Module Five

Heredity
5.1 REPRODUCTION
HOW DOES REPRODUCTION ENSURE THE
CONTINUITY OF A SPECIES?

SEXUAL ASEXUAL
The production of new living organisms by Reproduction by which offspring arise from
combining genetic information from two a single organism, and inherit the genes of
individuals. that parent only.

Sexual Reproduction
ANIMALS
Internal Fertilisation: fertilisation occuring inside the body. eg humans
External Fertilisation: fertilisation occuring outside of the body. eg fish

Asexual Reproduction

Parthenogenesis: a reproductive strategy that involves development of a female gamete

without fertilization. eg bees.
Budding: a type of asexual reproduction in which a new organism develops from an
outgrowth or bud due to cell division at one particular site. eg hydra
Fragmentation: asexual reproduction in which an organism is split into fragments. Each of
these fragments develop into matured organism. eg flatworms

PLANTS
Sexual Reproduction
Fertilisation: plant sex organs are flowers (angiosperms) or cones (gymnosperm). Male
gametes are pollen and are transferred to female gametes by pollination. eg sunflowers
Asexual Reproduction
Vegetative Propagation: Structural modifications to the stem or roots of the plant
production of new individuals without need for producing seeds. Natural methods include
bulbs and runners (eg strawberry plants). Artificial methods include cutting and grafting

Fertilisation: the fusion of male and female gametes to form a zygote.

Gamete: a mature haploid male or female sex cell (eg sperm and eggs).
Zygote: a fertilised egg.
 Module Five
FUNGI
Sexual Reproduction

Fertilisation: During mating, two haploid parent cells fuse, forming a diploid spore called a
zygospore.

Asexual Reproduction

Parthenogenesis: Through mitosis, genetically identical cells are produced, released to the
environment by wind or vectors.
Budding.
Fragmentation.

Asexual Reproduction
BACTERIA
Binary Fission: asexual reproduction by a separation of the body into two new bodies.

PROTISTS
Sexual Reproduction

Gametic Meiosis: used by diploid protists.

Zygotoic Meiosis: used by haploid protists.

Asexual Reproduction
Budding.
Binary Fission.

HORMONAL CONTROL OF PREGNANCY

HUMAN CHORIONIC
GONADATROPIN
Produced by the cells around the embryo
after implantation, supports corpus
luteum in producing other hormones.
PROGESTERONE
Produced by the corpus luteum,
stimulates endometrial growth.
RELAXIN
Produced by the ovary and placenta,
inhibits contraction of uterus muscles to
prevent premature birth, helps with
delivery by relaxing the cervix.
PROLACTIN
Produced by the pituitary gland, enlarges
the mammary glands to prepare them for
milk production.
OESTROGEN
Produced by the corpus luteum, helps
uterus grow and maintain its lining,
stimulates breast growth and milk duct
development.
OXYTOCIN
Produced by the hypothalamus, regulates
the birth contractions of the uterine
muscle
 Module Five
REPRODUCTIVE TECHNOLOGIES
Selective Breeding Artificial Pollination

Selectively mating animals and plants Human manipulation of the pollination

with desired traits in order to produce process, by which plant sperm is moved
desirable offspring. from one flower to another.

Artificial Insemination Genetic Engineering

Injection of semen into the vagina to Deliberate modification of the

trigger pregnancy. characteristics of an organism by
manipulating its genetic material.

5.2 CELL REPLICATION

HOW HOW IMPORTANT IS IT FOR GENETIC
MATERIAL TO BE REPLICATED EXACTLY?

Mitosis Meiosis
Cell division resulting in two identical Cell division resulting in four daughter
daughter cells, with the same number and cells (gametes), each with half the number
kind of chromosomes as the parent cell of chromosomes of the parent cell

DNA Replication
Production of identical
replicas of DNA from one
original DNA molecule. The
basis for biological
inheritance.
5.3
Module Five
DNA AND POLYPEPTIDE SYNTHESIS
WHY IS POLYPEPTIDE SYNTHESIS
IMPORTANT?

Prokaryote DNA Eukaryte DNA

Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms
with no membrane-bound organelles.
Their DNA is free-floating and in the form
of circular plasmids.
Eukaryotes are organisms composed of a
cell/cells with membrane-bound
organelles. Their DNA is found in the
nucleus in the form of tightly-wound
chromosomes.

Polypeptide Synthesis
Stage 1: Transcription (occurs in nucleus)
1. RNA polymerase binds to promoter regions of DNA
2. Moves along DNA, opening a little bubble as it goes
3. Builds a mRNA strand by attachment of complementary free-floating nucleotides
4. RNA is edited (capping and splicing), then moved to cytoplasm

Stage 2: Translation (occurs in ribosme)

1. mRNA docks to ribosome
2. tRNA-amino acid complexes attach to mRNA molecule based on codon sequences
3. Polypeptide bond formed between adjacent amino acids
4. RNA sequence read until stop codon reached, polypeptide chain disassociates

Protein Function/Structure
Transport and Enzymes
Storage eg. ATP Synthase
eg. Ferritin
Antibodies
eg. Immunoglobin

Messengers Structure and

eg. Insulin Support
eg. Keratin

Genes and the environment can affect phenotypic expression.

For example, in Siamese cats, the enzyme that produces dark pigment is only
active in cooler extremities, resulting in their unique fur pattern.
5.4
Module Five
GENETIC VARIATION
HOW CAN THE GENETIC SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES
WITHIN AND BETWEEN SPECIES BE COMPARED?

Variations in the Genotype of Offspring

1. Crossing Over 2. Fertilisation 3. Mutation

Exchange of chromosome Fusion of gametes to A permanent

segments between initiate the alteration to the
homologous development of a new nucleotide sequence
chromosomes during organism. Sperm of an organism’s
meiosis. encountering ovum. genome.

How do Alleles Interact?

Dominant: Trait will always be expressed over other traits

Recessive: Requires two of the same allele to be inherited in

Co-dominant:
Both alleles in a gene pair are
fully expressed
eg a red flower and a white
flower creating a red and
white striped flower.
order to be expressed
Incomplete Dominance: Multiple Alleles
An allele is not completely Where three or more alleles
expressed over its paired exist for a single trait
allele eg rabbit fur colour.
eg a red flower and a white
flower creating a pink flower.

Where are the alleles located?

Autosomal Inheritance: Sex Linkage:

Traits passed on the autosomes Traits passed on the sex
(all chromosomes except X and Y) chromosomes (X or Y)

The inheritance of alleles can

be represented through
Pedigrees and Punnet
Squares
 Module Five

5.5 INHERITANCE PATTERNS IN A POPULATION

CAN POPULATION GENETIC PATTERNS BE PREDICTED
WITH ANY ACCURACY?

Predictive Technologies

DNA Sequencing DNA Profiling

Techniques used to determine the A technique allowing for the identification of

sequence of nucleotides in a genome or
segment of DNA
Method
Sanger Sequencing: sequential
truncation of DNA segment,
ultimately producing a series of
fluorescent read-outs to identify the
nucleotide sequence (e.g. A=blue,
T=green…)
an individual’s DNA characteristics. This
generates unique data for each individual, like
a fingerprint.
Method
1.Collect DNA samples from cells
2.Cut the DNA into small pieces using a
restriction enzyme.
3.DNA fragments separated by gel
electrophoresis
4.Gel visualized to show band pattern, and
‘fingerprints’ can be compared

Large Scale Collaborative Projects

Conservation Management: Inheritance of Diseases and Human Evolution:

-Food and Agriculture
Organisation of the United
Nations
-Crop Trust (Svalbard Global
Seed Vault)
-Australasian Wildlife Genomics
Group.
Disorders:
-The Human Genome Project
-The International HapMap
Project
-The International HapMap
Project
-“Mitochondrial DNA diversity of
present-day Aboriginal
Australians and implications for
human
evolution in Oceania” (Nagle
et al., 2017)

SINGLE NUCLEOTIDE POLYMORPHISM: a change of a single nucleotide at a specific

position on the genome. This may be a substitution (e.g. changing A for G), insertion
(adding a new nucleotide), or deletion (removing a nucleotide).
HAPLOTYPE: a group of alleles or SNPs inherited together from a single parent
HAPLOGROUP: a group of similar haplotypes sharing a common ancestor with a SNP
mutation

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