CE 137 – Hydrology

ACTIVITY No. 1
CE 137 – Hydrology
Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering w/ Specializations in:

(Degree Codes: Program- BSCE Plan – BSCE)

SMC - Course Syllabus

Name of Instructor:

Engr. Rodrigo Tomaquin Templado

Educational Background:

MARCH ‘1984 - BSCE (SMC)

1998 - MPA (SMC)

1999 - MBA (SMC)

2003 - MA (SMC)

- Educational Management

- Educational Psychology

- Educational Guidance and Counselling

2006 - Ed. D. (CAR)[Educational Management]
{SMC}}

- MSCE (structural) [12 Units]

{MSU-IIT- Iligan City}

- MSCE (Geotechnical) [12 Units]

{MSU-IIT- Iligan City}

- PCM (Crash Course)

{CPU- Iloilo City}

Cellphone Numbers:
09459809532 - Globe

09462879245 – Smart

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 09154842322 – Globe

Course Description:
The course deals on the hydrologic cycle and the different
processes such as precipitation, evaporation, infiltration, overland flow,
groundwater flow and surface runoff generation.

Entry Level Skills

The student must be able to read various provided sources in English

and write short essays and participate in class discussions .

This course is intended for third stage Geotechnical engineering
students who are interested in learning some fundamentals of
engineering hydrology . It is the study of water in all its forms (rains,
snow and water on the earth’s surface), and from its origins to all its
destinations on the earth. The study of hydrology that concerned mainly
with engineering applications is known as applied hydrology .
Engineering Hydrology deals with estimation of water resources, the study
of processes such as runoff, precipitation and their interaction, the study of
problems such as Floods, Droughts and strategies to overcome them.
Urban Planning, Roads, Culverts, Drains
Dams, Reservoirs, Irrigations and Industry.
The course code is CE 137, the course is given within 28 weeks, every
week the student should attend 2 hrs. theoretical and 2 hrs. tutorial, the
course credit is 2 units.

Methods
1. Give the full lectures to the students (Theory);
2. Class Assignments (Tutorial);
3. Two random quizzes and two major exams for the Midterm; and
4. Two random quizzes and two major exams for the Final;
Number of Units for Lecture and Laboratory: 2 Units lecture
Number of Contact Hours per week: 2 Hours Lecture
Prerequisite: Integral Calculus

Course Outcomes:
At the end the course, the student must be able to:
1. Discuss with appropriate diagrams the hydrologic cycle and the
different processes and storages within the cycle;
2. Perform calculation related to measurements, movement, and
storages in the different processes of the hydrologic cycle;
3. Familiar to hydrology as one of important science integrated with
Geotechnical engineering;
4. Familiar to different branches of applied hydrology;
5. Familiar to design and operation of hydraulic structures;

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 6. Familiar to basics of hydrogeology and better understanding the
water well drilling procedure and methods of investigating the
water and well site definition;
7. Familiar to Surface and ground water modeling.

Course Objectives:
1. The course will focus on explaining the background of Applied
hydrology,
2. The application of hydrology in different engineering structures.
3. Students will gain experience by solving problem assignments
throughout the semesters.

Course Outline:
1. Definition of Hydrology
2. The Hydrologic Cycle
3. Evaporation and Condensation
4. Precipitation and Interception
5. Infiltration, Percolation, and
Transpiration
6. Basic Subsurface flow (Steady
State Condition)
7. Rainfall-Runoff Relation
8. Class requirements: Syllabus of
Engineering Hydrology
8.1. Introduction to hydrology;
8.2. Hydrologic cycle and water
balance;
8.3. Watershed characteristics;
8.4. Weather and hydrology,
Precipitation;
8.5. Abstraction from precipitation
8.6. Infiltration;
8.7. Streamflow;
8.8. Rainfall-Runoff relationship;
8.9. Unit hydrograph analysis;
8.10. Flood and flood routing;
8.11. Flood control, draught
solution;
8.12. Physical character of
reservoir;
8.13. Reservoir sedimentation;
8.14. Characteristics of Subsurface
Media;
8.15. Groundwater Hydraulics;
8.16. Water wells and groundwater
recharge;
8.17. Groundwater quality and
contamination hydrology;
8.18. Risk Analysis and Hydrologic
Design;
8.19. Major probability distribution;
8.20. Groundwater modelling;
8.21. Surface water modelling.

Reference Books:
Author, Title, Publisher, Place of Publication, Date of Publication
1. Bedient, P.B., Huber W. C. and Vieux, B. E. Hydrology and Floodplain
Analysis, Pearson 4th Ed., Philippine edition copyright 2010;
2. David Chin, Water Resources Engineering, 3 rd Ed., Pearson 2013;
3. McCuen, R. H., Hydrologic Analysis and Design, Prentice Hall, 1989;
4. Linsley, R. K., M. A. Kohler and J. L. H. Paulhus, Hydrology for
Engineers by; McGraw-Hill, 1988;
5. Applied Hydrology by VenTe Chow, David Maidment and Larry Mays;
McGraw-Hill International Editions; 1988;
6. Handbook of Hydrology David Maidment, 1993.

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7. Engineering Hydrology, K. Subramantya, Second Edition, McGraw –
Hill Publishing Company, Reprint 2004.
8. Hydrology . Principles. Analysis. Design. H. M. Raghunath. New age
international publishers. New Delhi. 2004.
9. Groundwater Hydrology, Todd, D.K., (third edition), Jhon Wiley &
Sons, Third Reprint, Inc. India, 2007.
10. The Hand Book of Ground Water Engineering. Delleur, J.W.
Published by CRC press LLC, 1999.

1. Definition of Hydrology:
Hydrology --- the branch of science concerned with the properties of the earth's
water, and especially its movement in relation to land.

What is a hydrology simple definition?

Hydrology is the study of water.
What is the study of hydrology?
Hydrology is the study of water. Hydrologists examine the
physical processes involved in the global water cycle, which spans most
disciplines in Earth and environmental sciences.
What is an example of hydrology?
The central theme of hydrology is that water circulates throughout the
Earth through different pathways and at different rates. The most vivid
image of this is in the evaporation of water from the ocean, which forms
clouds. These clouds drift over the land and produce rain.
Why is hydrology important to life?
Hydrology is an
extremely important field of
study, dealing with one of the
most valuable resources on
Earth: water. All aspects of
the Earth's available water
are studied by experts from
many disciplines, from
geologists to engineers, to
obtain the information
needed to manage this vital
resource.
What are the four
branches of hydrology?
The branches of Hydrology include:
Hydrogeology, Chemical hydrology,
Ecohydrology, Hydroinformatics,
Isotope hydrology, Surface hydrology,

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 Hydrometeorology, Drainage basin management and Water quality.
Surface Hydrology or Surface-water hydrology is a branch of Hydrology.
How does hydrology affect the environment?
Hydrology, particularly water flow, can affect the local environment
due to changes in water quality and quantity. These changes can be man-
made (e.g. a dam release) or weather-related ( flooding ), or due to a
combination of both factors (rainfall runoff caused by poor
agricultural practices).
Which are two main branches of hydrology?
Chemical hydrology is the study of the chemical characteristics of
water. Ecohydrology is the study of interactions between organisms and
the hydrologic cycle.
Is hydrology civil engineering?
Hydrology is a subspecialty of civil engineering focused on water and
its movement in relation to land.
Who studies hydrology? hydrologist
A hydrologist is a scientist who studies water and its movement
around the planet. Hydrologists also study how water affects its
surrounding environment and how environmental factors affect the
quantity and quality of available water. One crucial concept in hydrology is
the hydrologic cycle.
What type of engineering is hydrology? civil engineering
Hydrology is a branch of civil engineering concerned with water
resources. It includes the study of water quality, quantity, flow, and
distribution (hydrogeology ) but most commonly refers to flood safety
and prevention.
Is hydrology a science or engineering?
Hydrology is the scientific study of the effects, properties and
distribution of water on the earth's surface in soil, underlying rock
structures and in the earth's atmosphere. The NJIT Graduate Certificate in
Hydrology and Water Resources enables students to transition into this
highly important field.

What is the objective of hydrological study?

Hydrology has as its primary objective the study of the
interrelationship between water and its environment. As hydrology is
mainly concerned with water close to the land surface, it focuses on those
components of the hydrologic cycle that occur there—namely,
precipitation, evapotranspiration, runoff, and groundwater.
What are the sources of hydrology?
 Catchment Flood Management plans.  Climate Records.
 Groundwater vulnerability maps.  Flood maps.

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 Hydrological summaries.  MORECS.
 Groundwater level records.  Gauged flow records.

What is application of hydrology?

Calculates rainfall, surface runoff, and precipitation. It determines the
water balance for a particular region. It mitigates and predicts flood,
landslide and drought risk in the region. It estimates the water resource
potential of the river basins.
Does hydrologic mean water?
The adjective hydrologic comes from hydrology, "the science of
water," and its roots, the Greek hyrdo-, "water," and the scientific suffix -
logy, "study or science." The way water moves from the ocean to the
atmosphere and back to the earth is known as the hydrologic cycle.
How does hydrology work?
Hydrologists study how water moves across and through the Earth's
crust. They study how rain, snow, and other forms of precipitation impact
river flows or groundwater levels, and how surface water and groundwater
evaporate back into the atmosphere or eventually reach the oceans.
How do hydrology affect humans?
There is considerable evidence that humans are responsible for
disruptions and changes to local and global water cycles. A number of
human activities can impact on the water cycle: damming rivers for
hydroelectricity, using water for farming, deforestation and the burning of
fossil fuels.
What are the 5 most important components of the hydrologic
cycle?
Water cycle, also called hydrologic cycle, cycle that involves the
continuous circulation of water in the Earth-atmosphere system. Of the
many processes involved in the water cycle, the most important are
evaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitation, and runoff.
What are five hydrologic processes?
Many processes work together to keep Earth's water moving in a
cycle. There are five processes at work in the hydrologic cycle:
condensation, precipitation, infiltration, runoff, and evapotranspiration.
What are the main causes of hydrological hazards?
Hydrological hazards, or 'hydro-hazards' , are defined as extreme
events associated with the occurrence, movement and distribution of
water, such as floods and droughts. Hydro-hazards usually result from a
combination of compounding interacting physical processes that occur
across multiple spatial and temporal scales.
What causes hydrological disaster?
They are generally caused due to earthquakes or volcanic eruptions
under the sea.

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Who is the founder of hydrology?
The concept of hydrology was described in both the old Greek (e.g.
Aristotle) and Roman (e.g. Marcus Vitruvius) cultures, where impressive
water engineering projects were developed, such as aqueducts and
bridges.
What do hydrological engineers do?
Also known as hydrological or water-resources engineering, it
involves designing systems for water movement, flow, distribution and
circulation. Hydrological engineers may also work on sewage treatment
and disbursement, focusing on getting sewage safely away from a city or
state's water supplies.
What is the duties of hydrology engineer?
Hydrologists apply scientific knowledge and mathematical principles
to solve water-related problems such as quantity, quality and availability.
Hydrologists could work on finding new water sources, predicting droughts
or floods and reducing waste water.
What engineers deal with hydrology?
Hydrological engineering, sometimes called hydrologic engineering
or water resources engineering, is an engineering specialty that focuses on
water resources.
Does hydrology have math?
Traditionally, a typical undergraduate student enrolled in a hydrology
and atmospheric science major will take about six required mathematics
and computing courses. This approach treats calculus, linear algebra,
statistics, differential equations, and computer programming as isolated
subjects.

2. The Hydrologic Cycle:

What are the 7 ways water moves in the hydrologic cycle?

1. THE WATER CYCLE

The water cycle is
often taught as a simple
circular cycle of
evaporation, condensation,
and precipitation. Although
this can be a useful model,
the reality is much more
complicated. The paths and
influences of water through
Earth’s ecosystems are
extremely complex and not
completely understood.
NOAA is striving to NOAA (National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration)

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expand understanding of the water cycle at global to local scales to
improve our ability to forecast weather, climate, water resources, and
ecosystem health. The water cycle is the endless process that connects all
of the water on Earth.

2. The water cycle on Earth

Water is essential to life on Earth. In its three phases (solid, liquid,
and gas), water ties together the major parts of the Earth’s climate system
— air, clouds, the ocean, lakes, vegetation, snowpack, and glaciers offsite
link.
The water cycle shows the continuous movement of water within the
Earth and atmosphere. It
is a complex system that
includes many different
processes. Liquid water
evaporates into water
vapor, condenses to form
clouds, and precipitates
back to earth in the form
of rain and snow. Water
in different phases
moves through the
atmosphere (transportation). Liquid water flows across land (runoff), into
the ground (infiltration and percolation), and through the ground
(groundwater). Groundwater moves into plants (plant uptake) and
evaporates from plants into the atmosphere (transpiration). Solid ice and
snow can turn directly into gas (sublimation). The opposite can also take
place when water vapor becomes solid (deposition).

3. Water, society, and ecology

Water influences the
intensity of climate variability
and change. It is the key part
of extreme events such as
drought and floods. Its
abundance and timely
delivery are critical for
meeting the needs of society
and ecosystems.
Humans use water for
drinking, industrial applications, irrigating agriculture, hydropower, waste
disposal, and recreation. It is important that water sources are protected
both for human uses and ecosystem health. In many areas, water supplies
are being depleted because of population growth, pollution, and
development. These stresses have been made worse by climate variations
and changes that affect the hydrologic cycle.

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4. Water and
climate
change
Climate change
is affecting where,
when, and how much
water is available.
Extreme weather
events such as
droughts and heavy
precipitation, which are expected
to increase as climate changes, can impact water resources. A lack of
adequate water supplies, flooding, or degraded water quality impacts
civilization — now and throughout history. These challenges can affect the
economy, energy production and use, human health, transportation,
agriculture, national security, natural ecosystems, and recreation.

5. Education Connection
The water cycle impacts ecosystems, economies, and our daily lives.
The resources in this collection help teachers guide their students beyond
the classic water cycle diagram and through the complex social and
environmental issues that surround water. The water cycle provides the
opportunity to explore the nature of science using models and empirical
evidence.

3. EVAPORATION
Evaporation is the process by which a liquid turns into a gas. It is also
one of the three main steps in the global water cycle.

Evaporation on a Farm
Water
evaporates from a
sugar beet field after
a summer shower in
Borger, Netherlands.
Evaporation is a key
step in the water
cycle.

Evaporation
happens when a
liquid turns into a
gas. It can be easily
visualized when rain
puddles “disappear”
on a hot day or when

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wet clothes dry in the sun. In these examples, the liquid water is not
actually vanishing—it is evaporating into a gas, called water vapor.
Evaporation happens on a global scale. Alongside condensation and
precipitation, evaporation is one of the three main steps in the Earth’s
water cycle. Evaporation accounts for 90 percent of the moisture in the
Earth’s atmosphere; the other 10 percent is due to plant transpiration.

Substances can exist in three main states: solid, liquid, and gas.
Evaporation is just one way a substance, like water, can change between
these states. Melting and freezing are two other ways. When liquid water
reaches a low enough temperature, it freezes and becomes a solid—ice.
When solid water is exposed to enough heat, it will melt and return to a
liquid. As that liquid water is further heated, it evaporates and becomes a
gas—water vapor.

These changes between states (melting, freezing, and evaporating)

happen because as the temperature either increases or decreases, the
molecules in a substance begin to speed up or slow down. In a solid, the
molecules are tightly packed and only vibrate against each other. In a
liquid, the molecules move freely, but stay close together. In a gas, they
move around wildly and have a great deal of space between them.

In the water cycle, evaporation occurs when sunlight warms the

surface of the water. The heat from the sun makes the water molecules
move faster and faster, until they move so fast they escape as a gas. Once
evaporated, a molecule of water vapor spends about ten days in the air.

As water vapor rises higher in the atmosphere, it begins to cool back

down. When it is cool enough, the water vapor condenses and returns to
liquid water. These water droplets eventually gather to form clouds and
precipitation.

Evaporation from the oceans is vital to the production of fresh water.

Because more than 70 percent of the Earth’s surface is covered by oceans,
they are the major source of water in the atmosphere. When that water
evaporates, the salt is left behind. The fresh-water vapor then condenses
into clouds, many of which drift over land. Precipitation from those clouds
fills lakes, rivers, and streams with fresh water.

CONDENSATION
Condensation is the process where water vapor (a gas) changes
into water droplets (a liquid). This is when we begin to see clouds.

What is the condensation?

Condensation is the process where water vapor becomes liquid.
It is the reverse of evaporation, where liquid water becomes a vapor.
Condensation happens one of two ways: Either the air is cooled to its dew
point or it becomes so saturated with water vapor that it cannot hold any
more water.
What is the 4 form of the condensation?

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Dew, Fog, Frost, Mist
What are 4 examples of condensation?
Morning dew on the grass. Water droplets on the outer surface of cold
drink bottle. Foggy car windows.

What is condensation definition and examples?

Condensation is the process through which the physical state of
matter changes from the gaseous phase into the liquid phase. For example,
condensation occurs when water vapour (gaseous form) in the air changes
into liquid water when it comes in contact with a cooler surface.

What are 5 examples of condensation?

Let's take a few examples of condensation in our daily life to elucidate the
phenomenon:
1. Clouds in the Sky; 5. Foggy Car Windows;
2. Morning Dew; 6. Foggy Glasses;
3. Fog in the Air; 7. Sweaty Drink-Cans;
4. Breathing Fog in Winters; 8. Contrails.

What are the 3 types of condensation?

Condensation: Dew, Fog, and Clouds. Dew: the water droplets formed
by condensation of water vapor on a relatively cold surface of an object.

What are the types of condensation reactions?

In organic chemistry, a condensation reaction is a type of chemical
reaction in which two molecules are combined to form a single molecule,
usually with the loss of a small molecule such as water. If water is lost, the
reaction is also known as a dehydration synthesis.

What is hydrological problem?

Floods, droughts and water pollution are barriers to sustainable
development and management of water resources. The hydrological
sciences have played an increasingly vital role in the understanding of
these problems and in finding solutions.

What is the best example of condensation?

Examples of Condensation
Morning Dew – This happens when the moisture present in the air
condenses on the grasses and leaves cooling overnight.
Droplets on can or bottle – The cold surface of your can or bottle
causes the moisture in the warm air to condense on its surface.
How many types of condensation are there?
Condensation is the process where water vapour becomes liquid.
Depending on temperature and location, condensation can take place in
different forms, like dew, frost, fog, mist, and clouds.

What causes condensation?

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 Condensation occurs when warm air collides with cold surfaces, or
when there's too much humidity in your home. When this moisture-packed
warm air comes into contact with a chilly surface, it cools down quickly
and releases the water, which turns into liquid droplets on the cold surface.

Is rain a condensation?
Condensation is the process through which gaseous water vapor
becomes liquid water. A common misconception about condensation is
that rain is a form of condensation. However, rain is actually a result of
condensation. Condensation can happen in one of two ways: saturation or
cooling to the dew point.

Where is condensation used?

Commercial applications of condensation, by consumers as well as
industry, include power generation, water desalination, thermal
management, refrigeration, and air conditioning.

What are the effects of condensation?

Condensation is the change of the physical state of matter from the
gas phase into the liquid phase, and is the reverse of vaporization.

How do you make condensation?

It can happen in one of two ways. For condensation to form, water
vapor is either cooled to its dew point – which is the temperature at which
water in the air condenses to create water droplets. Or, the air becomes so
saturated with water vapor that it can't hold any more water.

What are three facts about condensation?

10 Facts About Condensation
1. Government figures suggest that 1 in 4 homes in the UK, has an issue
with either condensation and/or damp. Up to 50% of damp-proofing
company call-outs are for condensation related problems. Rising
dampness is often confused with condensation, but rising damp can
usually be recognised by “tide marks” and surface blistering up to about
1.0 m from the floor and condensation tends to be accompanied by
mould growth.

2. Condensation is seasonal and the condensation season coincides with

dropping temperatures. If your property suffered with condensation last
Winter but there haven’t been symptoms over the Summer this doesn’t
mean the issue has gone away as it will, unfortunately, recur the
following Autumn.

3. Condensation is caused by excess moisture in the air settling on cool

surfaces. Air can hold a certain amount of moisture, but the amount
varies depending on temperature; The colder the air, the less moisture it
can hold. When air temperature drops, the moisture that it can no longer
hold is deposited (condenses) onto the coldest surfaces available. You
often see condensation on windows as these are generally cold surfaces
but external walls or even ceilings may also be cold.

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4. Double glazing reduces condensation on windows by keeping glass
temperatures warmer, but this means that moisture will condense on
other cool surfaces elsewhere, particularly adjoining wall surfaces,
unless the property has cavity wall insulation.

5. Cooking, washing, drying clothes, having a bath or shower and even

breathing can cause produce up to 5 litres of moisture a day per person,
within the average home. That’s equivalent to 5 big bottles of soft drink
for each person!

6. Condensation does not always occur in the room where the moisture
has been created. Moisture moves around with the air and it can even
move through walls, doors and ceilings. It helps to close the kitchen
door when you are cooking but you may also need to look at an extract
unit to help remove the excess moisture from the air.

7. You may be experiencing some of the symptoms of condensation

without realising their cause; there may be musty smells within the
property, water on windows and window sills, peeling wallpaper, mould
growths on walls, clothes, shoes or on areas of the walls and ceiling.

8. If condensation is not treated it can result in a lot of expense. Clothes

and bed linen may be damaged by mildew and need replacing and in the
worst-case scenarios the damp can rot timbers and result in rusting
metal wall ties.

9. Living with condensation can cause health problems as this form of

dampness causes mould and mildew to grow and spores from these can
aggravate chest conditions, such as asthma. House mites also thrive in
damp atmospheres and research shows they can also cause allergies.

10. Condensation and related dampness can be resolved only by

controlling the level of moisture in the air. It is important to control
moisture levels in the entire house and ensure that there is adequate
ventilation. If you think that you have a condensation problem it’s
important to get a qualified surveyor to inspect the area and suggest one
of the affordable solutions now available.

4. PRECIPITATION
What is precipitation Class 5?
Precipitation is any liquid or frozen water that forms in the
atmosphere and falls back to the Earth. It comes in many forms, like rain,
sleet, and snow.

What are the 4 types of precipitation?

Precipitation (Water Falling from the Sky)
The most common types of precipitation:
1. Rain 2. Snow 3. Hail 4. Sleet

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What are the 6 types of precipitation?
The different types of precipitation are:
1. Rain - Most commonly observed, drops larger than drizzle (0.02 inch /
0.5 mm or more) are considered rain.
2. Drizzle - Fairly uniform precipitation composed exclusively of fine drops
very close together.

3. Hail 4. Ice Pellets (Sleet) 5. Small Hail (Snow Pellets)

6. Snow 7. Snow Grains 8. Ice Crystals
What is precipitation and its types?
The most common types of precipitation are rain, hail, and snow.
Rain. Rain is precipitation that falls to the surface of the Earth as water
droplets. Raindrops form around microscopic cloud condensation nuclei,
such as a particle of dust or a molecule of pollution.
What is precipitation example?
One of the best examples of precipitation reactions is the chemical
reaction between potassium chloride and silver nitrate, in which
solid silver chloride is precipitated out. This is the insoluble salt
formed as a product of the precipitation reaction.
What a precipitation means?
- a deposit on the earth of hail, mist, rain, sleet, or snow; the quantity of
water deposited.
What are the 5 steps of precipitation?
Together, these five processes - condensation, precipitation,
infiltration, runoff, and evapotranspiration- make up the
Hydrologic Cycle. Water vapor condenses to form clouds, which result
in precipitation when the conditions are suitable.
What is class 7 precipitation?
- Falling of moisture in the form of rainfall, snow, fog, sleet and hailstone
is termed as precipitation.
What causes precipitation Class 7?
The sun's heat vaporises water into vapour. This vapour cools down
and condenses to become clouds. This may then fall on the surface of
Earth in the form of rain, snow or sleet. This phenomenon of water falling
back onto the surface of the earth in the form of rain, snow or sleet is
called precipitation. Precipitation occurs when a portion of the atmosphere
becomes saturated with water vapor, so that the water condenses and
“precipitates.
What are the 5 main types of weather?
The five main types of weather are: (1.) sunny, (2.) cloudy, (3.)
windy, (4.) rainy, and (5.)stormy. Below you will find out about the different

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types of weather we experience on a day-to-day basis as a result of the
global weather system.
Why are there different types of precipitation?
When particles fall from clouds and reach the surface as precipitation,
they do so primarily as rain, snow, freezing rain or sleet. The main
difference between these different types of precipitation is the temperature
variations between the cloud base and the ground.
Which is the most common type of precipitation? Rainfall
Rainfall is the most common type of precipitation that we all might
have experienced. Water vapour in air condenses to form liquid water
droplets. When precipitation happens in the form of liquid water, it is called
rainfall.
How do different types of precipitation form?
The temperature of the cloud and the air between the cloud and the
ground create different kinds of precipitation. Rain: Rain made of liquid
water droplets falls when temperatures in the air and at the surface are
above freezing (32°F, 0°C).
What is precipitation in Brainly?
- includes rain, snow, sleet, and hail. The main forms of precipitation
include drizzle, rain, sleet, snow, graupel (soft hail or snow pellets), and
hail. Precipitation is a form of water that falls from a cloud.
Is precipitation wet or dry?
Rain is liquid precipitation: water falling from the sky. Raindrops fall
to Earth when clouds become saturated, or filled, with water droplets.
Millions of water droplets bump into each other as they gather in a cloud.
When a small water droplet bumps into a bigger one, it condenses, or
combines, with the larger one.

What is meant by 10% precipitation?

If there's a 10 percent chance of rain, it means the current conditions
yield rainfall one out of every 10 times observed. If it's 20 percent, then
you'd see rain two out of every 10 times, and so on.
What words describe precipitation? Synonyms for precipitation
1. drizzle
Fairly uniform precipitation composed
exclusively of fine drops very close together.
Drizzle appears to float while following air
currents, but unlike fog droplets, it falls to the
ground. Quite often fog and drizzle occur
together.

2. rain

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 Most commonly observed, drops larger than drizzle (0.02 inch / 0.5
mm or more) are considered rain. However,
smaller drops are also considered raindrops if,
in contrast to drizzle, they are widely separated.

3. rainfall
4. rainstorm
------- a storm with heavy rain.
------- a weather condition with strong wind and heavy rain.
------- a storm that produces rain
-------- A storm accompanied by rain.
-------- a storm of or with rain.
What causes a rainstorm?
As temperature rises, more water evaporates from the ocean,
transferring energy and water vapor to the atmosphere. That extra water
vapor results in more rain and snow. Areas that are typically rainy will
likely experience intense down pours. But areas that are typically dry will
likely become more parched.

What are the effects of a rainstorm?

Heavy rainfall can lead to
numerous hazards, for example:
flooding, including risk to human
life, damage to buildings and
infrastructure, and loss of crops
and livestock. landslides, which
can threaten human life, disrupt
transport and communications,
and cause damage to buildings
and infrastructure.
How long can a rainstorm last?
Thunderstorms affect relatively small areas when compared with
hurricanes and winter storms. The typical thunderstorm is 15 miles in
diameter and lasts an average of 30 minutes. Nearly 1,800 thunderstorms
are occurring at any moment around the world. That's 16 million a year!

What is a major rainstorm called?

Downpour; nountremendous pouring of rain; cloudburst; deluge.

What is a heavy rainfall called?

A downpour is a heavy fall of rain.

How do you survive a rainstorm? Head For Shelter

Keep in mind not to touch plumbing, electrical equipment, metal
objects, or water, as those could be electrically charged. Being in a car is
safer than being outside, but you should always keep the windows rolled
up, refrain from using electronics, and resist leaning against the doors.
What happens before a rainstorm?

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 The rising warm air forms a partial vacuum, which pulls cold air from
high above. That helps drive the rain down. But this partial vacuum also
pulls in air from all sides of the storm front. Air moving away from the
partial vacuum gets pulled back – so the area in front of the storm
experiences a calm.
What are the 3 types of storm?
Blizzards Ice storms Thunderstorms
Hail Lightning Wind Heavy rain
What is a severe rainstorm?
When they contain strong winds, hail and tornadoes they can turn
violent. NOAA classifies a storm as “severe” when it produces wind gusts
of at least 58 mph and/or hail one inch in diameter (about the size of a
quarter) or larger and/or a tornado. A single thunderstorm can be 10 miles
wide and 50,000 feet tall. ( NOAA)
Why do I sleep better during a rainstorm?
Along with the low air pressure, the air is also filled with a lot of water
vapor. The combination of low
air pressure and water vapor
inadvertently lowers the oxygen
levels in the air, making your
brain feel tired. When it rains,
negative ions are released and
that leads to people feeling
more relaxed and comfortable.
Where is the biggest
rainstorm on earth?
Where is the rainiest place
on Earth? Surprisingly, it's not
Wales. According to Guinness
World Records, the place with
the highest average annual
rainfall is the village of
Mawsynram in northeastern
India, which receives nearly
12,000mm of rain per year.
What are the 4 types of rain?
Convectional rainfall Orographic or relief rainfall Cyclonic or frontal
rainfall

What are the 4 types of storms?

1. The single-cell 2. The multi-cell 3. The squall line 4. The supercell

What causes thunder in a rainstorm?

Thunder is caused by the rapid expansion of the air surrounding the
path of a lightning bolt.

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Is rainstorm a weather?
A rainstorm is a type of extreme weather which can produce heavy
rain, poor visibility, and sometimes thunder and lightning. Rainstorms are
formed sometimes from large weather systems (hurricanes, cyclones, etc.).
As the weather systems move inland and start dissipating, they lose
energy.
What are rainstorm clouds called? Cumulonimbus clouds
Cumulonimbus clouds are also called thunderheads. Thunderheads
produce rain, thunder, and lightning. Many cumulonimbus clouds occur
along cold fronts, where cool
air is forced under warm air.
They usually shrink as evening
approaches, and moisture in
the air evaporates.
What causes a rainstorm?
As temperature rises, more
water evaporates from the
ocean, transferring energy and
water vapor to the atmosphere.
That extra water vapor results
in more rain and snow. Areas that are
typically rainy will likely experience
intense down pours. But areas that are
typically dry will likely become more
parched.

5. sleet. [Ice Pellets (Sleet)]

Precipitation of transparent or
translucent pellets of ice, which are
round or irregular hard grains of ice
consisting of frozen raindrops, or
largely melted then refrozen
snowflakes.

6. snow
Precipitation of snow crystals that
are mostly branched and in the form of
six-pointed stars.
7. Storm
8. cloudburst.
What is the meaning of cloudburst?

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 Cloudburst, a sudden, very heavy rainfall, usually local in nature and
of brief duration. Most so-called cloudbursts occur in connection with
thunderstorms. In these storms
there are violent uprushes of air,
which at times prevent the
condensing raindrops from
falling to the ground.
What is cloud burst and why
it happens?
Cloudbursts happen when
drenched clouds are not able to
cause rain because of the rising
movement of the extremely hot
current of air. Rather than falling down, raindrops get larger in dimension
and are forced up because of the air current.

Is cloudburst a natural disaster?

Cloudburst is defined as a geo-hydrological hazard. The aggressiveness
in nature and the scale of destruction of rainfall are scary at times.
What are the effects of cloudburst?
Cloudburst-triggered debris flows, flash floods, landslides, and mass
movements have become more intensive and frequent worldwide,
mainly in the mountainous regions, causing large-scale destruction of
people, land, and property (Houghton
et al.
9. Small Hail (Snow Pellets)
Precipitation of white, opaque grains of
ice that are round or sometimes conical.
Diameters are less than ¼ inch (5 mm).

10. Snow Grains

Precipitation of very small, white,
and opaque grains of ice. Basically, this
is frozen drizzle.

11. Ice Crystals

Generally occurring in very cold
regions, they are falling crystals of ice in
the form of needles, columns, or plates.
Also called 'diamond dust', ice crystals
appear like fog with individual water particles forming directly as ice. The
shape of the individual ice crystals causes the 'light pillar' optical effect
above the light source.

12. Hail
Precipitation in the form of small
balls or other pieces of ice falling
separately or frozen together in irregular

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lumps. Associated with thunderstorms, individual hail stones are ¼ inch (5
mm) or greater in diameter. Hail sizes of 1 inch (2.5 cm) or more are
indicative of severe thunderstorms.

INTERCEPTION
What does interception mean in the water cycle?
Interception is the part of the rainfall that is intercepted by the earth's
surface and which subsequently evaporates. In this definition the earth's
surface includes everything that becomes wet after a rainfall event and that
dries out soon after. It includes: vegetation, soil surface, litter, build-up
surface, etc.

What is the difference between transpiration and interception?

We conclude that interception mainly works as an intensifier of the
local hydrological cycle during wet spells and wet seasons. On the other
hand, transpiration remains active during dry spells and dry seasons and is
transported over much larger distances downwind, where it can act as a
significant source of moisture.

How does precipitation affect interception?

Interception loss, as a percentage of gross rainfall, decreases as
rainfall amount increases. This is because rainfall amount has little effect
on interception loss once the interception capacity is filled.

What are the 3 types of interception?

1. gross rainfall measured above the canopy or in openings in a forest.
2. throughfall: water that falls between plants,
3. drippage: of water from the plants to the grounds, and
4. stemflow: flow of water down stems and trunks.

How is rain interception measured?

Interception is most easily measured by comparing rainfall
underneath vegetation cover (like a woodland canopy) with rainfall where
there in no vegatation cover. Place several identical rain gauges in the
contrasting areas – don't just use one rain gauge per area.
Where does interception occur?
Interception refers to precipitation that does not reach the
soil, but is instead intercepted by the leaves, branches of plants
and the forest floor . It occurs in the canopy (i.e. canopy interception ),
and in the forest floor or litter layer (i.e. forest floor interception ).

How does interception work?

To make initial contact, the intercepting aircraft will rock its wings and
flash its navigation lights at irregular intervals. This means "you have been
intercepted, follow me". To respond, the pilots of the intercepted aircraft

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must also rock their wings, flash their lights and then proceed to follow the
military jet.

What is the relationship between interception and infiltration?

The highest level of interception occurs when it snows on conifer
forests and hardwood forests that have not yet lost their leaves. Infiltration
is the physical process involving movement of water through the boundary
area where the atmosphere interfaces with the soil.

Why does an increase in interception cause a decrease in surface runoff?

Interception decreases runoff by reducing the amount of
precipitation which initially reaches the ground. Urban areas replace
forests, grasslands, wetlands, and other natural areas. As roads,
pavements and buildings are impenetrable , water cannot infiltrate the
soil and is instead directed to rivers via drain.

How do seasons affect interception?

The proportion of the precipitation that does not reach the ground,
i.e., the interception loss, depends on the type of vegetation (forest, tree, or
grassland), its age, density of planting and the season of the year. The
interception loss also depends on rainfall regime, thus on climate.

What factors influence interception?

 Type of Vegetation  Duration of Storm  Season of the Year
 Wind Velocity  Intensity of Storm  Climate of the Area

What is the synonym of intercepting?

- to stop, seize, or interrupt while in progress or on course the cat was
about to hightail it out the front door when I intercepted her. Synonyms
& Similar Words. Relevance. blocking. grabbing.
What are interception losses?
Interception loss is that portion. of the precipitation which is returned
to the atmosphere through evaporation from plant surfaces or is absorbed
into the plant.

Which is an example of interception?

Interception might take the form of unauthorized file viewing or
copying, eavesdropping on phone conversations, or reading e-mail, and
can be conducted against data at rest or in motion.
What are the 3 main components of interception?
1. Interception Loss 2. Throughfall 3. Stemflow

5. INFILTRATION
What are the process of infiltration?
Infiltration is the process of water entry into the soil through the
earth's surface. The water at the soil surface can originate from rain,

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snowmelt or anthropogenic activities (e.g. to regulate groundwater
formation by artificial infiltration).
What is infiltration short answer?
Infiltration is defined as the flow of water from aboveground
into the subsurface. The topic of infiltration has received a great deal of
attention because of its importance to topics as widely ranging as
irrigation, contaminant transport, groundwater recharge, and ecosystem
viability.

What is infiltration in the water cycle for kids?

Infiltration is an important process where rain water soaks into the
ground, through the soil and underlying rock layers. Runoff - Much of the
water that returns to Earth as precipitation runs off the surface of the land,
and flows downhill into streams, rivers, ponds and lakes.
What is runoff and infiltration?
Infiltration and runoff are two important processes in the hydrologic
cycle (Figure 1.1). Infiltration begins when precipitation reaches the
land surface. Runoff begins when the precipitation rate exceeds
the infiltration rate, and retention and surface stor- age are filled.
What causes water infiltration? poor drainage
Poor water drainage along the edge of the foundation is one of the
main causes of basement water infiltration. To drain water away from your
home, make sure that the ground around it slopes away from the
foundation at a rate of one inch per foot for at least the first six feet.
What causes infiltration?
Infiltration is the downward entry of water into the soil.
Infiltration rate is expressed in inches per hour. Rainwater must first
enter the soil for it to be of value. Water moves more quickly through the
large pores of a sandy soil compared to slower movement through a clay
soil with small pores.
What is the role of infiltration?
Infiltration replenishes aquifers. Natural refilling of deep
aquifers is a slow process because groundwater moves slowly
through the unsaturated zone and the aquifer. The rate of
recharge is also an important consideration.
What is evaporation and infiltration?
Soil evaporation is the transition of soil water from the liquid phase to
the vapor phase, after which water vapor diffuses into the atmosphere
through the evaporation surface (Wang et al., 2019). The evaporation
surfaces of infiltration holes are the top surface, sidewall, and bottom of
the hole.
What is another term for infiltration?

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 permeate. The water will eventually permeate through the
surrounding concrete. creep in. percolate.

What affects water infiltration?

Infiltration is caused by multiple factors including; gravity, capillary
forces, adsorption and osmosis. Many soil characteristics can also play a
role in determining the rate at which infiltration occurs.

What are the types of infiltration?

1. Infiltration basin.
2. Infiltration trench (a.k.a. infiltration gallery)
3. Dry wells (a.k.a. infiltration tubes, french drains, soak-away
pits or soak holes)
4. Underground infiltration systems.
How does infiltration affect water quality?
Role of stormwater infiltration in the natural water cycle
The increase in impervious surfaces can disrupt the natural water cycle
and alter the surrounding environment via the decrease of groundwater
recharge and the increase of water directly flowing to surface waters.
What happens to water during infiltration?
Infiltration happens when water soaks into the soil from the ground
level. It moves underground and moves between the soil and rocks. Some
of the water will be soaked up by roots to help plants grow. The plant's
leaves eventually release the water into the air through the plant's pours as
waste.
Does infiltration clean water?
When water soaks into the ground, soil and plants work
together to absorb it, filtering pollutants, and decreasing flooding.
Some of this water continues to travel down in the soil, becoming
cleaner as it goes and recharging the groundwater.
What are the characteristics of infiltration?
The infiltration rate is determined by soil characteristics including
ease of entry, storage capacity, and transmission rate through the soil. The
soil texture and structure, vegetation types and cover, water content of the
soil, soil temperature, and rainfall intensity all play a role in infiltration rate.
What is infiltration example?
Infiltration occurs when surface water enters the soil . This
process is similar to pouring water onto a sponge. The sponge soaks up
the water until it can hold no more. At this point, the soil becomes
saturated , but the excess water has to go somewhere.

PERCOLATION
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What is the meaning of percolation?
- the process of a liquid moving slowly through a substance that
has very small holes in it: the percolation of water through
rocks. the process of something spreading slowly: So far we
haven't seen much percolation of higher energy prices through
to retail. Movement of liquids.
What is percolation 7th?
Percolation is the movement of water through soil, and the
percolation rate is the speed at which that movement occurs.
Percolation rate is calculated using the following formula: Percolation rate
= Amount of water (mL)percolation time (mins).
What is percolation of water explain?
Percolation is the movement of water through the soil itself.
Finally, as the water percolates into the deeper layers of the soil,
it reaches ground water, which is water below the surface. The
upper surface of this underground water is called the "water
table".
What is percolation in soil?
Infiltration (the rate at which water enters a soil) and
percolation (the rate at which water moves through a soil) are key
factors in determining the value of a soil as a crop soil. These two
factors influence the formation of natural wildlife habitats, and the
nature and speed of flooding in a given area.
Why is percolation used?
Percolation can be used to predict water transport factors such as
the rate of leaching, or the flow of materials into water. This is most often
used in agriculture to determine the movement of fertilizers or the salt
content of soil.
How is percolation done?
Percolation is an exhaustive extraction procedure, by which all of
the soluble constituents are
completely removed from a
comminuted plant material,
by extracting the crude drug
by fresh solvent. In the case
of repercolation, the
percolate is again
introduced as the solvent,
thus reducing solvent
consumption.

24 | P a g e
What is the meaning of percolation test?
A percolation test, or perc test, is a procedure performed to
review water drainage in different soils. It is important for many uses,
such as when designing a leach field for a septic system,
planning a building design, or considering agricultural use of the
land.
How do you measure water percolation?
To measure how fast water percolates into the soil, you need to
measure the time it takes for a specific amount of water to soak into a
specific area of soil. The easiest way to do this is to get a length of
cylindrical pipe that is sharp enough to push (or hammer) into the soil at
one end.
What is percolation in sandy soil?
Sandy soil. Percolation rate is the rate at which water passes
through the soil. It is a measure used to determine the water holding
capacity of the soil. Sandy soil has large particles and large air gaps too.
Water flows through sandy soil fastest and hence percolation rate of sandy
soil is the highest.
What is the percolation of clay soil?
Clay soils have moderate percolation rates of 0.1 inch or less every
hour. These soils effortlessly become waterlogged, and plant roots can
choke thus.
What is good percolation?
For soils to effectively treat effluent, percolation rates must
be between 10 and 60 minutes per inch of percolation. You need
at least 20 to 21 hours to do a standard percolation test requires.
What is percolation instrument?
The percolation device determines the ion-composition of a
soil solution under saturated conditions and is designed such
that it simultaneously percolates a defined solution amount with a
constant skipping speed from various undisturbed soil samples
in different soil sample cylinders (volume: 100 cm³).
What factors affect percolation?
Those factors are as follows:
Soil: In a mechanism called percolation, where water travels downwards
through the tiny gaps between rocks and soil particles, runoff seeps
underground.
Moisture content: The quality of water alters their cohesion greatly.
What are the main features of percolation?
Percolation typically exhibits universality. Statistical physics
concepts such as scaling theory, renormalization, phase transition, critical

25 | P a g e
phenomena and fractals are used to characterize percolation properties.
Combinatorics is commonly employed to study percolation thresholds.
What is infiltration and percolation?
Infiltration and percolation are two related but different processes
describing the movement of water through soil . Infiltration is defined as
the downward entry of water into the soil or rock surface and
percolation is the flow of water through soil and porous or
fractured rock.
What is the difference between percolation?
The main difference between infiltration and percolation is that
infiltration occurs in the topmost zone of soil whereas percolation occurs
when water passes through soil and rock. Infiltration and percolation
are two types of downward movements of water. Infiltration
occurs fast while percolation occurs slowly.
How does soil affect percolation?
Soil type influences amounts and rates of percolation. The
Muskingum soils, because of their lighter texture, provide greater
opportunity for more rapid soil water movement which is
reflected in greater amounts and more rapid rates of percolation
than on the heavier Keene soils except under the circumstances
noted.
What is percolation capacity of soil?
Percolation rate of water in soil: The phenomenon of
absorption of water by soil is termed percolation. The rate of
absorption is different for different types of soils. The rate of
absorption of soil depends on its composition. A soil with a high
percolation rate can hold water for a short period of time.
What is high percolation?
- by high percolation rate means. Water easily move into the soil. For
example, sand has high precolation rate than soil. So ,water easily
moves through the sand than soil.
Why is percolation important to the water cycle?
Percolation is an important process where rain water soaks
into (infiltrates) the ground, into the soil and underlying rock
layers. Some of this water ultimately returns to the surface at
springs or in low spots downhill.
What is simple percolation process?
Percolation extraction is a conventional extraction method used in
the processing of traditional Chinese medicines. After medicinal material

26 | P a g e
powder is placed in a percolation tank, the extraction solvent is
continuously added, and percolation extract is collected simultaneously.
The percolation equipment is simple.
Which factors determine percolation of soil?
Various characteristics of the soil such as soil composition, grain
size and aggregation determine the percolation and water holding capacity
of the soils.
What is cold percolation method?
- during the cold percolation process. A control is provided to monitor
the contents of the vessel and regulate the heater output to obtain and
maintain the proper temperature. A pump draws the output of the vessel
and recirculates it to the vessel top so that the vessel effluent passes
through the vessel charge.
What is percolation in agriculture?
Percolation is the downward movement of water within soil. The rate
of percolation is affected by soil characteristics, with water moving through
coarser soils more quickly than through fine- grained soils.
How do you test percolation in soil?
A percolation test consists of digging one or more holes in the soil
of the proposed leach field to a specified depth, presoaking the holes by
maintaining a high water level in the holes, then running the test by filling
the holes to a specific level and timing the drop of the water level as the
water percolates into.
What causes percolation of water on land?
Percolation is primarily controlled by gravitational forces.
Precipitations such as rainfall and snowmelts infiltrate the soil
surface after which it percolates downwards through soil layers. The water
is able to move underground through the rock and soil profile due to the
capillary actions of connected pore spaces.
What is maceration and percolation?
Maceration refers to the process of becoming softened by soaking in
a liquid while percolation refers to the process of a liquid slowly passing
through a filter.
What is the percolation rate of sand?
The average monthly percolation rates of sand clay loam, sand clay,
and clay vary 2-4.5 mm/day, 1.5-3.5 mm/day, and 0.5-2 mm/day, respectively
with the rainfall intensity of 4-14 mm/day.
What is percolation in civil engineering?
Percolation can be defined as the flow of fluids through a porous
media (filter). Infiltration rate may be defined as the meters per unit time of
the entry of water into the soil surface regardless of the types or values of
forces or gradients. Water entry into the soil is caused by matric and
gravitational forces.

27 | P a g e
TRANSPIRATION
This process of elimination of excess water from the plant
body is known as transpiration. It is generally the evaporation of
water from the surface of the leaves. During the process of
transpiration, water molecules in the plant tissues are removed
from the aerial parts of the plants.
What is transpiration explain?
Transpiration is a process that involves loss of water vapour
through the stomata of plants. The loss of water vapour from the plant
cools the plant down when the weather is very hot, and water from the
stem and roots moves upwards or is 'pulled' into the leaves.
What causes transpiration?
Ultimately, for transpiration to occur, the water vapor pressure deficit
of the surrounding air must be lower than the water potential of the leaves.
Transpiration rates are higher when the relative humidity of air is low,
which can occur due to windy conditions or when the temperatures are
high.
What is transpiration short type answer?
The process by which plants remove excess water through stomata
present on the surface of leaves is called 'transpiration'. Transpiration is
essentially evaporation of water from leaves of the plant.
What is transpiration Why is it important?
Transpiration is defined as the process where plants absorb water
through the roots and then give off water vapour through pores in their
leaves (stomata). This process removes excess water, creates a
suction pull to help in transport of water upwards, and cools
down the plant.
Where does transpiration happen? Leaf stomata
Leaf stomata are the primary sites of transpiration and consist of two
guard cells that form a small pore on the surfaces of leaves. The guard
cells control the opening and closing of the stomata in response to various
environmental stimuli and can regulate the rate of transpiration to reduce
water loss.
What affects transpiration in plants?
The light intensity, temperature, humidity, wind and water supply will
all affect the transpiration rate.
What are the benefits of transpiration in plants?
Advantages of transpiration:
1. It helps in the exchange of gases.

28 | P a g e
 2. It helps in sending out excessively absorbed water by plants.
3. It helps in the development of the plant body.
4. It helps in the absorption and distribution of water and
mineral salts in plants.
5. It provides coolness to the plant body.
What type of transport is transpiration? water transport
Transpiration (water transport) involves three processes:
absorption at the roots, capillary action in the xylem, and
evaporation at the leaves. Roots acquire dissolved minerals in a four-
step process: •Active transport into the root hairs, which moves minerals
against their concentration gradient.
7. Basic Subsurface flow (Steady State Condition)
8. Rainfall-Runoff Relation
Class requirements:
Syllabus of Engineering Hydrology
8.1. Introduction to hydrology; 8.12. Physical character of reservoir;
8.2. Hydrologic cycle and water 8.13. Reservoir sedimentation;
balance;
8.3. Watershed characteristics; 8.14. Characteristics of Subsurface
Media;

8.4. Weather and hydrology, 8.15. Groundwater Hydraulics;

Precipitation;
8.5. Abstraction from precipitation 8.16. Water wells and groundwater
recharge;
8.6. Infiltration; 8.17. Groundwater quality and
contamination hydrology;
8.7. Streamflow; 8.18. Risk Analysis and Hydrologic
Design;
8.8. Rainfall-Runoff relationship; 8.19. Major probability distribution;
8.9. Unit hydrograph analysis; 8.20. Groundwater modelling;
8.10. Flood and flood routing; 8.21. Surface water modelling.
8.11. Flood control, draught solution;

Activity 2
The Hydrologic Cycle

29 | P a g e
- involves the continuous circulation of water in the Earth-Atmosphere
system. At its core, the water cycle is the motion of the water.

30 | P a g e
31 | P a g e
What is hydrological cycle processes?
Together, these five processes - condensation, precipitation,
infiltration, runoff, and evapotranspiration- make up the Hydrologic Cycle.
Water vapor condenses to form clouds, which result in precipitation when
the conditions are suitable.
What are the 4 stages of hydrologic cycle?
So how can we understand this magical process called the water
cycle? There are four main parts to the water cycle: Evaporation,
Convection, Precipitation and Collection.
What are the 7 stages of the water cycle in order? THE WATER CYCLE
1. EVAPORATION 2. CONDENSATION 3. PRECIPITATION
4. INTERCEPTION 5. INFILTRATION 6. PERCOLATION
7. TRANSPIRATION

What is the hydrologic cycle and why is it important?

The hydrologic cycle is important because it is how water reaches
plants, animals and us! Besides providing people, animals and plants with
water, it also moves things like nutrients, pathogens and sediment in and
out of aquatic ecosystems.
Why is it called hydrological cycle?
The water cycle, also known as the hydrologic cycle, describes where
water is stored on Earth and how it moves. Water is stored in the
atmosphere, on the land surface, and below the ground. It can be a liquid, a
solid, or a gas.
What is the meaning of hydrologic?
: a science dealing with the properties, distribution, and circulation of water
on and below the earth's surface and in the atmosphere. hydrologic. ˌhī-
drə-ˈlä-jik. adjective. or hydrological.
What are the 5 main parts of the water cycle?
Of the many processes involved in the water cycle, the most
important are evaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitation, and
runoff.
What are the 6 phases of water?

32 | P a g e
 The changes of state include melting, sublimation, evaporation,
freezing, condensation, and deposition.
What are the main components of water cycle?
The water cycle consists of three major processes: evaporation,
condensation, and precipitation.
What is the meaning of hydrologic cycle in Earth and life science?
The hydrologic cycle describes the pilgrimage of water as water
molecules make their way from the Earth's surface to the atmosphere, and
back again. This gigantic system, powered by energy from the sun, is a
continuous exchange of moisture between the oceans, the atmosphere,
and the land.
Why is the hydrologic cycle of importance to the oceans?
Not only do the oceans provide evaporated water to the water cycle,
they also allow water to move all around the globe as ocean currents.
Oceans are the storehouses of water nature uses to run the water cycle.
What is hydrologic cycle essay?
HYDROLOGIC CYCLE The hydrologic cycle is a constant movement
of water above, on, and below the earth's surface. It is a cycle that
replenishes ground water supplies. It begins as water vaporizes into the
atmosphere from vegetation, soil, lakes, rivers, snowfields and oceans-a
process called evapotranspiration.
What is another word for hydrologic cycle? water cycle
What is an example of hydrologic?
In science, anything hydrologic has something to do with water or the
effects of water on land. A devastating flood is an example of a hydrologic
disaster.
How many stages are there in water cycle?
What are the major 4 steps in the water cycle? The major 4 steps are
evaporation of water, then condensation, precipitation and collection. The
sun evaporates water sources and contributes to the formation of water
vapor.
What are the 11 different types of movements of water in the hydrologic
cycle?
The water cycle processes involve evaporation, condensation,
precipitation, interception, infiltration, percolation, transpiration, runoff,
and storage.
Where does the water cycle start?
The water cycle begins with evaporation. It is a process where water
at the surface turns into water vapors. Water absorbs heat energy from the
sun and turns into vapors. Water bodies like the oceans, the seas, the lakes
and the river bodies are the main source of evaporation.
What powers the water cycle?
The sun is what makes the water cycle work. The sun provides what
almost everything on Earth needs to go—energy, or heat.
How does the hydrologic cycle move water through the environment?

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 Water moves between the atmosphere and the surface through
evaporation, evapotranspiration, and precipitation. Water moves across the
surface through snowmelt, runoff, and streamflow. Water moves into the
ground through infiltration and groundwater recharge. Underground,
groundwater flows within aquifers.
Why is the water cycle important to humans?
But water is also constantly moving through another cycle -- the
human water cycle -- that powers our homes, hydrates our bodies, irrigates
our crops and processes our waste. The tight connection between water,
food and energy makes them dependent on one another.
What is the main source of water?
There are two primary sources of water – surface water and
groundwater. The primary water sources used for drinking, cooking,
washing, farming, and other commercial uses are surface water,
groundwater, and collected rainwater. (Atmospheric, dews, selected trees
and vegies, recyclable waters, ice and snow)
How do humans impact the water cycle?
Humans directly change the dynamics of the water cycle through
dams constructed for water storage, and through water withdrawals for
industrial, agricultural, or domestic purposes. Climate change is expected
to additionally affect water supply and demand.
What is the importance of water cycle essay?
The water cycle is an extremely important process because it enables
the availability of water for all living organisms and regulates weather
patterns on our planet. If water didn't naturally recycle itself, we would run
out of clean water, which is essential to life.
What is water cycle explain in 100 words?
The water cycle is the continuous exchange of different forms of
water in nature. It has also named as hydrological cycle. Water changes its
shape through the process of evaporation, condensation and precipitation.
Water is so important to our life that we call it 'our life'. We use water
massively in our daily life.
What are the different types of hydrological?
Hydrology subdivides into surface water hydrology, groundwater
hydrology (hydrogeology), and marine hydrology. Domains of hydrology
include hydrometeorology, surface hydrology, hydrogeology, drainage-
basin management, and water quality.
What is the hydrological cycle in one sentence?
The hydrological cycle of the earth is the sum total of all processes in
which water moves from the land and ocean surface to the atmosphere and
back in form of precipitation.
What age is the water cycle? sixth grade
The water cycle isn't introduced as a learning standard until the sixth
grade, according to the Next Generation Science Standards developed in
partnership with 26 states. Children as young as kindergarten, however,
are expected to learn about the different forms that water can take, such as
rain or snow.

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What are the three main parts to the hydrological cycle?
The hydrologic cycle starts with evaporation. The sun evaporates
surface water into vapor. Energy from the sun and interior powers the
hydrologic cycle. Water vapor condenses and precipitates. Water runs off
the surface into streams and reservoirs.
What are 3 types of flowing water?
Within a stream channel, three types flow can be observed:
Laminar flow - water flow in the stream is not altered in its direction.
Water flows as parallel molecular streams.
Turbulent flow - water flows as discrete eddies and vortices. Caused
by channel topography and friction.
Helical flow - spiral flow in a stream.
What are the 3 basic motions of ocean water?
Ocean waters have three kinds of movements: Waves, Tides and
Currents. When the water on the surface of the ocean rises and falls, they
are called waves. Streams which flow constantly in a definite direction on
the surface of the ocean are called ocean currents.
What is the end of the water cycle?
There is no start or end to the water cycle, but for explanation
purposes we will start at the sun. Solar radiation from the sun heats the
ocean and causes evaporation. This water vapor then enters the
atmosphere. As it reaches the upper atmosphere, it cools and condenses
forming clouds.
What is the final step of the water cycle?
The third and final step of the water cycle is precipitation.
Precipitation includes all water that falls from the sky, both in liquid and
frozen form, which reaches the ground.
What causes rain?
What causes rain? Clouds are made of water droplets. Within a cloud,
water droplets condense onto one another, causing the droplets to grow.
When these water droplets get too heavy to stay suspended in the cloud,
they fall to Earth as rain.
What are 3 facts about the water cycle?
There is the same amount of water on Earth as there was when the
Earth was formed. The water from your faucet could contain molecules that
dinosaurs drank. Water is composed of two elements: Hydrogen and
Oxygen.
Genesis Chapter 1
1 In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth.
2 And the earth was without form, and void; and darkness was upon the
face of the deep. And the Spirit of God moved upon the face of the
waters.
3 And God said, Let there be light: and there was light.
4 And God saw the light, that it was good: and God divided the light from
the darkness.

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5 And God called the light Day, and the darkness he called Night. And the
evening and the morning were the first day.
6 And God said, Let there be a firmament in the midst of the waters, and
let it divide the waters from the waters.
7 And God made the firmament, and divided the waters which were under
the firmament from the waters which were above the firmament: and it
was so.
8 And God called the firmament Heaven. And the evening and the
morning were the second day.
9 And God said, Let the waters under the heaven be gathered together
unto one place, and let the dry land appear: and it was so.
10 And God called the dry land Earth; and the gathering together of the
waters called he Seas: and God saw that it was good.
11 And God said, Let the earth bring forth grass, the herb yielding seed,
and the fruit tree yielding fruit after his kind, whose seed is in itself,
upon the earth: and it was so.
12 And the earth brought forth grass, and herb yielding seed after his kind,
and the tree yielding fruit, whose seed was in itself, after his kind: and
God saw that it was good.
13 And the evening and the morning were the third day.
14 And God said, Let there be lights in the firmament of the heaven to
divide the day from the night; and let them be for signs, and for
seasons, and for days, and years:
15 And let them be for lights in the firmament of the heaven to give light
upon the earth: and it was so.
16 And God made two great lights; the greater light to rule the day, and the
lesser light to rule the night: he made the stars also.
17 And God set them in the firmament of the heaven to give light upon the
earth,
18 And to rule over the day and over the night, and to divide the light from
the darkness: and God saw that it was good.
19 And the evening and the morning were the fourth day.
20 And God said, Let the waters bring forth abundantly the moving
creature that hath life, and fowl that may fly above the earth in the open
firmament of heaven.
21 And God created great whales, and every living creature that moveth,
which the waters brought forth abundantly, after their kind, and every
winged fowl after his kind: and God saw that it was good.
22 And God blessed them, saying, Be fruitful, and multiply, and fill the
waters in the seas, and let fowl multiply in the earth.
23 And the evening and the morning were the fifth day.

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24 And God said, Let the earth bring forth the living creature after his kind,
cattle, and creeping thing, and beast of the earth after his kind: and it
was so.
25 And God made the beast of the earth after his kind, and cattle after their
kind, and every thing that creepeth upon the earth after his kind: and
God saw that it was good.
26 And God said, Let us make man in our image, after our likeness: and let
them have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air,
and over the cattle, and over all the earth, and over every creeping thing
that creepeth upon the earth.
27 So God created man in his own image, in the image of God created he
him; male and female created he them.
28 And God blessed them, and God said unto them, Be fruitful, and
multiply, and replenish the earth, and subdue it: and have dominion
over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over every
living thing that moveth upon the earth.
29 And God said, Behold, I have given you every herb bearing seed, which
is upon the face of all the earth, and every tree, in the which is the fruit
of a tree yielding seed; to you it shall be for meat.
30 And to every beast of the earth, and to every fowl of the air, and to every
thing that creepeth upon the earth, wherein there is life, I have given
every green herb for meat: and it was so.
31 And God saw every thing that he had made, and, behold, it was very
good. And the evening and the morning were the sixth day.
Genesis Chapter 2
1 Thus the heavens and the earth were finished, and all the host of them.
2 And on the seventh day God ended his work which he had made; and he
rested on the seventh day from all his work which he had made.
3 And God blessed the seventh day, and sanctified it: because that in it he
had rested from all his work which God created and made.
4 These are the generations of the heavens and of the earth when
they were created , in the day that the LORD God made the earth and
the heavens,
5 And every plant of the field before it was in the earth, and every herb of
the field before it grew: for the LORD God had not caused it to rain upon
the earth, and there was not a man to till the ground.
6 But there went up a mist from the earth, and watered the whole
face of the ground.
Mist --- a cloud of tiny water droplets suspended in the atmosphere at
or near the earth's surface that limits visibility (to a lesser extent than
fog; strictly, with visibility remaining above 1 km (1,100 yards)).

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7 And the LORD God formed man of the dust of the ground, and
breathed into his nostrils the breath of life; and man became a living
soul.
8 And the LORD God planted a garden eastward in Eden; and there he put
the man whom he had formed.
9 And out of the ground made the LORD God to grow every tree that is
pleasant to the sight, and good for food; the tree of life also in the midst
of the garden, and the tree of knowledge of good and evil.
10 And a river went out of Eden to water the garden ; and from thence
it was parted, and became into four heads.
11 The name of the first is Pison : that is it which compasseth the whole
land of Havilah, where there is gold;

12 And the gold of that land is good: there is bdellium and the onyx
stone.
13 And the name of the second river is Gihon : the same is it that
compasseth the whole land of Ethiopia.
14 And the name of the third river is Hiddekel: that is it which goeth
toward the east of Assyria. And the fourth river is Euphrates.

Genesis Chapter 6
1 And, behold, I, even I, do bring a flood of waters upon the earth, to
destroy all flesh, wherein is the breath of life, from under heaven; and
every thing that is in the earth shall die.
Genesis Chapter 7
12 And the rain was upon the earth forty days and forty nights.
17 And the flood was forty days upon the earth; and the waters increased,
and bare up the ark, and it was lift up above the earth.
18 And the waters prevailed, and were increased greatly upon the earth;
and the ark went upon the face of the waters.
19 And the waters prevailed exceedingly upon the earth; and all the high
hills, that were under the whole heaven, were covered.
20 Fifteen cubits upward did the waters prevail; and the mountains were
covered.
21 And all flesh died that moved upon the earth, both of fowl, and of cattle,
and of beast, and of every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth, and
every man:
22 All in whose nostrils was the breath of life, of all that was in the dry land,
died.
23 And every living substance was destroyed which was upon the face of
the ground, both man, and cattle, and the creeping things, and the fowl of

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the heaven; and they were destroyed from the earth: and Noah only
remained alive, and they that were with him in the ark.
24 And the waters prevailed upon the earth an hundred and fifty days.

Genesis Chapter 8
1 And God remembered Noah, and every living thing, and all the cattle that
was with him in the ark: and God made a wind to pass over the earth,
and the waters asswaged;
2 The fountains also of the deep and the windows of heaven were
stopped, and the rain from heaven was restrained;
3 And the waters returned from off the earth continually: and after the end
of the hundred and fifty days the waters were abated.
4 And the ark rested in the seventh month, on the seventeenth day of the
month, upon the mountains of Ararat.
5 And the waters decreased continually until the tenth month: in the tenth
month, on the first day of the month, were the tops of the mountains
seen.
6 And it came to pass at the end of forty days, that Noah opened the
window of the ark which he had made:
7 And he sent forth a raven, which went forth to and fro, until the waters
were dried up from off the earth.
8 Also he sent forth a dove from him, to see if the waters were abated
from off the face of the ground;
9 But the dove found no rest for the sole of her foot, and she returned
unto him into the ark, for the waters were on the face of the whole earth:
then he put forth his hand, and took her, and pulled her in unto him into
the ark.
10 And he stayed yet other seven days; and again he sent forth the dove
out of the ark;
11 And the dove came in to him in the evening; and, lo, in her mouth was an
olive leaf pluckt off: so Noah knew that the waters were abated from off
the earth.
12 And he stayed yet other seven days; and sent forth the dove; which
returned not again unto him any more.
13 And it came to pass in the six hundredth and first year, in the first
month, the first day of the month, the waters were dried up from off the
earth: and Noah removed the covering of the ark, and looked, and,
behold, the face of the ground was dry.
14 And in the second month, on the seven and twentieth day of the month,
was the earth dried.
21 And the LORD smelled a sweet savour; and the LORD said in his heart, I
will not again curse the ground any more for man's sake; for the

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imagination of man's heart is evil from his youth; neither will I again
smite any more every thing living, as I have done.
Genesis Chapter 9
11 And I will establish my covenant with you; neither shall all flesh be cut off any
more by the waters of a flood; neither shall there any more be a flood to destroy
the earth.
14 And it shall come to pass, when I bring a cloud over the earth, that the bow
shall be seen in the cloud:
15 And I will remember my covenant, which is between me and you and every
living creature of all flesh; and the waters shall no more become a flood to
destroy all flesh.
16 And the bow shall be in the cloud; and I will look upon it, that I may remember
the everlasting covenant between God and every living creature of all flesh that
is upon the earth.
17 And God said unto Noah, This is the token of the covenant, which I have
established between me and all flesh that is upon the earth.
28 And Noah lived after the flood three hundred and fifty years.
29 And all the days of Noah were nine hundred and fifty years: and he died.
Why is water important to Earth?
Water is vital for life. Clean freshwater is necessary for drinking and
sanitation, providing for our crops, livestock and industry, and creating and
sustaining the ecosystems on which all life depends.

Activity 3
INTRODUCTION TO HYDROLOGY
TABLE OF CONTENTS
 Introduction
 Water and People
 What is Hydrology?
 What Hydrologists Do
 Surface Water
 Groundwater
 Careers in Hydrology
 Reference

Introduction
Water is one of our most important natural resources. Without it,
there would be no life on earth. The lifestyle we have become accustomed
to depends heavily upon having plenty of cheap, clean water available as
well as an inexpensive, safe way to dispose of it after use.
The supply of water available for our use is limited by nature.
Although there is plenty of water on earth, it is not always in the right
place, at the right time and in the right quality. Adding to the problem is the

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increasing evidence that chemical wastes improperly discarded yesterday
are showing up in our water supplies today.
Today, we face record consumption, uncertain supplies, and growing
demands for protection from flooding and pollution. The health and
economic effects of a shortage of clean water are matters of great concern.
Hydrology has evolved as a science in response to the need to understand
the complex water systems of the earth and help solve water problems.
Hydrologists play a vital role in finding solutions to water problems, and
interesting and challenging careers are available to those who choose to
study hydrology.

Water and People

Water use in the United States in 1980 was estimated to be an average
of 450 billion gallons per day, a 22 percent increase from the 1970 estimate.
Average per capita use was 1,600 gallons per day of fresh water and 400
gallons per day of saline water. Total fresh water consumed (and therefore
no longer available for immediate subsequent use) increased to 100 billion
gallons per day, with irrigation in the western states accounting for about
80 percent of the total consumed. By the year 2000, it has been estimated
that 17 out of 21 water resource regions of the United States will suffer
from inadequate surface and underground (groundwater) water supplies,
flooding, erosion and sedimentation problems, and pollution of both
surface water and groundwater.
Much of our water use is hidden. Think about what you had for lunch.
A hamburger, for example, requires water to raise wheat for the bun, to
grow hay and corn to feed the cattle and to process the bread and beef.
Together with French fries and a soft drink, this all-American meal uses
about 1,500 gallons of water--enough to fill a small swimming pool. How
about your clothes? To grow cotton for a pair of jeans takes about 400
gallons. A shirt requires about 400 gallons. How do you get to school or to
the store? To produce the amount of finished steel in a car has in the past
required about 32,000 gallons of water. Similarly, the steel in a 30-pound
bicycle required 480 gallons. This shows that industry must continue to
strive to reduce water use through manufacturing processes that use less
water, and through recycling of water.

What is Hydrology?
Hydrology is the science that encompasses the occurrence,
distribution, movement and properties of the waters of the earth and
their relationship with the environment within each phase of the
hydrologic cycle. The hydrologic cycle is a continuous process by
which water is purified by evaporation and transported from the
earth's surface (including the oceans) to the atmosphere and back to
the land and oceans. All of the physical, chemical and biological
processes involving water as it travels its various paths in the
atmosphere, over and beneath the earth's surface and through

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growing plants, are of interest to those who study the hydrologic
cycle.
There are many pathways the water may take in its continuous
cycle of falling as rainfall or snowfall and returning to the atmosphere.
It may be captured for millions of years in polar ice caps . It may flow
to rivers and finally to the sea. It may soak into the soil to be
evaporated directly from the soil surface as it dries or be transpired
by growing plants. It may percolate through the soil to groundwater
reservoirs (aquifers) to be stored or it may flow to wells or springs or
back to streams by seepage. They cycle for water may be short, or it
may take millions of years.
People tap the water cycle for their own uses. Water is diverted
temporarily from one part of the cycle by pumping it from the ground or
drawing it from a river or lake. It is used for a variety of activities such as
households, businesses and industries; for irrigation of farms and
parklands; and for production of electric power. After use, water is returned
to another part of the cycle: perhaps discharged downstream or allowed to
soak into the ground.
Used water normally is lower in quality, even after treatment,
which often poses a problem for downstream users. The hydrologist
studies the fundamental transport processes to be able to describe
the quantity and quality of water as it moves through the cycle
(evaporation, precipitation, streamflow, infiltration, groundwater flow,
and other components).
The engineering hydrologist, or water resources engineer, is
involved in the planning, analysis, design, construction and operation
of projects for the control, utilization, and management of water
resources. Water resources problems are also the concern of
meteorologists, oceanographers, geologists, chemists, physicists,
biologists, economists, political scientists, specialists in applied
mathematics and computer science, and engineers in several fields.

What Hydrologists Do
Hydrologists apply scientific knowledge and mathematical
principles to solve water-related problems in society: problems of
quantity, quality and availability. They may be concerned with finding
water supplies for cities or irrigated farms, or controlling river
flooding or soil erosion. Or, they may work in environmental
protection: preventing or cleaning up pollution or locating sites for
safe disposal of hazardous wastes.
Persons trained in hydrology may have a wide variety of job
titles. Some specialize in the study of water in just one part of the

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hydrologic cycle: hydrometeorologists (atmosphere); glaciologists
(glaciers); geomorphologists (landforms); geochemists (groundwater
quality); and hydrogeologists (groundwater). Engineers who study
hydrology include those in agricultural, civil, environmental,
hydraulic, irrigation and sanitary engineering.
Scientists and engineers in hydrology may be involved in both
field investigations and office work. In the field, they may collect basic
data, oversee testing of water quality, direct field crews and work with
equipment. Many jobs require travel, some abroad. A hydrologist may
spend considerable time doing field work in remote and rugged
terrain.
In the office, hydrologists do many things such as interpreting
hydrologic data and performing analyses for determining possible
water supplies. Much of their work relies on computers for organizing,
summarizing and analyzing masses of data. Computers are also used
for modeling studies such as the prediction of flooding and the
consequences of reservoir releases or the effect of leaking
underground oil storage tanks.
The work of hydrologists is as varied as the uses of water and
may range from planning multimillion dollar interstate water projects
to advising homeowners about backyard drainage problems.
What do we mean by prediction?
: To declare or indicate in advance. especially : foretell on the basis of
observation, experience, trend with very minimal scientific reasons.
What is meant by forecasting?
: Estimation of a future events, happenings, or conditions.
: Usually as a result of study and analysis of available pertinent fast data.
: Other words of forecasting --- Prognostication.
What type of word is prophecy?
The foretelling of what is to come. Something that is declared by a
prophet, especially a divinely inspired instruction, or exhortation.

Surface Water
Most cities meet their needs for water by withdrawing it from the
nearest river, lake or reservoir. Hydrologists help cities by collecting
and analyzing the data needed to predict how much water is available
from local supplies and whether it will be sufficient to meet the city's
projected future needs. To do this, hydrologists study records of
rainfall, snowpack depths and river flows that are collected and
compiled by hydrologists in various government, agencies. They
inventory the extent river flow already is being used by others.

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 Managing reservoirs can be quite complex, because they
generally serve many purposes. Reservoirs increase the reliability of
local water supplies. Hydrologists use topographic maps and aerial
photographs to determine where the reservoir shorelines will be and
to calculate reservoir depths and storage capacity. This work ensures
that, even at maximum capacity, no highways, railroads or homes
would be flooded.
Deciding how much water to release and how much to store
depends upon the time of year, flow predictions for the next several
months, and the needs of irrigators and cities as well as downstream
water-users that rely on the reservoir. If the reservoir also is used for
recreation or for generation of hydroelectric power, those
requirements must be considered. Decisions must be coordinated
with other reservoir managers along the river. Hydrologists collect the
necessary information, enter it into a computer, and run computer
models to predict the results under various operating strategies. On
the basis of these studies, reservoir managers can make the best
decision for those involved.
The availability of surface water for swimming, drinking,
industrial or other uses sometimes is restricted because of pollution.
Pollution can be merely an unsightly and inconvenient nuisance, or it
can be an invisible, but deadly, threat to the health of people, plants
and animals.
Hydrologists assist public health officials in monitoring public
water supplies to ensure that health standards are met. When
pollution is discovered, environmental engineers work with
hydrologists in devising the necessary sampling program. Water
quality in estuaries, streams, rivers and lakes must be monitored, and
the health of fish, plants and wildlife along their stretches surveyed.
Related work concerns acid rain and its effects on aquatic life,
and the behavior of toxic metals and organic chemicals in aquatic
environments. Hydrologic and water quality mathematical models are
developed and used by hydrologists for planning and management
and predicting water quality effects of changed conditions. Simple
analyses such as pH, turbidity, and oxygen content may be done by
hydrologists in the field. Other chemical analyses require more
sophisticated laboratory equipment.
In the past, municipal and industrial sewage was a major source of
pollution for streams and lakes. Such wastes often received only minimal
treatment, or raw wastes were dumped into rivers. Today, we are more
aware of the consequences of such actions, and billions of dollars must be

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invested in pollution-control equipment to protect the waters of the earth.
Other sources of pollution are more difficult to identify and control. These
include road deicing salts, storm runoff from urban areas and farmland,
and erosion from construction sites.

Groundwater
Groundwater, pumped from beneath the earth's surface, is often
cheaper, more convenient and less vulnerable to pollution than
surface water. Therefore, it is commonly used for public water
supplies. Groundwater provides the largest source of usable water
storage in the United States. Underground reservoirs contain far more
water than the capacity of all surface reservoirs and lakes, including
the Great Lakes. In some areas, groundwater may be the only option.
Some municipalities survive solely on groundwater.
Hydrologists estimate the volume of water stored underground
by measuring water levels in local wells and by examining geologic
records from well-drilling to determine the extent, depth and thickness
of water-bearing sediments and rocks. Before an investment is made
in full-sized wells, hydrologists may supervise the drilling of test
wells. They note the depths at which water is encountered and collect
samples of soils, rock and water for laboratory analyses.
They may run a variety of geophysical tests on the completed
hole, keeping and accurate log of their observations and test results.
Hydrologists determine the most efficient pumping rate by monitoring
the extent that water levels drop in the pumped well and in its nearest
neighbors. Pumping the well too fast could cause it to go dry or could
interfere with neighboring wells. Along the coast, overpumping can
cause saltwater intrusion. By plotting and analyzing these data,
hydrologists can estimate the maximum and optimum yields of the
well.
Polluted groundwater is less visible, but more insidious and
difficult to clean up, than pollution in rivers and lakes. Groundwater
pollution most often results from improper disposal of wastes on
land. Major sources include industrial and household chemicals and
garbage landfills, industrial waste lagoons, tailings and process
wastewater from mines, oil field brine pits, leaking underground oil storage
tanks and pipelines, sewage sludge and septic systems.
Hydrologists provide guidance in the location of monitoring
wells around waste disposal sites and sample them at regular
intervals to determine if undesirable leachate--contaminated water
containing toxic or hazardous chemicals--is reaching the
groundwater. In polluted areas, hydrologists may collect soil and

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water samples to identify the type and extent of contamination. The
chemical data then are plotted on a map to show the size and
direction of waste movement. In complex situations, computer
modeling of water flow and waste migration provides guidance for a
clean-up program. In extreme cases, remedial actions may require
excavation of the polluted soil.
Today, most people and industries realize that the amount of
money invested in prevention is far less than that of cleanup.
Hydrologists often are consulted for selection of proper sites for new
waste disposal facilities. The danger of pollution is minimized by
locating wells in areas of deep groundwater and impermeable soils.
Other practices include lining the bottom of a landfill with watertight
materials, collecting any leachate with drains, and keeping the landfill
surface covered as much as possible. Careful monitoring is always
necessary.

Careers in Hydrology
Students who plan to become hydrologists need a strong emphasis in
mathematics, statistics, geology, physics, computer science, chemistry and biology. In
addition, sufficient background in other subjects--economics, public finance,
environmental law, government policy--is needed to communicate with experts in these
fields and to understand the implications of their work on hydrology . Communicating
clearly in writing and speech is a basic requirement essential for any professional
person. Hydrologists should be able to work well with people, not only as part of a team
with other scientists and engineers, but also in public relations, whether it be advising
governmental leaders or informing the general public on water issues . Hydrology offers
a variety of interesting and challenging career choices for today and tomorrow. It's a
field worth considering.
Source: Hydrology: The Study of Water and Water Problems A Challenge for Today and
Tomorrow; A publication of the Universities Council on Water Resources
Activity 4
Hydrologic cycle and water balance
1.3 Hydrological cycle and water balance – A global survey
JOACHIM MARCINEK
SUMMARY: The hydrologic cycle is the main phenomenon of hydrology.
Only water, mostly drinking water, will be renewed in this cycle very quick
and continuous. Gigantic quantities of water are present, from which the
hydrologic cycle takes the water. The history of hydrologic cycle is very
long and interesting. The knowledge of hydrologic cycle in form of today
was born in the renaissance. So Leonardo da Vinci is named »father of
the science of water« . Now in beginning of the 20th century E. Brückner
presented the first water balance of the Earth (1905). The newest water
balance is the water balance from R. K. Klige et al. from 1998, published in
2000. She is shown also in a scheme of hydrologic cycle.

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 All water on our planet moves in a global cycle. The sun’s energy and
gravitation continuously modify the geographic position and physical state
of water. The hydrological cycle is based on the law of nature and is a
permanent and self-contained process of circulation of water on the globe.
The total quantity of water is nearly constant. Water entering the
cycle (juvenile water from volcanic eruptions) corresponds to the quantity
of water that is leaving the hydrological cycle by ways of chemical binding
(vadose water). The definition of a water balance is the interaction –
whether in a specified area or on the entire planet – of factors such as
precipitation (P), return (R), evaporation (E), reserve and consumption. The
interaction of all the individual elements of the hydrological
system is the foundation for the science of water-hydrology. How
much water is there in the hydrological cycle?
The science of water has been conducting research on this important
question for over 100 years. No correct answer has so far been found.

The water cycle a long, but interesting story »The current of

water from the mountains down to the valleys, from land to sea –
we witness its endless flow, yet sea levels don’t rise and wells
and streams never run dry.
The reason behind this natural phenomenon, the result of permanent
integration and interaction of our planet’s atmosphere, hydrosphere, and
lithosphere is the hydrological cycle. From the vastness of our oceans
(361.1 million km²) it acts upon the much smaller continents (148.9 million
km²). By extending the cycle from the sea over to the land the continents
are being integrated. The cycle is then closed through the return flow from
rivers to the oceans and water vapour moving from land to sea. Today it is
common knowledge that the hydrological cycle is driven by the sun’s
energy. For a very long time, however, people had no understanding of the
origins of the global flow of water and the hydrological cycle.
Thales of Milet (600 B.C.), the ancient Greek philosopher, realised,
that water is the most important factor for the existence of life on the
planet. He believed in a subterranean river system connecting to the
Okeanos, the ocean – as did other ancient Greek scholars. Water was to be
renewed while passing through it before reaching the seas. He considered
the world to be a disk swimming on top of the ocean. The continuous
renewal of water was a movement of sea water through it. He believed that
sea water, while moving through the disk-like Earth, turned to freshwater.
Limestone with its maze of underground riverbeds, always
resurfacing and disappearing deep down below, allowed for these views to
emerge. No wonder that such ideas dominated ancient Greek thought.
Other Greek scholars believed, that water was partially renewed by
precipitation while running down towards the sea. But they also shared the
view that rivers were partially fed by underground water reservoirs that

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received their water from the sea. They believed in the existence of long
underground river systems connected to surface rivers.
Even Aristotle, the most famous ancient Greek scientist (384–322
B.C.) rejected the idea that precipitation and the seeping in of water into the
ground could create a renewal process or produce groundwater. He was
surrounded by underground caves and therefore thought that water was
formed in hollows, where it cooled down and separated from the air
(condensation).
Finally, Seneca (4 B.C.–65 A.C.) contested the valuable idea brought
forward by his contemporary Vitruv whereby all spring water should be
considered as rainwater that has seeped into the ground.
In medieval times a number of original ideas appeared. They were
added to the ancient views still circulating. Permitted were only those
findings that corresponded to the Bible which was considered sacrosanct.
It was believed that the waters of Paradise were the source of all rivers.
People liked to think of underground streams linked to the Garden of Eden.
But gradually scholars returned to the idea of their ancient masters – it is
the ocean that feeds all rivers and streams.
There is a passage in the Bible, where in Ecclesiastes I, 7 it says: All
streams run into the sea, yet the sea never overflows. Back to the
place from which the streams ran they return to run again«. Progress in
hydrology had to wait.
The idea of a sea that is unknown, a sea that is the source of all seas
allowed for an abundance of speculation. There were discussions on
subterranean channel connections, evaporation of sea water, its
subsequent precipitation, infiltration and collection in huge underground
hollows.
The well-respected German medieval scholar Albertus Magnus (Graf
von Bollstädt, 1193–1280 A.C.), not unlike Aristotle before him, was unable
to remain clear of the popular beliefs of his time.
It was only during the Rennaissance period (around 1500), when
Leonardo da Vinci discovered the different features of the
hydrological cycle. But there was no response to his findings. Finally
views changed, when de la Métherie put forward his principle on the
hydrological cycle which is still valid today (de la Métherie-Eschenbach:
Theory of the Earth, ll. Leipzig, 1797).
And during the 19th century the view that the renewal of
continental water was due to the hydrological cycle became more
and more popular. It now had its place in the geographic literature (see
Daniel, H.A., Handbuch der Geographie, Leipzig 1866, where he explains
the hydrological cycle in contemporary fashion).

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 Thus, with the discovery of the hydrological cycle, the origin of water
on land was known MURRAY (1887) was the first to publish a study which
lead the way for subsequent research. He clearly explained the
hydrological cycle and water balance for the land surfaces as well as for
the entire planet. E. BRÜCKNER (1887, 1900) confirmed Murray’s findings
by contributing extensive scientific proof. In his research, BRÜCKNER
found a formula that represented the Earth’s water balance by creating
water equations for land and sea each. Eventually he managed to
determine the quantities of water (precipitation and evaporation for land
and sea, as well as return from the land) to create a water balance for the
entire planet.
Hydrological cycle and water balance research By the end of the 19th
century the understanding of the Earth’s hydrological cycle had
progressed enough to not only generally recognise its cyclic nature, but to
also profoundly discuss and find answers to what a water balance is and
what the quantities affected by it are.
Even WOEIKOF (1887) believed, that there had to be a balance in the
quantity of waters within the hydrological cycle. He estimated, that one
quarter of the precipitation returned by land to the sea and three-quarters
evaporated.
Eventually he limited his statement by adding, »...or was partially lost
for the circulation of waters« Anschließend engte WOEIKOF aber diese
Aussage mit den Wortenein »...oder auch teilweise für die
Wasserzirkulation verloren gehen« (1887, 1. Teil, S. 50).
MURRAY, in contrary, was far more consistent, when he published an
article discussing total annual precipitation on the planet’s land surfaces
and how it related to annual return by rivers. He examined a number of
potential factors that could have an impact on the global water balance,
gave them their due place in the system and excluded those he considered
insignificant. As a consequence his work resulted in the first textual
formulation of the hydrological cycle and the water balance for land areas
as well as the whole planet.
By using a precipitation chart put together by E. LOOMIS (1882 or
1883), MURRAY calculated the average annual precipitation on land and –
using two methods – the average annual return from the land to the sea.
In the same year (1887) BRÜCKNER commented on MURRAY’s work
in the German Meteorological Journal (p.63/64) and added two
amendments. Based on MURRAY’s work (1) he calculated the return from
land in belts of 10° latitude. And according to the way how MURRAY had
described the global water system, he was now in the position (2) to
determine the difference between evaporation from the land and
precipitation and return in belts of 10° latitude.
In 1900 BRÜCKNER estimated the relationship between groundwater
and river water as follows (p. 91): »It is difficult to estimate the importance
of submarine springs.

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 The role they play, however, is minor as surfacing of upper
groundwater along coastlines has to happen on the same level as the
return of river water to the oceans – on sea level. Groundwater and river
water mix in the last moment«
MURRAY’s and BRÜCKNER’s view on groundwater was nearly
unanimous. Because of its interaction with surface water,
groundwater was generally seen as part of the total runoff from
the rivers.
Much more important for a proper balance between oceans and land
areas was another statement in BRÜCKNER’s article (1900, p.93): »The
quantity of water contained in the oceans must be considered
constant for longer periods of time. Otherwise, the water level
would fluctuate to such an extent, that it could be easily
observed. Thus the quantity of water returned to the ocean must be
equal to the loss by evaporation.
The last part of the quotation is identical with MURRAY. In the first
part of his quotation Brückner raises a point that until today remains
important for the calculation of water balances between oceans and land
surfaces. The related footnote is as follows: »If there was a reduction to
oceanic waters equal to 2% of average annual rainfall onto the Earth’s land
areas, or 20 mm of rain, the overall water level would sink just over 1cm, in
10 years around 10 cm. Even a decrease of a fracture (1/4–1/5) of that
amount could hardly have escaped our observation.
In 1905 BRÜCKNER managed for the first time to express the global
water system by creating a basic formula for the land surfaces and the
oceans each while still showing the interaction between the two. Today
German literature is using different symbols shown in parentheses in the
quotations.
In order to show a balance of the hydrological cycle, the following
items need to be taken into consideration: Annual evaporation from the sea
(=EM)
Annual rainfall over the sea (=PM) Annual amount of water vapour
moving from sea to land (=VM) Annual evaporation from the land (=EL)
Annual rainfall over the land (=(PL) Annual amount of water vapour moving
from land to sea (=VL) Annual return of rivers to the ocean F (=RL) (All
these items are expressed in cubic kilometres of liquid water).
If we can assume that the hydrological cycle is in a stationary state,
then those seven items are related in such a way that the knowledge of
three of them allows for the calculation of two others. The two remaining
can be entirely ignored. Rainfall on the sea equals evaporation on the sea,
reduced by the amount of vapour moving from the sea to the land and
augmented by the amount of vapour moving from the land to the sea.
Rainfall on the land equals the amount of evaporation moving from the sea

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to the land, augmented by the amount of evaporation on the land and
reduced by the amount of vapour moving from the sea to the land. The
rivers return water to the sea that has moved as vapour from the sea onto
the land. That return does, however, not constitute the entire quantity of
water returning to the ocean. There is water in the form of vapour in the
atmosphere, that is moving from the land to the sea (Dl) . The entire amount
of vapour moving from the land to the sea (Dm) is greater than the amount
of water (F) returning with the rivers by the above amount (Dl). Therefore
Dm = F + Dl. To put it differently: the annual return of rivers to the oceans
equals the difference between the quantity of water vapour moving from
the sea onto the land, and from the land into the sea.
The balance of the hydrological cycle can therefore be expressed as
follows:
Rm = Vm – Dm + De = Vm – (Dm – Dl) = Vm – F (1)
Rl = Vl + Dm – Dl = Vl + (Dm – Dl) = Vl + F (2)
Expressed in symbols used today in German literature, the basic
formula for the sea according to BRÜCKNER (1905) is as follows:
NM = VM – AL
and for the land:
NL = VL + AL
As the last variable in calculating the planet’s water balance,
BRÜCKNER eventually added the average annual evaporation from the
ocean’s surfaces. In line with the above equation for the sea the
precipitation onto the sea surfaces can be determined by subtracting the
return from land areas.
By determining the evaporation from the sea and using long term
annual averages, Brückner, for the first time, was able to calculate the
quantities of water circulating in the hydrological cycle. (see Table 1.3-1):
Evaporation from the sea 384,000 km³
Rainfall on the sea 59,000 km³
River water to the oceans 25,000 km³
Evaporation from the land 97,000 km³
Rainfall on the land 122,000 km³
Our endeavour to calculate a balance about the hydrologic cycle as
illustrated above, might, to some people, appear rather daring. In fact will I
have to repeat that I do not claim to be extremely precise as related
documents are still too uncertain. More precise information will have to be
found in the future... Our results should not be considered other than an
initial approximation

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 Quantities of water on the planet Until now we have not been able to
determine with precision the quantities of water on our planet, although the
total amount has remained constant. Knowledge about the quantity of
water present on our planet is based on either approximation or estimation.
By taking into consideration different approaches, we will present values
(see Table 1.3-1) that have been mentioned by KLIGE et al. (1998, p. 339).
Balance for the Earth’s water system There are two requirements for the
average annual water system of our planet and that of the oceans and the
land surfaces to be in balance:
- the climate of the Earth must remain the same for many years
- although for a shorter period than a geological period
- the average sea level must remain constant over a longer period of
time. The second requirement already follows the first one.
BRÜCKNER had already referred with emphasis to the second
requirement (1900, p.93).
Following the equations for the sea and land water balances by
BRÜCKNER (1905, p.437) and taking into account the above requirements,
the average annual evaporation on the Earth’s surface must equal the
average annual rainfall on its surface. The basic formula for the water
system is therefore
VE = NE E = Earth’s surface (Eq. 5)
Whereby, V = evaporation, N = precipitation and index
BRÜCKNER’s equations show that evaporation as well as precipitation
on the Earth’s surface are each made up of two water system values. These
are the evaporation from sea and land areas (VM and VL) as well as the
precipitation on sea and land areas (NM and NL). It can therefore be said
VE = VM + VL = NE = NM + NL. (Eq. 6)

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 It has so far not been possible to satisfyingly determine VL from
direct measurements of the Earth’s land surfaces. Therefore, when
conducting water balance research, the evaporation from land areas is
usually determined as being the remaining value in the water system
equation for land areas:
VL = NL – AL (Eq. 7)
The difference between precipitation and evaporation for land and
oceanic areas must be balanced, to make sure that there is an overall
balance on our planet. Excess water from the main land will be returned
through the resulting return AL to the ocean, so that
AL = NL – VL (8)
On the other hand evaporation is exceeding precipitation. It therefore
reaches into the atmosphere from where it is moved over the continents.
There it condenses and falls down as precipitation (see Chapter 1.5). This
closes the global water cycle.
Water balances for the Earth

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 The long line of water system balances for the Earth (Table 1.3-1) is
headed by that of BRÜCKNER’s first calculations (1905). Another one,
published by the writer in 1966, contains a 1964 calculation of return from
land areas. It resulted in a value of 33,500 km³ that had to be corrected in
1965 due to new return data for the Amazon, Orinoco and Brahmaputra to
36,500 km³. When V. M. KOTLJAKOV (1970, in L’vovié 1971a) announced a
new return value for the Antarctic inland ice of 2,200 km³, the overall value
was again modified and is now at 37,500 km³. Although this number is
close to the average value of all calculations in the table, return data
especially in recent calculations vary tremendously.
The value given for precipitation on land areas is based on
calculations by BROOKS & HUNT (1930) and has been rounded up by E.
Reichel (1952) to 100,000 km³. As of 1934 the value of 99,000 and 100,000
km³ often appears in the balances. Most recent calculations, however, put
that value higher.
The values given by BUDYKO and others (1956) as well as ALBRECHT
(1960) for the evaporation from sea surfaces nearly correspond. In 1966
and in this article the writer made use of Albrecht’s value. The difference
between evaporation from sea surfaces and return from land surfaces
equals the precipitation on to sea surfaces.
We especially want to draw attention to the water system balance of
BUDYKO (1963, also see DYCK 1968). With the Earth’s basic formula (Tab
1.3-1, column NE = VE) he obtained the same result - although using a
different method – as W. MEINARDUS (1934).
For reference purposes the table also contains values for the global
hydrological cycle, that have been established by means of an advanced
global climatic model (ECHAM4_OPYC). The numbers are more or less
within the range of conventional calculations. Surprisingly, in both
calculations the hydrological cycle is not closed. Calculations for the last
decade of the 21st century point to an increase in the circulation of global
waters due to a possible climate change (see Chapter 3.1.3).
Final remarks
Today we have a basic understanding of the global hydrologic cycle .
Nevertheless, we are still lacking knowledge not only of some of the
details, but also of the precise definition of its basic values. Even though
there are many new ways to do research, the error margin is still quite
high. Of major importance is the correct proportional representation
defining the hydrological cycle. In that sense all approaches included in
the table are «correct». For instance the relationship NM/VM only slightly
oscillates around the average value of 0.9, whereas the ratio VL/NL =
0.64±0.06 moves between 0.52 and 0.90. This means that none of the
estimations represented in the table can be recommended. With respect to
the amount of data introduced and method applied, preference should be
given to the most recent calculations.

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 Activity 5
Watershed Characteristics
A watershed is an area of land that forms the drainage system for a
stream or river. This area collects surface water from land within specific
topographic boundaries (such as hills, valleys, mountains, and other
landscape characteristics).
What is a watershed?
A watershed is an area of land
that forms the drainage system for a
stream or river.
This area collects surface water
from land within specific
topographic boundaries (such as
hills, valleys, mountains, and other
landscape characteristics).
Watersheds are characterized by the location of the pour-
point, or mouth, of the main flow of water to which all the other
points of flow join and eventually drain from the watershed. Some
of the rainfall in the area of a watershed will flow on top of the ground or
find its way via underground water paths to the stream in the watershed.
Some of the water will evaporate into the atmosphere, be used by people or
plants, or be held in the soil or underground. Watersheds are very dynamic
places becoming alternately wet and dry, due to high water and low rainfall
conditions, with many differences in quality and flow depending upon the
season, the year, and even with what happens during an individual storm.
This is best illustrated by examining the components of the hydrologic
cycle.
Within a watershed, activities on the land interact with the
natural hydrologic cycle. Important nutrients and chemicals are
circulated throughout the watershed's system and supply a basic
nutritional source for both aquatic (fish, aquatic insects, etc.) and
terrestrial (birds, small mammals, etc.) species. People also use
these environments to grow food, build their homes and
businesses, and travel from one place to another. Where and how
these human activities occur have major impacts on the
movement of water, water quality, and the quality of the natural
habitat which remains. Ideally, we wish to have watersheds that
continue to function as healthy ecosystems and serve as
productive systems for people.
Many different attributes are needed to maintain a high
quality, biotically rich, functioning watershed. Healthy

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watersheds provide stable habitats for both biological diversity
and human recreational uses. These stable systems are capable
of adapting to environmental
changes over time and are good
indicators of the quality of the
surrounding habitat. The following
characteristics are critical for a
healthy watershed:
Riparian Habitat & Protected Bank
Riparian areas, areas along stream
banks, are covered by transitional vegetation and act as buffers between a
waterway and the surrounding area. These grasses, forbs, and trees reduce
bank erosion by anchoring the soil. These buffer areas also function as a
wildlife corridor and enable safer and more efficient wildlife migrations.
Good Water Quality
Good watersheds usually function
best with low turbidity, minimal
suspended sediment in the water, and
infrequent shifts in water levels.
Frequency and intensity of fluctuating
water levels are also very important
considerations.
Adequate Shade
A riparian canopy provides
structure and shade, which decreases
the amount of penetrable sunlight. This
decrease results in less extreme
temperature gradients of the surface and sub-surface water. Cooler water
can hold more oxygen for aquatic species to use.
Meanders
Meanders in a river are turns in the
banks that result in a winding course
for the waterway. These meanders slow
the water down and allow for deposition
of sediment and other suspended
material on their banks. As healthy rivers and streams age, they will
naturally form more meanders.
Biological Diversity
Biodiversity is extremely valuable
to both the natural order of the system
and human recreation and non-
consumptive uses. Different types of
internal habitat and structure diversity,

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such as pool and riffle sequences and vegetation, also help to diversify the
system and provide for increased stability.
Best Management Practices
Best management practices (BMPs) are effective practices
that act to reduce the nonpoint pollution load in water systems
and decrease the velocity of runoff after storm events. These
practices are usually created and maintained for long-term use
and coincide with the local water quality standards for a
particular area. Selection and suitability of a BMP should be
based on: site specific conditions, type of land use activity, the
physical makeup of the watershed, and consideration of the
pollutant(s) involved.
Conservation Tillage and No-Till
Conservation tillage is an
agricultural BMP that provides long-
term crop residues and vegetation
on croplands. This practice greatly
reduces erosion and surface runoff
of heavy metals and pesticides, which may reside in higher concentrations
in the surrounding soil. No-plow is a similar practice that minimizes the
spring influx of sediment into nearby waters by anchoring the soil to the
plant root systems. Either way, by retaining crop residue and vegetative
cover, this practice reduces time and energy on the farmer, it delays the
warming and drying of the soil, and overall maintains a higher quality of
soil.
Contour Strip Cropping
Various rowcrops and hay in
alternating strips planted side-by-
side can reduce soil loss of about
50% compared to the same rotation
contoured on its own. This practice
is effective in that it provides rotated crops in different parts of the soil
which act to strengthen the soil characteristics over time by not continually
depleting the resource based on a monoculture. This process also
decreases erosion and runoff and increases the stability of the local soil.
Livestock Husbandry
Simple practices can be
implemented to offset livestock impacts
on nearby streams and rivers. By
providing an alternative water source,
for example, livestock would not be
forced to wade in the streams and
therefore would not be as likely to
contribute to excess nutrient input from

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wastes. Large concentrations of wastes can speed up
eutrophication of a stream, which will eventually decrease the
effectiveness of the watershed's sustainability. Another effect of
livestock in waterways is the increased potential for erosion by
streambank deterioration from trampling and compaction. An
alternative to better manage for the watershed could include
creating a bridge to connect pastures where the animals can
easily cross the stream without directly interacting with the water
system.

Urban and Suburban

Vegetative Buffers
Filter Strips
Filter strips are wide
areas of vegetation that act
to intercept runoff. They can
consist of any type of dense
vegetation from woodlands
to grass and can remove various pollutants, such as heavy metals,
sediment loads, and excess
organic materials.
Grassed Swales
Swales are shallow
channel depressions where
runoff flows. These swales
slow the flow of the runoff
water and allow particulates
to settle out and water to infiltrate into the soil. These swales can
effectively remove small amounts of excess nutrients and heavy metals.
Constructed Wetlands
Constructed wetlands
are often used in mitigation
of other areas that lost
wetlands due to
development. Both natural
and constructed wetland
areas are saturated for
sufficient time periods and
are able to support unique vegetation adapted for life in such conditions.
Wetlands are extremely efficient in filtering sediment, nutrients, and some
heavy metals from storm
water runoff and overflow
of nearby water systems.

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Stormwater Retention
Structures are often built in residential areas to alleviate stormwater
runoff and retain or detain
precipitation from storm
events. Detention ponds are
basins that temporarily store
runoff from a site and release
it at a controlled rate to
minimize downstream
flooding. These ponds are
quite effective for pollutant removal, especially suspended sediments, if
well designed.
Infiltration Trenches
These trenches are shallow, usually three to eight feet deep, and
backfilled with gravel to create underground reservoirs. Runoff, therefore,
is diverted to the trenches and percolates into the subsoil. Such a practice
effectively removes sediments and similar particles from stormwater
runoff. This practice is commonly used in both commercial and residential
areas.
Short-term Construction
Construction sites, while
under development, can
implement many BMPs to
reduce runoff, decrease
pollutant loads to nearby
water systems, and decrease
the amount of soil washed
from the site. Simple
practices, such as setting up
straw bales, silt fences, or
even filter fabrics can act to slow runoff and retain sediment during storm
events. Other practices, such as sediment basins to detain runoff or
stabilizing entrances of construction, further decrease sediment and
pollutant runoff.
Maintenance Practices
Citizens, commercial businesses, and even local and state agencies
can implement and maintain efficient BMPs by taking the conservative
approach to many everyday landscaping events. For example, sufficiently
seeding grass to promote long-term stabilization of soil surfaces and
planting wildflower cover (a practice used by many highway departments
to provide aesthetically pleasing vegetation along roadways) greatly
reduces the potential for erosion by securing the surfaces with plant roots.
Other practices such as sodding and mulching can also be applied and
have similar effective results.

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