Chromosome Organization

- Cellular DNA is uncompannied by other protieins

- Forms a complex with various protein partners

Chromatin

- DNA-protein complex wherein the mass of protein and nuclide acid is equal

DNA- coiled to save space because there is so much of it to store

Histones- wrap of DNA,

Histone Complexes- nucleosome underfoing coiling until wet to CHROMOSOME

Chromosmomes versions: maternal and paterna (same genes but not identical)

2 copis for each of 23 chromosomes= total of 46 chromosomes

Chromosomes duplicate through DNA replication

Homolohos have same genes but not identical

Sister chromatids are identical

Same gene but different allele

- Prciese sequqnece of nucleoids

GREGOR MENDEL

- When the field genetics was first develop no one knew about DNA or chromosmes

Chromosme Theory of Inheritance

 - Chromosmese are vehicles of genetics heredity

Law of Segreagation

- Gametes have 1 set

- Parent cell has 2 sets of homolohous chromosomes
- Arrange randomnly during this process
- Genes are on 2 different

Genome- old genetic material of an organism

Non-coding DNA is the majority of DNA. Does NOT code for any proteins. Mrna, Rna

Telomeres – found at the end of the chromosomes

During replication polymerase can’t copy the last few bases on the template strand

If gene starts to eroded away which could be harmful to a acell

The information in the genes remains intact

If happen it is called replicative sensescence

Telomerase

- Regularly extend the telomeres

There are sections call transposons (jumping genes) move to one another

Male -xy

Female- xx

These chromosmes are partially homologous

Males will have one one allele

Femalse have 2 allelles

Contains fewr genes

Contains some genes that are not present on the y chromosome

Y chromosomes are shorter than x

DNA

- Can be found in nucleus

DNA of prokaryotes are naked or no nuclear envelope

DNA REPLICATION

- Making more DNA

- It takes place in the nucleus note: not all cells have nucleus just like the prokaryotic cells thus
prokaryotic cells
DNA

- Majore store of genetic information

- Inheritance
- To transfer this genetic information from a parent cell to a daughter cell during a cellular
reproduction, the DNA must be duplicated

CENTRAL DOGMA

- Flow of information of the cell starts in the DNA

DNA REPLICATION

- Duplication or synthesis of DNA is called replication

- Semi-conservative
⮚ Each relicated duplex daughter DNA molecule contains one parent and newly synthesized
strand
⮚ Base pairing rule is always maintained

PROKARYOTIC REPLICATION

SUBSTRATES

- 4 DEOXYRIBONUCLEOSIDE TRIPHOSPHATE

Dctop

dGTP – deoxyguaninetyphosphate

dTTP- thymidinetyphosphate

TEMPLATE

- Both strands of DNA double helix serves as template for the synthesis of new daughter DNA
strands

DNA REPLICATION KEY ENZYMES

Enzymmes – have the ability to speed the breakdown

Enzymes and Proteins

- DNA B protein (helicase) -unwinds DNA

⮚ Acts like a zipper to unzip the DNA
- PRIMASE- SYNTEHSIZES RNA PRIMER
- RNA Primer
⮚ Short piece of RNA require for synthesis

⮚ Synthesiezed by DNA dependent RNA

- DNA TOPOISOMERASE I AND II
- DNA POLYMERASE – DNA CHAIN ELONGATION
- DNA LIGASE- JOINSS OKAZAKI FRAGMENTS
- DNA A PROTEIN- OPENS DUPLEX AT ORIGIN OF REPLICATION
- SBB SINGLE STRAND BINDING PROTEIN – BINDS SEPAREATED SINGLE STRANGED DNA AND
STABILIZES IT
- TER BINDING
● Helicase
● DNA Polymerase
⮚ Dna synthesis is catalyzed by enzyme called DNA dependent DNA Polymerase

⮚ These polymerases required for: DNA chain elongation, dna repair (5’ -3’ exonuclease
activity)
⮚ Proofreading (‘3 -5’ exonuclease activity) -error rate is remove

Types of DNA Polymerase

Polymerasesis in prokaryotes – dna polymerase I,ii,iii,iv, v

DNA REPLICATION STEPS

Initiation- elongation (priling of the template strand)- termination( assembly of the dna
segment)

Initiation

- Dna a protein recognizes and binds to the “ori” of the DNA and denature the DNA
- PROKARYOTES THAT HAVE SINGULAR CIRCULAR DNA UNWIND TO FORM AN EYE OR BUBBLE
- BIDECTORODAL
⮚
 ● Primase
● Ligase

TERMINATION

- “ter” direct termination of replication

- Specific protein, ter binding protein, binds sequences to prevent
⮚ PROOFREADING
- DNA POLYMERASE are the enzymes that build DNA in cells
- During dna replication, dna poylmerasse can check their work with each base that they add

CHROMOSOMAL THEORY OF INHERITANCE

- Before chromosome visualized under a microscope, the father of Modern Genetics, Gregor
Mendal, began studying heredity in 1843
- Mendel speculated that cells contained some type of factor that carried traits from one
generation to the next.
- Darwin proposed that traits can be passed down via unit he termed “Gemmules” (internal found
in sponges)
- Theoder Boveri- overseved that embryonic development of sea urchins does not occur unless
chromosomes are present
- Walter Sutton and Theodor Boveri are credited with developing the Chromosomal theory of
Inheritcance which states that CHROMOSOMES CARRY UNIT OF HEREDITY (genes)
- Chromosomal theory of inheritance identified chromosomes as the genetic material responsible
for Mendelian inheritance.

CONSISTENT WITH MENDEL’S LAW

● During meiosis homologous chromosome pairs migrate as discrete structures that are
independent of other chromosome pairs
● The sorting of chromosome from each homologous pair into pre-gametes appears to be random
● Each parent synthesizes gametes that contain only half of their chromosomes
 ● Even male and female gametes have different in size and morphology they have the same
number of chromosomes suggesting equal genetic contriutions from each parent
● The gametic chromosome combine during fertilization to produce offspring with the same
chromosome number as their parents

Individuals had far more independently segregating traits than they had chromosomes.

DSROSOPHILA MELANOGASTER (fruit fly)

- Thomas Hunt Morgan provided experimental evidence to support the Chromosomal Theory
Inheritance

THOMAS HUNT MORGAN

- American zoologist and geneticist

- Experiment research wit the fruit fly
- Established the chromosome theory of hereditary
- Genes are linked in a series on chromosomes and are responsible for identifiable
- 1908 beigning of breeding DROSOPHILA
- Observed small but discrete variation known as white-eye in a male fly in one of his culture
bottles
- The white-eye was bred with red-eyed fly
- Brother-sister mating among the F1 generation produced a second generation F2 with some
white-eyed flies (all males)
- Developed sex-limited-today called sex-linked – characters which he postulated were part of the
x-chromosome of females
- X-CHROMOSOME carried a number of discrete hereditary units, or factors

GENETIC LINKAGE AND DISTANCES

-Mendel’s work suggested that traits are inherited independtly of each other

-Morgan a 1:1 corresponce between a segregating trait and the x-chromomse, suggesting random
segregation

Each chromosomes carry linked genes showing how individuals can have more traits that they have
chromosmoes

Allelles positiond on the same chromosome were not always inherited together

During meiosis liked genes

Heterozygous individual that inherited dominal maternal alleles for 2 genes on the same chromosome
(AB) and 2 recessive paternal alleles of same genes (ab)
The genotypes Ab and aB are non parental types that result form homologus recombination during
meiosis

Parental types are progeny that exhibit the same allelic combination as their parents

Morgan and his colleauges found out that , When heterozygous individuals were test crossed to a
homozygous recessive parent (AaBb x aabb) , both parental and nonparental cases occurred

⮚ 950 offspring would also be obtained that were either Aabb or aa Bb

Crossing over = recombination

Thomas Mogan- proved that there is inheritance

- Linke with Mendelian’s theory

Reasons for non-accpetance of mendel’s work

- Non-blending inheritance
- Mathematical calculations in biologiy
- No physical evidence of genes/chromosomes factors

PROTEIN SYNTHESIS

- Process which celss makes proteins

1. Transcription
- Transfer of genetic instructions
⮚ Initiation, elongation, termination

Processing Detached Mrna

- Splicing
- Editing

After the final processing of detached mRNA, the detached Mrna WILL BECOME MATURE
 2. Translation
- Process in which the genetic code in mRNA is read to make a protein
- Occur on ribosomeuraci
-

Transcription- nucleus

Translation – ribosome

DNA – Mrna - PROTEIN