Motivation

Robbins, Judge, and Vohra
Organizational Behavior
14th Edition
Motivation Concepts
Kelli J. Schutte
William Jewell College
Copyright © 2012 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd
Authorized adaptation from the United States edition of Organizational
Behavior, 14e 7-0
Defining Motivation
The result of the interaction between the individual and the
situation.
The processes that account for an individual’s

intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward
attaining a goal – specifically, an organizational goal.
Three key elements: DIP

– Direction – effort that is channeled toward, and
consistent with, organizational goals
– Intensity – how hard a person tries
– Persistence – how long a person can maintain effort

Behavior, 14e 7-1
Defining motivation
 Motivation can be defined as willingness to expand

energy to achieve a goal or reward.
 Motivation is the process of attempting to influence
others to do your will through the possibility of gain or
reward.
 Physical being, psychological being, emotional being
and spiritual being
Unsatisfied Search Satisfied Reduction

Tension Drives
Needs Behavior Needs of tension
Motivation Process
Behavior, 14e 6-2
Types of Motives
 Primary Motives:
– Unlearned and psychologically based
– Are basic needs of human beings
– Hunger, sleep, shelter, avoidance of pain, maternal concerns.
– Our existence depends on them, but some times these can be sacrificed
for secondary motives e.g. keeping fast for religious purpose.
 Secondary Motives:
– These arise after primary motive, these are of secondary importance
for human being.
– Power, security, status, achievement and affiliation motives etc.
 General Motives:
– These are neither primary motives nor secondary motives
– Curiosity, manipulation and activity motives
• Affection motive
Behavior, 14e 6-3
Theories of Motivation
• Content / Need-Value-Motive theories
– Explain nature of motivation in terms of the types of needs
that people experience
• Process / Cognitive Choice theories

– Concerned with cognitive or mental activities, or role of
thinking and values in motivation
• Contemporary theories

Behavior, 14e 6-4
Early (Content) Theories of Motivation
These early theories may not be valid, but they do form the
basis for contemporary theories and are still used by
practicing managers.
1.Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory

2.Clayton Alderfer’s ERG Theory
3.McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
4.Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
5.McClelland’s Theory of Needs

Behavior, 14e 7-5
1. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
There is a hierarchy of five needs. As each need is substantially
satisfied, the next need becomes dominant.
Assumptions Self-Actualization
Higher Order – Individuals cannot
Esteem move to the next
Internal higher level until
Social all needs at the
current (lower)
Lower Order Safety level are satisfied
External Physiological – Must move in
hierarchical order
See E X H I B I T 7-1

Behavior, 14e 7-6
ERG Theory
• ERG Theory (Clayton Alderfer)
– Individual motivation in organization can be understood in
terms of Existence (E), Relatedness (R) and Growth (G) needs.
– These three needs are correspondence to the five needs stated by
Maslow.
Maslow’s Theory ERG Theory
Physiological Existence
& safety needs Needs
Social Relatedness
Esteem&
Growth needs
Self-actualization

Behavior, 14e 6-7
2. McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
 Two distinct views of human beings: Theory X
(basically negative) and Theory Y (positive).
– Managers used a set of assumptions based on their view
– The assumptions molded their behavior toward employees
Theory X Theory Y
• Workers have little • Workers are self-

ambition directed
• Dislike work • Enjoy work
• Avoid responsibility • Accept responsibility
 No empirical evidence to support this theory.

 Self study topic (Theory Z by Dr. William Ouchi)
Behavior, 14e 7-8
3. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
•Satisfaction and dissatisfaction
are not opposites but separate
constructs
•Motivation factors are intrinsic
•Hygiene factors are extrinsic

Behavior, 14e 7-9
Herzberg’s two factors theory
• Hertzberg's two factor theory (Frederick Hertzberg)
Intrinsic conditions
– Attitude at work determines success or failure at job.
Achievement
Recognition
Work itself
Responsibility
Advancement
Growth
Company policy and Adm. 0
Extrinsic conditions
Salary
Quality of Supervision
Interpersonal relations
Working conditions • Satisfaction/Motivation
Job security • No-satisfaction/no-
motivation
• Dissatisfaction/Demotivation
Behavior, 14e 6-10
4. McClelland’s Three Needs Theory
 Need for Achievement (nAch)
– The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of
standards, to strive to succeed
 Need for Power (nPow)
– The need to make others behave in a way that they would
not have behaved otherwise
 Need for Affiliation (nAff)
– The desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships
 People have varying levels of each of the three needs.
– Hard to measure

Behavior, 14e 7-11
Performance Predictions for High-nAch People
 People with a high need for achievement are likely to:

– Prefer to undertake activities with a 50/50 chance of success,
avoiding very low- or high-risk situations
– Be motivated in jobs that offer high degree of personal
responsibility, feedback, and moderate risk
– Not necessarily make good managers – too personal a focus.
Most good general managers are NOT high on nAch
– Need high level of nPow and low nAff for managerial
success
 Good research support, but it is not a very practical
theory

Behavior, 14e 7-12
Contemporary Theories of Motivation
1. Self-Determination Theory
2. Self-Efficacy Theory
– Also known as Social Cognitive Theory or Social
Learning Theory
3. Goal-Setting Theory
– Management by Objectives (MBO)
4. Reinforcement Theory
5. Equity Theory
6. Expectancy Theory

Behavior, 14e 7-13
1. Self-Determination Theory
People prefer to feel they have control over their actions, so
anything that makes a previously enjoyed task feel more like an
obligation than a freely chosen activity will undermine
motivation.
Intrinsic motivation vs extrinsic motivation
Major Implications for Work Rewards
– Intrinsic and extrinsic rewards are not independent
– Extrinsic rewards may decrease intrinsic rewards
– Goal setting is more effective in improving motivation
– Verbal rewards increase intrinsic motivation; tangible rewards
reduce it

Behavior, 14e 7-14
Self determination theory

Behavior, 14e 6-15
2. Edwin Locke’s Goal-Setting Theory
 Basic Premise:
– Specific and difficult goals, with feedback, lead to
higher performance.
– Specific goals produce higher level of output than does
the generalized goals
– SMART goals
– Goal must be …..
• Specific
• Difficult
• Achievable
• Acceptance

Behavior, 14e 7-16
Implementation of Goal-Setting: Management by Objectives
 Management by Objective (MBO)

(by Peter Drucker)
– Goal setting approach based on the belief that
the sub-ordinate, superior participation in
defining and translating overall organizational
objectives into individual objectives, will have a
positive influence on employee’s performance.
– Steps of MBO Approach…….
• Discuss job requirements
• Develop performance objectives
• Discuss objectives
• Determine check points
• Evaluate results
Behavior, 14e 7-17
3. Bandura’s Self-Efficacy Theory
 Self-efficacy is an individual’s belief that he or she is
capable of performing a task.
– Higher efficacy is related to:
• Greater confidence
• Greater persistence in the face of difficulties
• Better response to negative feedback (work harder)
– Self-efficacy complements goal-setting theory
Increased Confidence
Given Hard Goal Higher Performance
Higher Self-Set Goal


Behavior, 14e 7-18
Increasing Self-Efficacy
 Enactive mastery
– Most important source of efficacy
– The more we do work the higher is our self-efficacy
– Gaining relevant experience with task or job
– “Practice makes perfect”
 Vicarious modeling
– Increasing confidence by watching others perform the task
– Most effective when observer sees the model to be similar to him- or herself
 Verbal persuasion
– Motivation through verbal conviction
– When someone praises, motivates you
– Pygmalion and Galatea effects – self-fulfilling prophecies
 Arousal
– Getting “psyched up” – emotionally aroused – to complete task
– Can hurt performance if emotion is not a component of the task
Behavior, 14e 7-19
4. Reinforcement Theory
 Reinforcement means– strengthening
 Similar to goal-setting theory, but focused on a
behavioral approach rather than a cognitive one.
– Behavior is environmentally caused
– Thought (internal cognitive event) is not important
• Feelings, attitudes, and expectations are ignored
– Behavior is controlled by its consequences – reinforcers
– Is not a motivational theory but a means of analysis of
behavior
– Reinforcement strongly influences behavior but is not likely
to be the sole cause

Behavior, 14e 7-20
Reinforcement Theory

Behavior, 14e 6-21
5. Adams’ Equity Theory
 Equality vs equity ????
 Employees compare their ratios of outcomes-to-inputs
of relevant others.
– When ratios are equal: state of equity exists – there is no
tension as the situation is considered fair
– When ratios are unequal: tension exists due to unfairness
• Underrewarded states cause anger
• Overrewarded states cause guilt
– Tension motivates people to act to bring their situation into
equity
Behavior, 14e 7-22
Equity Theory’s “Relevant Others”
 There can be four referent comparisons: people
compare themselves with others to see the level of
justice
– Self–Inside
• The person’s experience in a different job in the same
organization
– Self–Outside
• The person’s experience in a different job in a different
organization
– Other–Inside
• Another individual or group within the organization
– Other–Outside
• Another individual or group outside of the organization
Behavior, 14e 7-23
Reactions to Equity/Inequity
Measuring equity/ Consequences of

Inequity: Equity/Inequity:
•Changing inputs (efforts)
•Changing outcomes
•Changing perception
•Self-inside of inputs and outputs
•Self-outside •Changing inputs and
•Other-inside Outputs of others
•Other-outside •Changing comparison
Person
•Leaving situation

Behavior, 14e 7-24
Justice and Equity Theory
Procedural
Justice
• Fairness of
procedures
Distributive Interactional
Justice Justice
• Fairness in • Fairness in treating
distribution of others (with dignity
resources and respect)
Organizational
Justice Overall perception
of what is fair in the
workplace.

Behavior, 14e 7-25
6. Vroom’s Expectancy Theory/VIE theory
Valence (3), instrumentality (2) and expectance (1)
theory
The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends
on the strength of an expectation that the act will be
followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of
the outcome to the individual.
Expectancy of Instrumentality Valuation of the
performance of success in reward in
success getting reward employee’s eyes

Behavior, 14e 7-26
Integrating Contemporary Motivation Theories
 Based on Expectancy Theory
Behavior, 14e 7-27
Global Implications
 Motivation theories are often culture-bound.
– Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory
• Order of needs is not universal
– McClelland’s three needs theory
• nAch presupposes a willingness to accept risk and performance
concerns – not universal traits
– Adams’ equity theory
• A desire for equity is not universal
• “Each according to his need” – socialist/former communists
 Desire for interesting work seems to be universal.
– There is some evidence that the intrinsic factors of
Herzberg’s two-factor theory may be universal

Behavior, 14e 7-28
Summary and Managerial Implications
 Need Theories (Maslow, Alderfer, McClelland,
Herzberg)
– Well known, but not very good predictors of behavior
 Goal-Setting Theory
– While limited in scope, good predictor
 Reinforcement Theory
– Powerful predictor in many work areas
 Equity Theory
– Best known for research in organizational justice
 Expectancy Theory
– Good predictor of performance variables but shares many of
the assumptions as rational decision making
Behavior, 14e 7-29
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,
without the prior written permission of the publisher. Printed in the
United States of America.
Copyright ©2011 Pearson Education,

Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall

Behavior, 14e 7-30

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Robbins, Judge, and Vohra

The processes that account for an individual’s

Three key elements: DIP

Copyright © 2012 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd

 Motivation can be defined as willingness to expand

Unsatisfied Search Satisfied Reduction

• Process / Cognitive Choice theories

Copyright © 2012 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd

1.Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory

Copyright © 2012 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd

Copyright © 2012 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd

Copyright © 2012 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd

• Workers have little • Workers are self-

 No empirical evidence to support this theory.

Copyright © 2012 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd

Copyright © 2012 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd

 People with a high need for achievement are likely to:

Copyright © 2012 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd

Copyright © 2012 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd

Copyright © 2012 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd

Copyright © 2012 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd

Copyright © 2012 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd

 Management by Objective (MBO)

Given Hard Goal Higher Performance

Higher Self-Set Goal

Copyright © 2012 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd

Copyright © 2012 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd

Copyright © 2012 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd

Measuring equity/ Consequences of

Copyright © 2012 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd

Copyright © 2012 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd

Copyright © 2012 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd

Copyright © 2012 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd

Copyright ©2011 Pearson Education,

Copyright © 2012 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd

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