The Nature of Motivation

• Motivation
ØThe psychological forces acting on an individual
that determine:
• Direction—possible behaviors the individual could
engage in
• Effort—how hard the individual will work
• Persistence—whether the individual will keep trying
or give up
ØThis is one of the factors that explains why people
behave the way they do in organizations.
• What are some other factors?

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 The Nature of Motivation (cont’d)
• Extrinsic Motivation
ØBehavior that is performed to acquire material or
social rewards or to avoid punishment.
• Examples?
– What motivate you?
– What motivates others you know?

• Intrinsic Motivation
ØBehavior that is performed for its own sake.
• Examples?
– What motivates you?
– What motivates others you know?

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 Theories in Motivation
(Expectancy Theory)

• Expectancy Theory

Motivation will be highest when:

Effort à Performance à Desired Outcomes

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 Expectancy Theory, cont’d

Source: Figure 12.3

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 Theories in Motivation
(Needs Theories)

• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

ØFive basic needs
ØLowest level of unmet need is the primary
motivator

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 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Needs Description Examples
Highest-level
Self- Realize one’s Use abilities
needs
actualization full potential to the fullest

Feel good Promotions

Esteem
about oneself and recognition

Social Interpersonal
Belongingness
interaction, love relations, parties

Job security,
Safety Security, stability
health insurance

Lowest-level Food, water, Basic pay level

Physiological
needs shelter to buy items

Lower-level needs must be satisfied

before higher-level needs are addressed.
Table 12.1
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 Theories in Motivation
(Needs Theories, cont’d)

• Alderfer’s ERG Theory

ØThree needs categories
ØNeeds at more than one level can be the
motivator at any time

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 Alderfer’s ERG Theory

Needs Description Examples

Highest-level
needs Self-development, Continually
Growth creative work improve skills

Interpersonal Good relations,

Relatedness relations, feelings accurate feedback

Food, water, Adequate pay

Lowest-level Existence clothing, and shelter for necessities
needs

After lower level needs satisfied, person seeks higher needs. When
unable to satisfy higher needs, lower needs motivation is raised.

Source: Table 12.2

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 Theories in Motivation
(Needs Theories)

Let’s stop for a minute …

Why should a manager care about

all these “needs theories”?

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 Theories in Motivation
(Needs Theories, cont’d)

• Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory

ØMotivator needs relate to the nature of the work
itself—autonomy, responsibility, interesting work.
ØHygiene needs are related to the physical and
psychological context of the work—comfortable
work environment, pay, job security.
• Unsatisfied hygiene needs create dissatisfaction;
satisfaction of hygiene needs does not lead to
motivation or job satisfaction.

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 Theories in Motivation
(Needs Theories, cont’d)
McClelland’s Needs for Achievement, Affiliation,
and Power
• Need for Achievement
ØA strong need to perform challenging tasks well
and meet personal standards for excellence
• Need for Affiliation
ØA concern for good interpersonal relations, being
liked, and getting along
• Need for Power
ØA desire to control or influence others

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 Theories in Motivation
(Adam’s Equity Theory)

Focuses on people’s perceptions of the fairness

(or lack of fairness) of their work outcomes in
proportion to their work inputs.
Ø Equity: input/output ratios are equal
Ø How would you “restore” equity in …
… underpayment
… overpayment

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 Theories in Motivation
(Goal Setting Theory)

• Focuses on identifying the types of goals that

are effective in producing high levels of
motivation and explaining why goals have
these effects.
• Goals must be:
ØSpecific
ØDifficult
ØInclude feedback

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 Theories in Motivation
(Learning Theories)

• Theories that focus on increasing motivation

and performance by linking outcomes to
performance and the attainment of goals.
• Learning
ØA relatively permanent change in person’s
knowledge or behavior that results from practice or
experience.

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 Theories in Motivation
(Learning Theories: Operant Conditioning Theory)

Operant Conditioning Theory

ØPeople learn to perform behaviors that lead to
desired consequences and learn not to perform
behaviors that lead to undesired consequences.
• Positive reinforcement
• Negative reinforcement
• Extinction
• Punishment
• OB MOD

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 Steps in
Organizational
Behavior
Modification

Figure 12.4
Source: Adapted from
Organizational Behavior
Modification and Beyond by
F. Luthans and R. Kreitner
(Scott, Foresman, 1985). With
permission of the authors.
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 Theories in Motivation
(Learning Theories: Social Learning Theory)

• A theory that takes into account how learning

and motivation are influenced by people’s
thoughts and beliefs and their observations of
other people’s behavior.
• Vicarious Learning (Observational Learning)
ØLearning that occurs when a learner is motivated to
perform a behavior by watching another person
perform and be rewarded.
• People are motivated to imitate models who are
highly competent, expert, receive attractive
reinforcers, and are friendly or approachable.

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 Theories in Motivation
(Where does pay fit in?)
• Pay as a Motivator????
ØExpectancy: pay is an instrumentality (and
outcome), must be high for motivation to be high.
ØNeed Theory: pay is used to satisfy many needs.
ØEquity Theory: pay is given in relation to inputs.
ØGoal Setting Theory: pay is linked to attainment of
goals.
ØLearning Theory: outcomes (pay), is distributed
upon performance of functional behaviors.

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