Genetics

T. John
Learning Goals
• Explain the meaning of Heredity.
• Explain the characteristics of Chromosomes.
• Describe the genetic materials
• Explain the genetic inheritance process.
• Discuss genetic diseases.
Vocabularies
• Heredity กรรมพ ันธุ ์ – where traits are passed on
from parents to offspring.
• Variation การเปลีย ่ นแปลง – which demonstrates
differences among individuals.
• Genetic พ ันธุศาสตร์ – is the study of heredity and
variation.
• Gametes เซลล์สบ ื พ ันธุ ์ – germ cell, or reproductive
cells (sperm cell for male and egg cell for female).
GENETIC INHERITANCE
 Heredity explains
why you look the
way you do.

Heredity can be
passed or inherited
from parents
through their
gametes.
 Genetic Variation การเปลีย
่ นแปลงทาง
พ ันธุกรรม
Genetic variation shows
differences between
individuals within populations.

Genetic variation makes

us a unique individual.
Types of Genetic Variation
• Discontinuous Variation รูปแบบทีไ่ ม่ตอ ่ เนือ
่ ง–
controlled by genetic factors, the environment
has no effect on this type of variation.
• Examples: Dimples, earlobes and ability to roll
the tongue.
Continuous Variation รูปแบบต่อเนือ ่ ง – traits that are not clear
and distinct. Caused by both, genetic and environment factors.
 Note: discontinuous variation is
normally controlled by a single gene
pair, whereas continuous variation
involves several pairs of genes.
Experiment Time!
Materials
• Ruler
• Pen or pencil
• Notebook
• Computer
Procedure

Continuous Variations Discontinuous Variation

1. Measure the palm width in cm of all 1. Perform a survey of students
the members of the group and who have the ability to roll the
record the data. tongue, has dimples, and type
2. Measure the foot length of the of earlobes.
members in cm and record the data.
3. Arrange the data in an interval of 2
2. Record the data and make a
cm example 7.1-9.0, bar graph.
4. Count the number of members who
are in the same range. Make a graph
of the result.
Guide Observation:

•Explain how the genetic characteristics

can be transferred.
•Use the data and the graph to describe
the type of variations.
Review
What are the two types of
variation?
Continuous variation and Discontinuous variation
How the two variations
differ?
Continuous Variations are affected by both genetic and
environment factors while Discontinuous Variations are
affected by only genetic factor.
What is heredity?
The passing of one trait from parents to the
next generation.
Vocabulary
• Chromosome โครโมโซม – organized structure containing all the
genetic material.
• Centromere - is the specialized DNA sequence of a
chromosome that links a pair of sister chromatids (a dyad).
• Chromatid – is the strand of Chromosome.
• Telomere – end of the chromosomes.
• Meiosis – cell division happens in sex cells or germ cells or
gametes
• Mitosis – cell division happens in somatic cells
• Autosome - any chromosome that is not a sex chromosome
(an allosome)
Chromosomes
• Chroma = Color, soma = body
• A chromosome is a thread-like self-replicating genetic structure
containing organized DNA molecule package found in the nucleus of
the cell.
• Chromosomes are seen during metaphase stage of mitosis when the
cells are stained with suitable basic dye and viewed under light
microscope.
• E. Strasburger in 1875 discovered thread-like structures which
appeared during cell division.
• Waldeyer coined the term chromosome first time in 1888.
Chromosomes
• The somatic chromosome number is the number of chromosomes
found in somatic cell and is represented by 2n (Diploid).
• The gametic chromosome number is half of the somatic chromosome
numbers and represented by n (Haploid).
• The two copies of chromosome are ordinarily identical in morphology,
gene content and gene order, they are known as homologous
chromosomes.
• Chromosomes are of two types:
• Autosomes: that control characters other than sex characters or carry genes for
somatic characters.
• Sex chromosomes (Gonosomes) – Chromosomes involved in sex
determination.
Chromosome Number
• Diploid cells (2N where N- chromosome number) have two
homologous copies of each chromosome.
• The body cells of animals are diploid.
• Haploid cells (N) have only one copy of each chromosome. 
• Haploid cells (N) have only one copy of each chromosome.
• In animals, gametes (sperm and eggs) are haploid.
• The number of chromosomes varies from species to species.
• Normally all individual of a species have the same
chromosome number.
How do Chromosomes carry genetic
information to the next?
•Chromosomes are made up of DNA
(Deoxyribonucleic Acid) and genes and
these traits are transferred via sex cells
or gametes.
What is the relationship between
chromosome, DNA, genes and cell?

Gene DNA CHROMOSOM

E CELL
If a genetic trait is controlled by a recessive
gene on the X sex chromosome, how can these
traits be passed on the next generation?
A. The trait is only be found in females.
B. The trait is more found in females than males.
C. The trait is more found in males than females.
D. The trait cannot be found in males.
 Explanation
As this trait is controlled by a recessive gene on
the X chromosome, the male offspring will
inherit this trait more than females. Since has
only one X chromosome, a trait controlled by a
recessive gene will immediately be expressed in
male children. The female will only be a carrier.
Which of the following is not a composition
of DNA?
A.Amino Acid
B. Nitrogenous Base
C. Phosphate Group
D.Pentose Sugar
 Explanation
DNA molecules are made from two strands of
nucleotides and polynucleotides composed of three
functional groups: pentose sugar, nitrogenous base
and a phosphate group. Amino acids in contrast are
used during protein synthesis; the sequence of bases
of DNA encodes the sequence of amino acids in
proteins.
What is a DNA?
DNA
• DNA ( deoxyribonucleic acid) is the two long strands
twisted to each other or called double – helix.
• It is a molecule that contains the instructions an
organism needs to develop, live and reproduce
• The four types of bases in DNA are: adenine (A),
thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C).
• Its has two important functions: DNA replication and
Translation
What are the applications
of DNA?
DNA testing or DNA fingerprinting can be used
in parental testing to determine genetic family
relationship and to identify a criminal.
 DNA vs. RNA
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) RNA (Ribonucleic Acid)
• Number of strand: 2 • Number of strand: 1
• Location in the cell: nucleus • Location in the cell: cytoplasm
• Type of sugar: deoxyribose • Type of sugar: ribose sugar
(pentose sugar) • Nitrogenous base: Uracil (U),
• Nitrogenous base: Adenine (A), Adenine (A), Cytosine (C),
Thymine (T), Cytosine (C), Guanine (G)
Guanine (G)
Note the pairing of Nitrogenous bonds

•In DNA Adenine is always bonds with

thymine, and Cytosine bonds with
guanine.
•In RNA, Adenine bonds with Uracil and
cytosine bonds with guanine.
Types of RNA
• mRNA or messenger RNA carries genetic information
from the nucleus to ribosomes for the synthesis of proteins;
• tRNA or transfer RNA is cloverleaf shaped RNA
molecule, and assist in giving specific amino acids to the
ribosomes;
• rRNA or ribosomal RNA is the used for the formation
of the ribosomes.
• mRNA is synthesized in nucleus, tRNA is synthesized in
the cytoplasm, whereas rRNA is synthesized in the
ribosome.
Replication
• The process of making copies of DNA is called
replication.
• When DNA replicates, two identical copies of DNA
molecules are produced, which are exactly the same
as the original.
• Deoxyribonucleic acid is copied during interphase
prior to mitosis and meiosis.
• In 1953, James Watson and Francis Crick worked out
that DNA is double helix like a twisted staircase.
The Central Dogma
• The ‘Central Dogma’ is the process by which the instructions in DNA are
converted into a functional product.
• The process by which the DNA instructions are converted into the functional
product is called gene expression.
• Gene expression has two key stages - transcription and translation.
• In transcription, the information in the DNA of every cell is converted into
small, portable RNA messages.
• During translation, these messages travel from where the DNA is in the cell
nucleus to the ribosomes where they are ‘read’ to make specific proteins.
• It was first proposed in 1958 by Francis Crick, discoverer of the structure of
DNA.
• The central dogma explains the flow of genetic information, from DNA to
RNA, to make a functional product, a protein.
 The Central Dogma
• The central dogma states
that the pattern of
information that occurs most
frequently in our cells is:
• From existing DNA to make
new DNA (DNA replication)
• From DNA to make new RNA
(transcription)
• From RNA to make new
proteins (translation).
The following are the events while DNA
copies itself:
• Step 1. An enzyme called helicase breaks the bond between
nitrogenous bases. The two strands of DNA split.
• Step 2. The bases attached to each strand then pair up with the free
nucleotides found in the cytoplasm.
• The complementary nucleotides are added to each strand by DNA
polymerase to form new strands. Two new DNA molecules, each with
a parent strand and each with a new strand are formed. The DNA
replication is known as semi-conservative replication.
Note:
• DNA is made up of sugars, phosphate groups, and nitrogenous bases
and its shape is a double helix. The complementary structure the two
strands of DNA allow each strand to serve as a template during
replication.
• The specificity of base pairing in DNA, adenine with thymine, and
cytosine with guanine, allows DNA to replicate itself with accuracy.
Replication Animated
Do you know how the information in DNA, which is found
in the nucleus, move to the ribosome in the cytoplasm?
Transcription (From DNA to make new
RNA )
• Ribonucleic Acid polymerase enzyme binds and opens the DNA
molecule that will be transcribed.
• Step 2. As the DNA molecule opens, the RNA polymerase slides along
the DNA strand and links free RNA nucleotides that pair with the
nitrogenous bases of the complementary DNA strand. Hence, if the
sequence of bases on the DNA strand were CCG TTA CAT, the
sequence of bases on the RNA strand would be GGC AAU GUA.
• Step 3. When the process of base-pairing is completed, the RNA
molecule breaks away as the DNA strands re-join. The RNA leaves the
nucleus and goes to the cytoplasm.
Key Concept
• The sequence of nucleotides in DNA directs the order of nucleotides
in messenger RNA in a process called transcription.
• There are three major types of RNA that help build proteins: mRNA,
rRNA, and tRNA.
• The mRNA carries the information in DNA to the ribosomes found in
the cytoplasm.
Transcription
Translation (Protein Synthesis)
• In translation, each set of three nucleotides in an mRNA molecule
codes for one amino acid in a protein.
• This explains why each set of three nucleotides in the mRNA is called
a codon.
• Each codon specifies a particular amino acid. For example, the first
codon which is, cytosine-guanine-uracil (CGU), instructs the ribosome
to put the amino acid arg (arginine) in the protein.
• The sequence of codons in the mRNA determines the sequence of
amino acids in the protein.
But how are the right amino acids added in the right
sequence to match the sequence of codons in the mRNA?
The following events in translation can
help you understand the process..
• Step 1. As translation begins, mRNA binds to a ribosome. Then, tRNA molecules, each
carrying a specific amino acid, approach the ribosome. The tRNA anticodon pairs with the
first mRNA (start) codon arginine-uracil-guanine (AUG), to form the initiation complex. The
two molecules temporarily join together.
• Step 2. Usually, the first codon on mRNA is AUG, which codes for the amino acid methionine.
AUG signals the start of protein synthesis. Then, the ribosome slides along the mRNA to the
next codon.
• Step 3. A new tRNA molecule carrying an amino acid pairs with the second mRNA codon.
• Step 4. When the first and second amino acids are in place, an enzyme joins them by forming
a peptide bond between them.
• Step 5. As the process continues, a chain of amino acids is formed until the ribosome
reaches a stop codon (e.g., UAA,UAG,UGA) on the mRNA strand. The polypeptide chain is
released. Protein synthesis is complete.
Key Concept
• The process of converting the information in
messenger RNA into a sequence of amino acids that
make a protein is known as translation.
• The role of transfer RNA (tRNA) is to bring the amino
acids in the cytoplasm to the ribosomes to make
proteins (polypeptides).
Translation (protein Synthesis)
Genetic Code Table
• Proteins such as enzymes are mostly amino acids chained
together in a certain order.
• Each group of three nucleotide bases represents a codon in a
DNA or mRNA that corresponds to a specific amino acid or a
start/ stop signal.
• This code is picked up by the mRNA and is carried from the
nucleus to the cytoplasm.
• The codon has its complement anticodon in tRNA.
• Each amino acid that will form the protein molecule to be
synthesized is determined by the triplet code or codon on
the mRNA.
Activity Quiz
Order of bases in DNA Order of bases in mRNA Order of bases in Amino Acid coded into
(Codon) tRNA (anticodon) proteins

TAG AUC    
CAT      
  GUC    
  CCA    
      Methionine
      Valine
  ACU    
ACA UGU    
AAA      
GAA CUU    
DNA Code
Order of bases in DNA Order of bases in mRNA (Codon) Order of bases in tRNA Amino Acid coded into proteins
(anticodon)

TAG AUC UAG   Isoleucine

CAT GUA   CAU  Valine

CAG  GUC  CAG  Valine

 GGT CCA  GGU  Proline

TAC   AUG  UAC Methionine

CAA, CAG, CAT, CTC   GUU, GUC, GUA, GAG CAA, CAG, CAU, CUC  Valine

 TGA ACU  UGA  Threonine

ACA UGU  ACA  Cysteine

AAA UUU   AAA Phenylalanine

GAA CUU  GAA  Leucine

Mendelian Genetics