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All in One
Type Notes

Date @October 18, 2023

Reviewed

What to find in the Page

This page provides an overview of DNA, including its role in

carrying genetic information and its structure as a double helix.
DNA is a polymer made of repeated monomers, with
phosphates and sugars forming the backbone. Certain codes
can merge with others. DNA is found in the nucleus of cells.

DNA carries genetic information

DNA is passed from parents to offspring through reproduction

DNA takes the shape of a double helix

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 DNA is a polymer made of repeated notes called monomers

Phosphategoogle and sugar are the backbones of the DNA

DNA-Deoxyribonucleic acid

Only certain Code can merge with others

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 Found in the nucleus of the cell

Summury
DNA, or Deoxyribonucleic acid, is an essential molecule for all forms of life. It is a
polymer made of repeated monomers that carry genetic information, and it is
passed from parents to offspring through reproduction. The structure of DNA
takes the shape of a double helix, which means that its shape resembles a twisted
ladder. The two sides of the ladder are made of a backbone of phosphate and
sugar, while the rungs are made of four different types of nitrogenous bases
(adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine).
The genetic information contained in DNA is stored in a sequence of these four
nitrogenous bases. This sequence is what determines the specific traits of an
organism, such as eye color, height, and susceptibility to certain diseases.
However, not all codes can merge with others, and the sequence must be correct
for the genetic information to be properly translated into proteins.

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 DNA is found in the nucleus of the cell, where it is tightly packed into structures
called chromosomes. Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, each containing a
unique set of genetic information. Understanding the structure and function of
DNA is essential for many fields of science, including genetics, molecular biology,
and biotechnology.

A key step in the origin of life was the ability of a molecule to replicate itself

Today DNA is the replicating molecule that is essential for the continuation of a
species. Most replication occurs during the cell cycle.

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 🧬 G1- Gap 1 G2-Gap 2

DNA replication occurs during synthesis the process is strongly influenced by

enzymes. Especially DNA polymerase, helicase, ligase and gyrase.

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 This method is called semi-conservative

Propose what this means:

Semi-Conservative may be called Semi-Conservative as you consume half of

the original DNA when the final strand of DNA was created.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TNKWgcFPHqw

Mitosis
Process of nuclear division

It is summarized in the steps

🧬 IPMAT

Interphase- cell performs its role, DNA synthesised

Prophase- -DNA condenses, Nucleus breaks down. CHromosones become visible

under microscope

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 DNA Replication

🧬 DNA replication is an extremely accurate process.

Question: What are the possible effects of replication does not occur properly.

Ans: DNA replication happens very second of our life. If for whatever reason it
stop working properly, our body would develop mutation as it is producing the
wrong type of protein. This protein may do something else beside it’s intended
purpose. It can take control of the cell cycle which can cause Cancer.

🧬 Cell instruction - It can change the roles of the cell. Cell instruction
can change the roles of cells, causing diseases.

🧬 Protein synthesis- enzymes, hormones and structure.

🧬 Mutations - When the the wrong type of protein is produced.

Mutation produces wrong proteins, leading to cell cycle changes,
cancer.

🧬 Control Cell cycle - WHen the cell cycle changes from its original life
cycle to something diffrenet.

🧬 Apopthosis - programmed cell death. If apoptosis goes wrong, it can

cause cancer.

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 Question: Define Mitosis

Ans: It is the process of nuclear division

Cytokinesis- Cell movement

What does mitosis produce

Ans: 2 daughter cells identical to the parent cells

What is the purpose of mitosis

Asexual reproduction (Budding, hydra)

What is the step of mitosis in order

Interphase>Prophase>Metaphase>Anaphase>Telophase

Question: Describe the effect of mitosis on the fitness of an organism

Ans: Mitosis maintains the genetic information of an organism and contributes
to its growth and development, thus affecting its fitness positively.

Meiosis
Cell division for the purpose of producing gametes(sex cells)
Gametes are haploid (n). The cells undergo 2 divisions following the steps. IPMAT
PMAT

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 This creates 4 daughter cells with half the chromosome numbers. These cells are
not identical.

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 Meiosis in detail. It happens in both males and Females

Variation
Genetic variation is an important part of life. Explain why sexual reproduction
is beneficial as a result of its introduction of genetic variation.
Sexual reproduction is beneficial as it introduces genetic diversity. Genetic
information is important as it may have a positive or negative mutation at
random times. Depending on the type of mutation, it may either help or harm
the species. As the environment constantly changes, mutations are important
to adapt to the new environment.

Question: Outline the process that results in variation through sexual

reproduction.

Sexual reproduction introduces genetic variation through the process of

meiosis, which creates gametes with unique combinations of chromosomes.

Sexual reproduction
Sperm cells are released into the female reproductive system, during
copulation

Sperm cells move toward the ovary through fallopian tube

Sperm cell and egg cell unite in the fallopian tube

Sperm cell was digestive enzymes in acrosome to break down egg cell wall.

Sperm that breaks down the cell wall releases its genetic material to fuse with
female genetic material this is fertilisation.

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 If a Heterozygous male breeds with a homozygous female with the recessive
hair colour, What will the genotype and phenotype ratio be?

Ans: Gentype:50% Phenotype: 50%

🧬 Heterozygous: 2 different alleles

🧬 Homozygous: 2 Same alleles

Two black-furred mice are bred together. White-furred Mice are produced
along with black-furred mice. Explain how this is possible and predict how many
mices would be born with white fur in litter of 8 mice.

T t

T TT Tt

t Tt tt

Genotype: 25%TT,50%Tt, 25% tt

Phenotype: 75% black, 25% white

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 Non-mendelian Inheritance
When the inheritance of traits of not follow simple rules of dominant and recessive
traits.

Sex Linkage-When the traits is carried on the sex chromosomes.

X-linked recessive traits are more likely to occur in the males than females.

Incomplete Dominance

If both traits are equally dominant both will expressed resulting in the patching of
different traits.

Definition
Biotechnology is the use of biological organism or biological for
the better of humans.

Use of an organic, or biological process for human advantage

Vaccines- take advantage of the human immune system and the process f
developing disease resistance

Production of vaccines often involves the use of biological organisms or

processes. Is this good or bad??
Ans: It is good as long as they take enough precautions before releasing it to
the public.

Stem cells
Cells with the potential to become any cell in the body. Stem cell therapy has
the potential to cure issues previously assumed uncurable.

The most straightforward source of pluripotent stem cell are formed embryos
but other sources do exist.

Gene testing

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 Testing for genetic diseases can improve early interventions for disease.

Issues with medical confidentiality.

Selective Breeding
The manipulation of breeding to produce varieties that possess desirable traits

Cloning
Genetically identical organism

Somatic nuclear transfer

Cell is cloned

The nucleus is injected into an egg cell

Nucleus fused with the egg cell

Egg cell implanted into surrogated mother

Plants can be cloned via cutting i.e cut off a branch, introduce root growth
hormones and plant.

Transgenic Species
Moving genes from one organism to another to the centre of beneficial traits.

The synthesis of a combined model incorporating Natural selection and genetics.

💡 MRSA- Multi-resistant Staphylococcus aureus

Page 92-92
Each subheading 3 minimum dot

Natural section defined

It is a process that process where an environmental factor acting on the
population

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 This can result in some organism having more organism having more offspring
than other.

The environmental factor that acts on the population is known as selective

agent

Selective agent kill individuals or punish them by letting spices chose specific
traits. Darwin calls this sexual selection.

Variation
Natural selection can only happen if their is Variation

It is caused by the differences in genes

Genes can be inherited, variation is inherited

Genetics and Natural selection

Natural selection is the change in proportion of a particular genetic make-up
of species over may generation.

Evidence for natural selection

Natural selection only become obvious after many generations.

It is easier to observe natural selection in short time(birds, rabbits etc) unlike

long time (humans, elephants etc)

The peppered moth

Their were 2 types of moth the black moth and the white moth

In the cities kettlewell found their were mostly black moth while in rural area,
they were all white

The selective agents were the birds.

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 Kettlewell explained that all the black moths that lived near the cities were due
to the soot on the trees, allowing the black moths to blend in with the trees,
while the white moths blended in with the white teeth as they had no soot on
them.

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Natural Selection of Insects

When pestering were invented all the insects were vulnerable to it. It was very
effictive for a few years.

Not all died thought some survived because they were resistant

Eventually they reproduced and the pesticide was useless.

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 Natural Selection in Bacteria
Antibiotic was invented in 1928

These antibiotic was very effective and commonly recommended by doctor.

When you stop taking the antibiotic the bacteria reproduce and become
stronger and then you are sick again

Eventually They become resident that no antibiotic will work against them

Summary
The modern synthesis combines natural selection and genetics. Natural selection
requires variation, which is caused by differences in genes that can be inherited.
Natural selection is the change in proportion of a particular genetic makeup of a
species over many generations. Evidence for natural selection includes the
peppered moth and the development of resistance in insects and bacteria to
pesticides and antibiotics.
The process that creates a new species
It involves 3 processes

Separation

Selection

Time

Convergent vs Divergent Evolution

Convergent
Development of similar characteristics due to similar selection pressures.

Divergent
Effect of different traits from living in different environments

Parallel Evolution

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 Some common ancestors but geographic isolation in similar environments
leads to similar traits.

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