Handford, 1986)

as well as glacial till (Pg). The Clearwater Formation has been

eroded in the eastern area with the exception of localized remnants
of its basal units (Kew and Kea).
Many major dams are designed on the basis of the worst conditions
anticipated in the foundations. Embankment loading tends to stress
the weakest element in any foundation and therefore a design on
this basis is generally appropriate where design and construction
changes are not readily accommodated . It would be a daunting and
expensive undertaking to investigate the 18 km long Sync rude dyke
foundation to the level commonly considered appropriate for the
design and construction of a major water-retaini ng structure and
then to design the section everywhere based on the worst
N.R. Morgenstern 18

condition. Moreover, given that the dyke is constructed over many

years, and that there is ample opportunity to monitor and instigate
design changes; that procedure would be extremely wasteful.

The construction of the Syncrude Tailings Dyke is ideally suited

for application of the Observationa l Method (Peck, 1969). At
Syncrude, design overall is based on average parameters,
comprehensiv e monitoring is undertaken, and potential problems and
mitigative measures are anticipated in advance. The slow rate of
dyke construction , the slow rate of filling, and the contractual
climate of an operating mine greatly facilitates the application of
the Observationa l Method in practice. Details of the design
philosophy and monitoring program in support of this approach to
the design and construction of the Syncrude Tailings Dyke have been
given by Fair and Handford (1986).

It will be noted, as shown in Figure 10 that much of the foundation

involves glacial till over Clearwater Formation. The Clearwater
Formation contains some weak, highly plastic units (Kea) and
thereby creates circumstances which are conducive to weakening by
g lacio-tecton ic deformation. This epigenetic process thereby adds
complexity to an already complex depositional setting.

Features arising from glaciotecton ic deformation or glacial drag

are widespread and have been recognized in the prairies of Western
Canada and USA, and in both Eastern and Western Europe. When the
bedrock is weak, extensive shearing results with remnants
containing slip surfaces at residual. This geological detail can
exercise a dominant control on stability. As summarized by Fenton
et al (1986) glacially thrust bedrock has caused significant
highwall failures in Alberta open-pit coal mines. Glacially thrust
features also dominate the problem areas encountered in the
foundation of the Syncrude Tailings Dyke.

The behaviour at Cell 23 illustrates this. The foundation geology

in Cell 23 consists of 4m of Pleistocene fluvial sand and gravel
(Pf) which overlies 10m of sand and clay tills (Pg) and Sm of
glacially disturbed Kea and Kew. Hydraulic construction began in
1979. The dyke was originally designed and constructed at 4:1
slopes. In 1983 the dyke slope was changed to 8.5:1 for all post
1983 construction . This had the effect of reducing the ultimate
overall dyke slope to 6.8:1. At completion of the dyke, the
elevation of the dyke will be 352m and the height will be 44m. At
the time of reporting, the dyke elevation was 337m.

Fair and Handford (op cit) have summarized the extensive

instrumentati on installed in Cell 23. For one section, the slope
inclinometer locations and major movement zones are shown in Figure
11. The major movement occurs at the interface betweeen the Kea
and Kew uni ts.

Typical time vs displacement plots for the slope inclinometers at

the dyke toe and the Elv. 319 berm of Section 53+00E are given in
Figure 12. They illustrate both the characterist ic response to
dyke construction and a gradual reduction in the rate of movement
to a nominal creep level between lifts. The rate of creep averages
2 to 4cm per year for the slope inclinometers at the 319 berm and
from 1 to 1.5cm per year at the dyke toe.
 N.R. Morgenstern 19

It)
N ___,. MAJOR MOVEMENT ZONE
I
rt)
N
360 I
It) N
~ rt)
(I) I
rt)
,.._ ,.._
-340
E
N
I
IO
""
N
I
ft)
ID
N
I
If)
rt)
I
ft)
-I
ft)
~
z (I)
N
I
N
I
N
I
N
I
...
Q 320
<X
q-
ID
IC)
!?
Cl') BASE
It)
~
q-
~
w
> (I)
ROAD
II) (I)

..J
w 300

280

Figure 11. Cross-Section of Cell 23 Area (Fair and Handford, 1986)

0 0

eu
-z
I- 5
eu
I-
2 CONSTRUCTION
z TO EL.. 331 m
~ CONSTRUCTION w
I.I.I TO EL..331m :E
V w
c:r u 4
..J 4
Q. ..J
(I)
Q.
TYPICAL. RESPONSE (I)
0 TO HYDRAULIC
..J 15 CONSTRUCTION 0
::z ..J
c:r
I-
6
I.I.I
z
:E 20
I.I.I
I.I.I
ct: 2
u I.I.I 8
z a:
u
2~ ~

10
1984 1985 1986 1983 1984 1985 1986

(a) ( b)

Figure 12. Performance History~ 310 Berm (a), Toe (b) (Fair and
Handford, 1986)

While movements are substantial, several criteria indicate that

remedial measures are not needed yet. The trend with time
indicates improving performance. This is summarized in Table I.
The data confirm that the flattening of the slope in 1984 has led
to improved performance. This improved performance is also
associated with the improved foundation conditions encountered
within the zone of maximum shear stress beneath the revised
embankment.
Concern would increase if the compressive strain in the Pg till
overlying the Kea approaches the strain to failure measured in
laboratory tests. The in-situ strain in the till is calculated
N.R. Morgenstern 20

between slope inclinometers at the dyke toe and those across the
base road. The maximum monitored strain in the till is 0.2 percent
which is an -order of magnitude less than the strain to failure
found in the laboratory. In addition, there is no evidence of any
development of a passive shear surf ace in the ti 11. Acceleration
of movements during times when there is no dyke construction would
indicate the need to consider the immediate construction of a toe
berm to arrest the movement.

It is commonly held that if the Factor of Safety is high, the

associated movements in the soil mass will be small. At the time
of reporting, the stability analyses of Cell 23 indicated a Factor
of Safety of 1. 6, yet the area shows extreme sensitivity to dyke
construction. Incremental displacements in response to
construction of up to 8cm per year have been recorded. The maximum
total incremental displacement monitored to mid-1986 was 25cm. It
is clear that there are limitations to the design of such dykes on
pre-sheared clay, based on limit equilibrium analyses alone.

The presence of weak clay seams, particularly if pre-sheared, not

only dominates the ultimate Factor of Safety, but also the pattern
of deformations that are induced prior to any failure.
TABLE I. Trend analysis of movement:
Cell 23 Section 53+00E 319 Berm
(from Fair and Handford, 1986)

Maximum Incremental Incremental Rate

Rate of Displacement Displacement of
Year Movement 1 month after 1 year after Creep
construction construction
(mm/day) (cm) ( cm) (cm/year)

1986 1.1 1.4 ? ?

1985 1.3 2.3 5.5 1.6
1984 3.5 4.2 a.a 3.3
1983 0.6 3.0 6.3 2.1
1982*
1981 0.3 1.3 3.2 0.4

* - No dyke construction in Cell 23 in 1982.

GEOTECHNICAL COMPLEXITY IN A LACUSTRINE CLAY

Soft clays are usually thought to be simpler than stiff clays and
easier to characterize by in-situ and/or laboratory testing.
Recent studies of a soft, fissured lacustrine clay have revealed
that this need not be so.
A soft fissured clay has given rise to various geotechnical
problems at the site of the Genesee Power Project which is located
about 60 km southwest of Edmonton, Canada. A new highway
embankment has failed, instability has occurred in excavations and
large deformations have developed in the foundation of a tailings
N.R. Morgenstern 21

retention dyke.
The site is underlain by a 10 to 20m thick lacustrine clay which
overlies an ablation till. During the site investigation for
various aspects of the project it was found that there were
numerous slickensided fissures within the lacustrine clay and that
there was a marked areal variability in undrained strength across
the site. In their analysis of the highway embankment failure,
Crooks et al (1987) concluded that the operational strength of the
clay was controlled by the fissures. Subsequent studies by Chan
(1985) discovered that the geological setting and post-deposit ional
processes greatly influenced the geotechnical properties.

The study area is underlain by bedrock of the Cretaceous Paskapoo

Formation. Prior to glaciation, the bedrock was eroded extensively
and a network of channels formed the drainage system. The specific
site lies within a 3-4 km wide channel. During the last ice
retreat from Alberta, the channel was dammed resulting in the
deposition of a 10 to 20m thick layer of clay resting on an
ablation till. The area displays an undulating surface topography
which resembles that of a hummocky disintegratio n moraine with
relief of the order of 3m. This hummocky appearance resulted most
probably from the deposition of the clay on debris-rich ice.
Further discussion of the geological processes acting on the site
and data from the site studies are given by Chan (op cit) and Chan
and Morgenstern (1985). The lake bottom was most probably
submerged and exposed intermittentl y during clay deposition. This
is evident from the presence of stiff crusts with high
preconsolida tion pressures sandwiched between more or less normally
consolidated clays.
While observations on clay structure, strain weakening and
operational strengths deduced from back-analyse s are all
noteworthy, it is the variability in the deposit that is of special
interest here. At one location three holes were drilled on a line
spaced about 90m apart and vane tests were performed, samples
taken, and in-situ Ko stresses measured by means of total stress
cells jacked into place. Based on normal classificatio n tests, and
over-consoli dation ratio, the three sites were essentially
identical yet the undrained strength at a given depth varied from
40 kPa to 80 kPa, a variation of 100%. This variation could not be
attributed to a variation in composition or pre-consolid ation
pressure but was shown to be explicable by a variation in Ko at
constant overconsolid ation ratio. The variation in Ko arises from
differential lateral straining as a result of underlying ice
melting. In-situ measurements of Ko revealed such a variation
(Chan and Morgenstern, 1986). Stress history effects due to bottom
melt-out processes contribute to geotechnical complex'ity in certain
soft lacustrine clays and may dominate those associated with
vertical effective stress change alone.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

When the geotechnical engineer knows what to look for and what to
monitor, he can fulfill his responsibili ties in a remarkably
reliable manner. Most failures and extra construction costs arise
N.R. Morgenstern 22

from major discrepancies between the conditions anticipated and the

conditions found. Both geological characteriza tion and
geotechnical characteriza tion can result in misrepresent ation of
conditions. In a compact site, extensive site investigation can
reduce the hazards of incorrect characteriza tion. This is not
practical on linear extended projects. Regardless of whether
intensive site investigation s can be undertaken or not, the hazard
of incorrect characteriza tion is greatly magnified if the
geotechnical circumstances are complex, in the manner defined
earlier.

A rational basis for the analysis of geotechnical complexity exists

if the processes giving rise to the complexity can be identified
and a process model formulated.
One common occurrence in geotechnical practice is the control that
weak clay seams exert on stability. Three case histories were
presented to illustrate the influence of clay seams in differing
situations. In each case an understanding of the geological
environment was essential to handle the problem created by the
presence of the seams.

A fourth case history describes substantial spatial variability in

the undrained strength of a lacustrine clay. The variability is
accounted for by a variation in the lateral stresses in the clay as
a result of deformations arising from ice-wasting in an underlying
ablation till. Variability in properties is explainable if the
depositional process is understood and this understanding leads to
more informed site exploration.

Geological model-making for geotechnical objectives is an essential

activity on any major project.

REFERENCES

Associazione Geotecnica Italiana (A.G.I.), 1979. Some Italian

experiences on the mechanical characteriza tion of structurally
complex formations. Proc. 4th Int. Cong. Rock Mechanics,
Montreux, Balkema, Rotterdam, Vol. 1, p.827-846.

Balanko, L.A. and Morgenstern, N.R., 1984. Anchor test program;

Edmonton Convention Centre. Pree. Int. Symp. on Pres tressed
Rock and Soil Anchors, Post Tensioning Institute, Phoenix, USA,
p. Rl-R31.

Balanko, L.A., Morgenstern, N.R. and Yacyshyn, R., 1982. Tangent

pile wall, Edmonton Convention Centre. In Application of Walls
to Landslide Central Problems, ed. by R. Reeves, American
Society of Civil Engineers, New York, p. 108-123.

Chan, A.C.Y., 1985. Geotechnical Characterist ics of Genesee Clay.

Ph.D. Thesis, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada.

Chan, A. C. Y. and Morgenstern, N. R., 1985. Geotechnical

characterist ics of a soft fissured lacustrine clay. Proc. 38th
Can. Geotech. Conf., Edmonton, p. 179-188.
N.R. Morgens tern 23

Chan, A.C.Y. and Morgens tern, N.R., 1986. Measurem ent of lateral
stresses in a lacustri ne clay deposit. Proc. 39th Can.
Geotech . Conf., Ottawa, p. 285-290.

Chan, D. H. and Morgens tern, N. R., 1987. Analysis of progress ive

deforma tion of the Edmonton Convent ion Centre excavati on.
Canadian Geotech nical Journal, in press.

Crooks, J.H.H., Been, K., Micklebo rough, B.W. and Dean, J.P., 1987.
An embankm ent failure on soft fissured clay, Canadian
Geotech nical Journal, in press.

Dusseau lt, M.B. and Morgens tern, N.R., 1979. Locked sands,
Quarter ly J. Eng. Geol., Vol. 12, p. 117-131.

Fair, A.E. and Handford , G.T., 1986. Overview of the tailings dyke
instrum entation program at Syncrude Canada Ltd. In Geotech nical
Stabilit y in Surface Mining, ed. by R.K. Singha!, Balkema,
Rotterda m, pp. 245-254.

Fair, A.E. and Lord, E.R.F., 1984. Methods used to monitor and
control block slides in oilsands at Syncrud e's dragline
operatio n in northern Alberta, Canada. Proc. 37th Can.
Geotech . Conf., Toronto, p. 103-112.

Fenton, M.M., et al, 1986. Glaciote ctonic deforma tions and

geotech nical stabilit y in open pit coal mining. In Geotech nical
Stabilit y in Surface Mining, ed. by R.K. Singhal, Balkema,
Rotterda m, p. 225-234.
Matheso n, D.S. and Thomson, s., 1973. Geologi cal implicat ions of
valley rebound. Can. J. of Earth Science s, Vol. 10,
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Mathews on, C.C. and Cato, K.D., 1986. "Pre and post" mine
geotech nical conditio ns for surface mines, develope d from · the
comp re hens ive explora tion program. In Geotech nical Stabi 1 i ty
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p. 3-10.

Mittal, H. and Hardy, R., 1977. Geotech nical aspects of a tar sand
tailings dyke. Proc. Conf. in Geotech nical Practice for
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327-347.

Morgens tern, N.R., 1980. Factors affectin g the selectio n of shear

strength paramet ers in slope stabilit y analysis . Proc. Int.
Symp. on Landslid es, New Delhi, Vol. 2, p.83-94.

Morgens tern, N.R. and Cruden, D., 1979. Descrip tion and
classifi cation of geotech nical complex ities. Proc. Int. Symp.
on the Geotech nics of Structu rally Complex Formatio n,
Associaz ione Geotecn ica Italiana , Vol. 2, p. 195-204.

Morgens tern, N., Blight, G.E., Janbu, N., and Resendiz , D., 1977.
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Soil Mechs. Found. Eng., Tokyo, Vol. 2, p. 547-604.
N.R. Morgenstern 24

Morgenstern, N.R. and Eigenbrod, K.D., 1974. Classification of

argillaceous soils and rocks. J. Geotech. Eng. Div., ASCE,
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Peck, R.B., 1969. Advantages and limitations of the observational

method in applied soil mechanics. Geotechnique, Vol. 19, p.
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Price, D.G. and Knill, J.L., 1974. Scale in the planning of site
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Simmons, J.V. and Morgenstern, N.R., 1982. Analysis of the

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