UNIT 2 :Not all Jeans are Blue!

Related Concept
Transformation, Patterns

Key Concept
Change

Statement Of Inquiry
Patterns of inheritance occur
through the transformation
of genetic material into
inherited traits through an
Global Concepts
inquiry into the
Orientation in Space and
interconnectedness of
Time
individuals, civilizations from
local and global perspectives
Sub Topics
● DNA & RNA: Structure, Function,
● DNA replication, Transcription, Translation
● Biotechnology- Genetic
● Modification, Cloning, Genome
● Mapping, 3 D Tissue and Organ Printing
● Evolution – Darwins study and theory
● Speciation
● Natural and Artificial Selection
● Cell Division- Mitosis & Meiosis
● Reproduction- Plant reproduction-
● Structure and Function of Reproductive
Parts
● Human Reproduction- Male & Female
Reproductive System- Structure
& Function
● Menstrual Cycle
● Contraception
● Inheritance- Variation
● Genetic Disorders
● Pedigree Charts
Factual:
What is DNA?
In what way is DNA the basis of evolution and inheritance?

Conceptual:
What does the structure of DNA reveal about its function?

Debatable:
Does the end justify the means in science - were Watson and
crick correct to use Rosalind Franklin’s data without her
permission?

Were Mendel’s results too perfect?

To what extent should humans manipulate human

reproduction or genetic
What do you think makes this baby human?
 What is DNA?
Chromosomes and their genes are made of a molecule called DNA.

DNA stands for

deoxyribonucleic
acid.

names The DNA molecule

looks like a
twisted ladder this
Each chromosome spiral shape is
is a very long molecule called a
of tightly coiled DNA. DOUBLE HELIX

DNA molecules carry the code that controls what cells are made of
and what they do.
Inheritance is the transmission of genetic information from one generation to another,
leading to continuity of the species and variation within it.

DNA controls cell function by controlling the production of proteins (some of which are
enzymes), antibodies and receptors for neurotransmitters.

A nucleotide is the building block of DNA and RNA.

A nucleotide is made up of three parts: a phosphate group, a 5-carbon sugar, and a nitrogenous
base. The four nitrogenous bases in DNA are adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine. RNA
contains uracil, instead of thymine.
RNA (Ribonucleic Acid) is a polynucleotide, similar to DNA, one of whose roles is protein
synthesis.

•RNA is structurally different from DNA, in that It is usually single stranded.

•It contains the Nitrogenous Base Uracil instead of Thymine.

•Its Nucleotides contain Ribose sugar, as opposed to Deoxyribose sugar.

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) is the name of the macro molecule that harbours the
genetic information of living organisms. It is composed of only four different building
blocks (nucleotides) and the specific sequence in which these occur forms the basis of
how genetic information is encoded.

Chromosomes are the X-like structures into which huge DNA molecules are packaged in
a cell’s nucleus. Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, where each individual
chromosome in a pair originates from a particular parent.

Genes are the functional units (segments) within DNA that contain all the information to
make a particular protein

The full complement of an organism’s genes is called its genome or genotype and is
unique for every individual except clones, e.g. plants grown from cuttings. The human
genome contains an estimated 20 to 25 thousand protein coding genes.
Central Dogma of Molecular Biology
The genetic code is the set of rules by which information encoded in genetic material (DNA or
RNA sequences) is translated into proteins (amino acid sequences) by living cells

The DNA is read in units of three nucleotides, called codons.

Each codon specifies a certain amino acid, with a few reserved as stop and start signals.

Sometimes, different codons specify the same amino acid

DNA Replication, Transcription and Translation
Why should DNA replicate?

This is so when a cell divides the two daughter cells will contain
the correct amount of genetic material.
DNA Replication

because the
strands each
contain half of
the original
material, it is
called the semi-
conservative
method of
replication
Replication
1. the molecule unwinds/uncoils/untwists AND
unzips/H bonds (between bases) break
(enzyme helicase breaks the bonds)
2. base pairing of (free) DNA nucleotides with
complementary partners (enzyme polymerase
helps in nucleotide attachment)
3. sugar-phosphate bonds/backbones form
(ligase sticks all together)
4. rewinds into two double helices OR two
double helices form
Transcription

• Transcription is the name of the process in which a copy of

DNA is made.
• The copy is known as messenger RNA
• This process occurs in the nucleus of the cell
Translation: Protein synthesis

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gG7uCskUOrA
1.The mRNA strand travels through the cytoplasm and attaches to the
ribosome. The strand passes though the ribosome.
2.For every three mRNA bases the ribosome lines up one
complementary molecule of tRNA. We call every three bases a codon.
3.tRNA molecules transport specific amino acids to the ribosome which
they leave behind shortly after lining up opposite the DNA. Because
there are three mRNA bases for each tRNA molecule, we call this
the triplet code.
4.Used tRNA molecules exit the ribosome and collect another specific
amino acid.
5.A chain of several hundred amino acids in the correct order according
to the original DNA is then made. This is called a polypeptide.
After translation, the polypeptide is finally folded into the correct shape
and becomes a protein. Peptide bonds form between the adjacent
amino acids to finalise the structure.
 Biotechnology
•genetic modification
•Cloning
•ethical implications
•genome mapping and application
•3D tissue and organ printing
Evolution
•life cycles
•Natural selection
•Cell division
•Mitosis
•Meiosis
•Reproduction
•Biodiversity
•Inheritance and variation
•DNA and RNA.
 Genetic modification
Genetic modification is the manipulation of genes for a particular purpose, such as resistance to
a particular disease.

-Often involving the transfer of specific traits, or genes, from one organism into a plant or
animal of an entirely different species

-When gene transfer occurs, the resulting organism is called transgenic or a GMO (genetically
modified organism).
 Should people be allowed to use genetic engineering to enhance basic human
traits such as height, intelligence, or athletic ability?

Redesigning the World?

Who decides what is good or bad/ normal or abnormal?

Will these interventions redefine what it

means to be “normal”

Will the high costs make it available only to

the wealthy?
Cloning A process of producing similar populations of genetically identical
individuals.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q0B9Bn1WW_4
 Do humans
have a soul?

ETHICAL IMPLICATIONS
Would this Is this humanities’
soul be lost way of trying to
during the replace God?
cloning
process??
 Can clones be found in nature?
Did Dolly age prematurely because she wa
s a clone?
Can humans be cloned? Is anyone doing th
is?
1.Are identical twins clones?

Are farm animals cloned today? Are they u

sed to produce food?
Could cloning be used to help save endang
What is the future for cloning? Have other a
ered species or to bring back extinct anima
ls? nimal species been cloned since Dolly?
 Genome mapping
The process of locating and identifying genes to create a genetic map.

Genetic Map - A graphic representation of the order of genes

 Human Genome Project

Genome mapping Applications

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PwdDa6QCDWw
 3D Tissue and Organ printing

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=peeWHtYsmdM
Evolution is the change in adaptive features of a population over time as
the result of natural selection.

• life history theory, a branch of evolutionary ecology : Explains: the remarkable

diversity in life histories among species.

• adaptation by natural selection;  since life history traits determine survival and
reproduction they are the major components of fitness.

• What is EVIDENCE of Evolution?

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=urSNtaQKOAk
 Natural Selection
Natural selection is the process by which plants and animals that can
adapt to changes in their environment are able to survive and reproduce while those that
cannot adapt do not survive.

-variation within populations

– production of many offspring

– competition for resources

– struggle for survival

– reproduction by individuals that are better adapted to the environment than others

– passing on of their alleles to the next generation

I
N

A
C
T
I
O
N
The process of natural selection follows a sequence, as listed below.

•Some of the variations within a population may give some individuals an advantage over others
in the population. Bigger muscles in the legs of a lion would enable it to run more quickly and
get food more successfully.

•In an environment where there is food shortage, the lion with the biggest leg muscles is most
likely to survive to adulthood.

•The weaker individuals die before having the chance to breed, but the surviving adults breed
and pass on the advantageous genes to their offspring.

•More of the next generation carry the advantageous genes, resulting in

a stronger population, better adapted to a changing environment.
Development of strains of antibiotic resistant bacteria as an example of evolution by natural
selection
Adaptation is the process, resulting from natural
selection, by which populations become more suited
to their environment over many generations

Adaptive feature : inherited

functional features of an organism that increase its
fitness.

Fitness is the probability of an organism

surviving and reproducing in the environment in
which it is found
Artificial selection is a method used by humans to produce varieties of animals
and plants which have an increased economic importance.

People use selective breeding to produce new varieties of a species, so that

certain desirable traits are represented in successive generations.
Selective breeding of cows

Suppose you wanted a variety of cow that produced a lot of milk. This is what you could do:

•choose or select the cows in your herd that produce the most milk

• let only these cows reproduce

•select the offspring that produce the most milk

•let only these offspring reproduce

•keep repeating the process of selection and breeding until you achieve your goal
Selective breeding :

– selection by humans of individuals with

desirable features

– crossing these individuals to produce the

next generation

– selection of offspring showing the desirable

features

Differences between natural and artificial

selection
 Cell division
process by which cells produce new cells
•Cell growth
•Repair & replacement of damaged cell parts
•Reproduction of the species
Mitosis is a nuclear division giving rise to genetically identical cells in which the
chromosome number is maintained by the exact duplication of cells.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DwAFZb8juMQ
A sister chromatid refers to the identical copies (chromatids) formed by the replication
of a chromosome, with both copies joined together by a common centromere.

Animal cells have structures called centrioles, which consist of two groups of nine triple
microtubules.
• Centrioles form an anchor point for microtubules during cell division
Meiosis - One diploid nucleus divides by meiosis to produce four
haploid nuclei. Reduction division

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=16enC385R0w
Differences
Non Disjunction: If homologous chromosomes do not separate properly during cell division in
gametes, it results in non disjunction.
Monosomy: One copy of a pair is present (Turners syndrome), Trisomy – 3 copies (downs
syndrome)
Downs Syndrome
 Karyotype – Study of Chromosomes
Karyogram – Pictorial representation of Chromosomes
Variation: The differences in genes and traits between members of a
population.

• Mutations – Changing the genetic composition of gametes (germline mutation) leads to

changed characteristics in offspring

• Meiosis – Via either crossing over (prophase I) or independent assortment (metaphase I)

• Sexual reproduction – The combination of genetic material from two distinct sources
creates new gene combinations in offspring
Sexual Reproduction
The fusion of two haploid gametes results in the formation of a diploid zygote
•This zygote can then divide by mitosis and differentiate to form a developing embryo

As meiosis results in genetically distinct gametes, random fertilisation by egg and sperm will
always generate different zygotes
•This means that individual offspring will typically show variation despite shared parentage
•Identical twins are formed after fertilisation, by the complete fission of the zygote into two
separate cell masses
A gene mutation is a change in the nucleotide sequence of a section of DNA coding for a
specific trait
• New alleles are formed by mutation
• Gene mutations can be beneficial, detrimental or neutral
DNA MUTATIONS
 Reproduction
It is a process of formation of new
offspring from the parent.
Asexual
Sexual
reproduction
reproduction
Bacteria, Fungi,
Plants & Animals
Potato
 Structure and function of the flower

stigma
anther
stamen style carpel
filament ovary
ovule

petal

sepal
receptacle
peduncle

Flower Structure Pollination Fertilisation Seed Dispersal Germination Test

Pollinators – animals that transfer pollen
Ex: bees, butterflies, insects, &
hummingbirds
 Steps of Pollination
• 1) Pollinator visits a flower
• 2) pollen rubs off the male part of flower onto the animal’s body
• 3) pollen falls off onto the female part of that flower or another flower.
• 4)once transferred, pollen travels down into the ovary, where fertilizes
the egg—fertilization occurs.
• 5) Each fertilized egg in a flowering plant can develop into a seed 
ovary into a fruit  fruit contains seed that will grow into new plant
The transfer of pollen from the anther to the
stigma of a flower is called pollination.

If the pollen lands on the stigma of the same

flower it is called self-pollination.

When the pollen of a flower lands on the stigma of

another flower of the same plant, or that of a
different plant of the same kind (species), it is
called cross-pollination.
• Each ovule becomes a seed.
• The surrounding ovary grows into a fruit.
Male Reproductive System
Follicular Phase: Follicles develop, egg matures, ovulation, endometrium repair, thickens

Luteal Phase: Corpus Luteum (Follicle without egg), endometrium continues to develop, No
fertilizationcorpus luteum breaksno estrogen & progesteroneendometrium sheds.
 FSH – Rises at the end of cycle,
Stimulates development of
follicles,
Stimulates secretion of
estrogen (+ve feedback) by
follicle wall.

ESTROGEN – Rises at the end of

follicular phase, Repairs &
thickens endometrium, When it
reaches high levels its stops FSH
(-ve feedback) & stimulates LH.

Progesterone – Rise at start of luteal

LH – Peaks at end of follicular phase,
phase, peaks and then drops at the end
Helps in ovulation (Follicle to burst
of this phase, Promotes thickening &
open, release of an egg), helps in
maintenance of endometerium, inhibits
development of corpus luteum 
FSH & LH (Negative feedback)
Secretes Estrogen & Progesterone
The menstrual cycle:

•FSH is secreted by the pituitary gland and its levels start to rise. This stimulates the follicle to
develop and the follicle cells to secret estrogen. 
•Estrogen then causes the follicle cells to make more FSH receptors so that these can respond
more strongly to the FSH. 
•This is positive feedback and causes the estrogen levels to increase and stimulate the thickening
of the endometrium (uterus lining). 
•Estrogen levels increase to a peak and by doing so it stimulates LH secretion from the pituitary
gland. 
•LH then increases to its peak and causes ovulation (release of egg from the follicle). 
•LH then stimulates the follicle cells to secrete less estrogen and more progesterone. Once
ovulation has occurred, LH stimulates the follicle to develop into the corpus luteum. 
•The corpus luteum then starts to secrete high amounts of progesterone. This prepares the
uterine lining for an embryo. 
•The high levels of estrogen and progesterone then start to inhibit FSH and LH. 
•If no embryo develops the levels of estrogen and progesterone fall. This stimulates
menstruation (break down of the uterine lining).
•When the levels of these two hormones are low enough FSH and LH start to be secreted again.
•FSH levels rise once again and a new menstrual cycle begins.
Umbilical cord:
 Joins fetus to placenta; contains:
· 2 arteries: carry deoxygenated,
nutrient-depleted blood away
· 1 vein: carries oxygenated,
nutrient-rich blood to the fetus
The fetus is surrounded by a strong membrane, called amnion/amniotic sac.
Inside the amnion is a liquid called amniotic fluid.
PLACENTA: Blood from the fetus
passes through the umbilical cord in
the umbilical artery to the placenta.
 Here it comes close to the mother's
blood.
 transport O2 + nutrients (amino
acids, glucose…) from mother --->
fetus
 transport CO2 + wastes (urea… )
from fetus --->mother
Contraception
INHERITANCE
 Punnett Grid/Square
A type of grid used to predict the genotypes of a cross or breeding experiment.
The yellow pea allele is dominant
over the green pea allele.
Determine the ratios of genotypes
and phenotypes resulting from a
cross between a heterozygous
plant that produces yellow peas
and a plant that produces green
peas.
A heterozygous male for tongue rolling marries
a homozygous recessive female. Complete a
Punnett square to show their possible offspring.
Analyse your results as percentages and
proportions.

In dogs, the gene for fur color has two alleles.

The dominant allele (F) codes for grey fur and
the recessive allele (f) codes for black fur.

The female dog is heterozygous. The male dog

is homozygous recessive. Figure out the
percentage or ratio of possible phenotypes and
genotypes of their puppies by using a Punnett
Square.

The female dog has black fur. The male dog has
black fur. Figure out the phenotypes and
genotypes of their possible puppies by using a
Punnett Square.
 Pedigree Analysis, to study the inheritance of genes in humans
Pedigree chart, is a chart of the genetic history of a family over several generations
 Bb Bb bb Bb

Bb Bb Bb bb Bb bb bb Bb

bb bb bb Bb

B= Black, b=White
Genetic diseases due to Recessive alleles : Cystic Fibrosis, Sickle Cell
Anemia
• Most genetic diseases are caused by a recessive allele of a
gene.
• The disease therefore only develops in individuals that do not
have the dominant allele of the gene, usually because they
have two copies of the recessive allele.

• If a person has one allele for the genetic disease and one
dominant allele, they will not show symptoms of the disease,
but they can pass on the recessive allele to their offspring.
These individuals are called carriers.
Genetic diseases due to Dominant alleles : Huntington’s disease

• A small proportion of genetic diseases are caused by a

dominant allele.
• It is not possible to be a carrier of these diseases.
• If a person has one dominant allele then they themselves
will develop the disease.
• If one parent has the allele for the disease, the chance of a
child inheriting it is 50 per cent
Haemophilia is an X-linked disorder: Is it recessive or
Dominant?