Advanced Math

Dr. Ahmad Sami Abushaikha

College of Science and Engineering
Hamad Bin Khalifa University

8th of January 2023

Lecture 1
 Lecture outline
Arguments tackled during the lecture:
• History of Algebra
𝑦𝑦
• Linear equations
• The Cartesian plane 𝑩𝑩
𝑨𝑨
• Exponent rules
• Factoring 𝑥𝑥

• Quadratic equations 𝑥𝑥 𝑚𝑚 ⋅ 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛+𝑚𝑚

• Absolute value equations
3𝑥𝑥 2 + 6𝑥𝑥 + 9 = 0

𝑥𝑥 2 + 5𝑥𝑥 + 6 = (𝑥𝑥 + 2)(𝑥𝑥 + 3) 5𝑦𝑦 − 3 = 5

2
 History of algebra - Introduction
Algebra
• Essence: introduce an unknown value and reason logically to find its value.
• Algebra does not necessarily require symbols, indeed the first symbols were introduced after the 13th
century, while modern symbolic algebra (with symbols like 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧) was born in France in the 16th century.

Arithmetic vs algebra
• In Arithmetic you reason with numbers, in Algebra you reason logically about numbers.
• Arithmetic is quantitative reasoning, while Algebra is qualitative reasoning.
• Substituting numbers in an algebraic formula to obtain a result, that is Arithmetic, devising and
manipulating the formula, that is Algebra.

Main phases in the history of Algebra

• Early works in Mesopotamia and India;
• Muslim period;
• European period (beginning with the Renaissance in Italy).
3
 History of algebra – From Babylon
• Examples of algebraic thinking (not necessarily symbols) can be traced back to
2000 BCE in Babylonia.
• For many years people did Algebra with words in order to have some
guarantees that the result would be preserved when the tablets were copied.

Example
Words: I added the area of my two squares: 1525. The side of the second square
equals 2/3 of the side of the first and another 5 more.

𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 = 1525
Symbols: � 2
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 + 5
3

4
 History of algebra – From Babylon
• The approach to the problem was mainly geometric (Geometric algebra): the unknown was interpreted as
the length or area of a figure and the result is obtained by performing geometrical operations.

Example: 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏 2 = 𝑎𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏 2

𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏

𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎2 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

𝑏𝑏 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏2

5
 History of algebra – Diophantus
• Diophantus lived in Alexandria (Egypt) between 150-250 CE.
• He wrote a book entitled “Arithmetica”, however, despite the name, can be
considered as one of the first books on Algebra.
• He used letters to denote unknowns and used negative numbers (quite a leap:
what is the geometric interpretation of a negative number?)
• He explained how to address equations by means of restoration (moving one
quantity from one side to the other with a change in the sign) and confrontation
(eliminating likewise terms from both sides).

6
 History of algebra – Brahmagupta
• Brahmagupta lived in India between 598-668 CE.
• He wrote the book Brahmasphutasiddhanti (“Correctly established teaching of Brahma”).
• Here we can find:
• One of the first appearance of the zero;
• First complete solution including zero and negative numbers to quadratic equations.

Merchants helped spreading

Algebra from India,
Mesopotamia to North Africa
and then Europe.

7
 History of algebra – Al-Khwarizmi
• Al-Khwarizmi lived in Persia between 780-850 CE.
• He wrote in 830 CE the world first recognized Algebra book entitled: “Al-kitab al-
mukhtasar fi hisab al-jabr wa’l-muqabala” which means “The abridged book on
calculation by restoration and confrontation”
• al-jabr -> Algebra
• wa’l-muqabala -> restoration and confrontation
• Al-Khwarizmi -> algorithms

What is Algebra useful for?

• Mainly practical reasons of everyday life.
• In the introduction of the book, we find: “… what is easiest and most useful in arithmetic,
such as men constantly require in case of inheritance, legacies, lawsuits, and trade, and in
all their dealings with one another, or where the measuring of lands, the digging of canals,
8
geometrical computations, and other objects of various sorts and kinds are concerned.
 Linear equations
How does a linear equation look like?
Prototype: 𝑎𝑎1 𝑣𝑣1 + 𝑎𝑎2 𝑣𝑣2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑣𝑣𝑛𝑛 = 𝑐𝑐

where 𝑎𝑎1 , 𝑎𝑎2 , … 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 are numbers and are called coefficients, 𝑣𝑣1 , 𝑣𝑣2 , … 𝑣𝑣𝑛𝑛 are the variables and 𝑐𝑐 is the known-
term. The highest power of the variable is always 1 (1st degree equation).
In other words, a linear equation is the sum of coefficients times variables equaling a number.

Example:
2𝑥𝑥 + 3𝑦𝑦 + 5𝑧𝑧 = 25 What does this equation mean? We
want to find three variables (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧)
Questions: such that the equation is satisfied.
• Are these linear equations?
A. 𝑥𝑥 3 + 5𝑥𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑥 = 7
B. 2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑥𝑥 − 5𝑦𝑦 = 0
C. 2𝑥𝑥 − 3𝑦𝑦 = 4
• How many values of 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧 satisfy the equation above? 9
 The Cartesian plane - Introduction
• Let us consider two mutually perpendicular lines. Along each line we can represent the set of real numbers,
where the zero of each is set at the crossing point, i.e., the origin, 𝑂𝑂.
𝑦𝑦
• The horizontal and vertical axes are called 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑦𝑦, respectively.
• There are four sectors, denoted quadrants, numbered counterclockwise. 3
𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰 𝑰𝑰
2
• This arrangement gives rise to the Cartesian coordinate system.
1 𝑷𝑷 = 𝑃𝑃(2,1)
• Each point in the plane is uniquely identified by an ordered couple
𝑶𝑶 1 2 3 𝑥𝑥
of numbers, its coordinates, arranged in duplets (𝑥𝑥𝑃𝑃 , 𝑦𝑦𝑃𝑃 ). −3 −2 −1
−1

• 𝑥𝑥𝑃𝑃 is the (signed) distance measured from 𝑂𝑂 along the 𝑥𝑥-axis and 𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰
−2
𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰
𝑦𝑦 −3
𝑦𝑦𝑃𝑃 is the (signed) distance measured from 𝑂𝑂 along the 𝑦𝑦-axis.
𝑩𝑩 = 𝐵𝐵(0,3)

For any point lying on the 𝑥𝑥-axis, 𝑦𝑦 = 0. 𝑨𝑨 = 𝐴𝐴(3,0)

For any point lying on the 𝑦𝑦-axis, 𝑥𝑥 = 0. 𝑥𝑥

10
 The Cartesian plane - Segment
Definition: The line connecting two points in the Cartesian plane is called segment.
Definition: Given two points 𝐴𝐴 𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴 , 𝑦𝑦𝐴𝐴 and 𝐵𝐵 𝑥𝑥𝐵𝐵 , 𝑦𝑦𝐵𝐵 , the length, 𝑙𝑙, of the segment connecting them is:

𝑙𝑙 = 𝑥𝑥𝐵𝐵 − 𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴 2 + 𝑦𝑦𝐵𝐵 − 𝑦𝑦𝐴𝐴 2

In other words, 𝑙𝑙 is the distance between the points 𝐴𝐴 and 𝐵𝐵.

𝑦𝑦 Example:
Given the points 𝐴𝐴 5,3 , 𝐵𝐵 −2, −8 the distance is:
𝑩𝑩
𝑦𝑦𝐵𝐵 2 2 2 2
𝑙𝑙 = −2 − 5 + −8 − 3 = 7 + 11 = 170
𝑦𝑦𝐵𝐵 − 𝑦𝑦𝐴𝐴
𝑙𝑙

𝑨𝑨
𝑦𝑦𝐴𝐴

𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴
𝑥𝑥 Basically, it is a geometrical
𝑥𝑥𝐵𝐵
application of the Pythagorean
𝑥𝑥𝐵𝐵 − 𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴 theorem…
11
 The Cartesian plane – Midpoint formula
Given two points 𝐴𝐴 𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴 , 𝑦𝑦𝐴𝐴 and 𝐵𝐵 𝑥𝑥𝐵𝐵 , 𝑦𝑦𝐵𝐵 and the segment connecting them, we want to find the point
𝑀𝑀 lying in the middle. The coordinates of this point are as follows:

𝑦𝑦 𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴 + 𝑥𝑥𝐵𝐵 𝑦𝑦𝐴𝐴 + 𝑦𝑦𝐵𝐵

𝑀𝑀 = 𝑀𝑀 ,
𝑩𝑩
2 2
𝑦𝑦𝐵𝐵

𝑦𝑦𝑀𝑀
𝑴𝑴 In a different perspective, it is the average of the 𝑥𝑥- and
𝑨𝑨 𝑦𝑦-coordinates of the endpoints.
𝑦𝑦𝐴𝐴

𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴 𝑥𝑥𝑀𝑀 𝑥𝑥𝐵𝐵

𝑥𝑥 Example:
Given the points 𝐴𝐴 5,3 , 𝐵𝐵 −2, −8 , find the midpoint:

5−2 3−8 3 −5
𝑀𝑀 = 𝑀𝑀 , = ,
2 2 2 2

12
 The Cartesian plane – Lines
Definition: A line is a straight segment extending to infinite from both sides.
A line can be described by two (equivalent) prototype forms:
1) 𝒂𝒂𝒙𝒙 + 𝒃𝒃𝒚𝒚 = 𝒄𝒄 2) 𝒚𝒚 = 𝒎𝒎𝒙𝒙 + 𝒒𝒒
where 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐, 𝑚𝑚, and 𝑞𝑞 are parameters (numbers).

The second form is perhaps more popular, and the parameters assume
𝑦𝑦
a physical meaning:
• 𝑚𝑚 is the slope (the change in y-values over the change in x-
𝑚𝑚
values);
• 𝑞𝑞 is the 𝑦𝑦-intercept (where the line crosses the 𝑦𝑦-axis)
𝑞𝑞

𝑥𝑥

13
 The Cartesian plane – Lines
Going from the first form to the second is easy…
𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐 𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐
𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 + 𝑏𝑏𝑦𝑦 = 𝑐𝑐 → 𝑦𝑦 = − 𝑥𝑥 + → 𝑚𝑚 = − and 𝑞𝑞 =
𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏

𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐
• If 𝑎𝑎 = 0, then 𝑦𝑦 = . This is the equation of a horizontal line with
𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏 𝑦𝑦
𝑎𝑎
as the 𝑦𝑦-intercept. Notice that if 𝑎𝑎 = 0, 𝑚𝑚 = − = 0
𝑏𝑏
𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐
• If 𝑏𝑏 = 0, then 𝑥𝑥 = . This is the equation of a vertical line with 𝑚𝑚
𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎

as the 𝑥𝑥-intercept
𝑞𝑞

𝑥𝑥

14
 The Cartesian plane – Lines
Examples: Practice:
𝑦𝑦
Draw the following lines:
3
• 𝑥𝑥 = 2
1 𝑦𝑦
−4
2 • 𝑦𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑥
1
1 3
• 𝑦𝑦 = − 𝑥𝑥 −2
4
1 1 3 𝑥𝑥
1

1 3 𝑥𝑥

1
𝑦𝑦 = −1; 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 + 1; 𝑦𝑦 = 3𝑥𝑥;
2
1
𝑦𝑦 = −4𝑥𝑥 − 4; 𝑦𝑦 = − 𝑥𝑥 + 1; 𝑥𝑥 = −3 15
3
 The Cartesian plane – Lines
Parallel and perpendicular lines
Definition: Parallel lines are such that they do not intersect.
Definition: Perpendicular lines intersect to form a 90 degrees angle.
𝑦𝑦 𝑦𝑦

3 3
1 1
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 − 2 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 − 2
1 3 1 3

1 3 𝑥𝑥 1 3 𝑥𝑥
1 𝑦𝑦 = −3𝑥𝑥 − 1
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 + 1
3

Parallel lines have the same slope 𝑚𝑚 but different Perpendicular lines are such that 𝑚𝑚1 𝑚𝑚2 = −1,
𝑦𝑦-intercept 𝑞𝑞. i.e., the slope of one line is the negative
reciprocal of the other. 16
 The Cartesian plane – Lines
Some more on slope: Special lines:
𝑥𝑥 = 0
𝑦𝑦 𝑦𝑦 = −𝑥𝑥 𝑦𝑦 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥
𝑚𝑚 → −∞ 𝑚𝑚 → +∞
3

1
𝑚𝑚 decreases 𝑚𝑚 grows
𝑚𝑚 = 0
𝑚𝑚 = 0 1 3 𝑥𝑥
𝑦𝑦 = 0
𝑥𝑥

𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 is known as the bisector of the I and III

quadrant, whereas 𝑦𝑦 = −𝑥𝑥 is the bisector of the II
and IV quadrant. 17
 The Cartesian plane – Lines
Theorem: An infinite number of lines passes through a point. 𝑦𝑦

Theorem: Given two distinct points in the space, only one line can be traced
through the two points.

Some applications
𝑥𝑥
Find the equation of the line passing through points 𝐴𝐴 −1,4 and 𝐵𝐵 3,3 .

Starting point: 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝑞𝑞 𝑚𝑚 computed with this

𝑨𝑨 𝑦𝑦
𝑦𝑦𝐵𝐵 −𝑦𝑦𝐴𝐴 approach is known as
The slope is computed as: 𝑚𝑚 =
𝑥𝑥𝐵𝐵 −𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴 rise over run 𝑦𝑦𝐵𝐵 − 𝑦𝑦𝐴𝐴 𝑩𝑩
𝑦𝑦𝐵𝐵 − 𝑦𝑦𝐴𝐴 3 − 4 1
𝑚𝑚 = = =−
𝑥𝑥𝐵𝐵 − 𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴 3 + 1 4 𝑥𝑥𝐵𝐵 − 𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴

𝑞𝑞 is simply found by substituting one of the point in the equation, 𝑥𝑥

for instance, 𝐵𝐵 3,3 :
1 15
3 = − ⋅ 3 + 𝑞𝑞 → 𝑞𝑞 = 18
4 4
 The Cartesian plane – Lines
Find the line, perpendicular to that passing through points 𝐴𝐴 −1,1 and 𝐵𝐵 3,2 , which passes through 𝐵𝐵.
𝑦𝑦𝐵𝐵 −𝑦𝑦𝐴𝐴 2−1 1
The slope of the line through 𝐴𝐴 and 𝐵𝐵 is: 𝑚𝑚 = = =
𝑥𝑥𝐵𝐵 −𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴 3+1 4

1
Then the perpendicular line has slope: 𝑚𝑚′ = − = −4
𝑚𝑚

Therefore: 𝑦𝑦 = −4𝑥𝑥 + 𝑞𝑞 and 𝑞𝑞 is found by imposing the passage through 𝐵𝐵:

2 = −4 ⋅ 3 + 𝑞𝑞 → 𝑞𝑞 = 14

𝑦𝑦

𝑩𝑩
𝑨𝑨

𝑥𝑥

19
 The Cartesian plane – Lines
A firm makes $5M in its first year of activity, and $6.4M in the second. Assuming a linear trend in the profits,
how much money will it make in the fourth year?

The profile is linear so we can use what we’ve learned so far: 𝑦𝑦

𝑥𝑥 𝑦𝑦 10
1 5 6.4−5 7.5
The slope is: 𝑚𝑚 = = 1.4
2 6.4 2−1
5
4 ? And 𝑞𝑞: 5 = 1.4 ⋅ 1 + 𝑞𝑞 → 𝑞𝑞 = 3.6 2.5

Therefore, in the year 4 the earning will be:

1 2 3 4 𝑥𝑥
𝑦𝑦 = 1.4 ⋅ 4 + 3.6 = $9.2M

20
 Exponent rules
Let’s start from an example:
34 = 3 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 3 = 81 and generalizing 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑥𝑥 ⋅ 𝑥𝑥 ⋅ 𝑥𝑥 … ⋅ 𝑥𝑥
𝑛𝑛 times
Exponent
Standard notation: 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛
Base
Rules:
1. Product rule
2. Quotient rule
3. Power rule
4. Power of zero
5. Negative exponent
6. Fractional exponents
7. Distribute an exponent over a product
8. Distribute an exponent over a quotient
21
 Exponent rules
Product rule
𝑥𝑥 𝑚𝑚 ⋅ 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛+𝑚𝑚
Multiplying two expressions with the same
Proof:
base gives a term with that base and the
23 ⋅ 22 = 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 2 = 25 sum of the exponents.
5 times

Quotient rule
𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛
= 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛−𝑚𝑚
𝑥𝑥 𝑚𝑚 Dividing two expressions with the same
Proof: base gives a term with that base and the
difference of the exponents.
45 4 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 4 3
= = 4 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 4 = 4
42 4⋅4

22
 Exponent rules
Power rule
𝑥𝑥 𝑚𝑚 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛⋅𝑚𝑚
Raising a power with a power gives a term
Proof: with the product of the exponents.
3
32 = 32 ⋅ 32 ⋅ 32 = 3 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 3 = 36

Product rule 3 times

Notice that 𝑥𝑥 𝑚𝑚 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 𝑚𝑚 = 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛⋅𝑚𝑚

Power of zero
𝑥𝑥 0 = 1
Proof: Raising a number by 0 gives always 1.
43 4 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 4 43 ⚠ Notice: 00 is undetermined.
3−3 0 0
= =1 but = 4 = 4 then 4 =1
43 4 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 4 43

Quotient rule
23
 Exponent rules
Negative exponent

⚠ Caution!
1
𝑥𝑥 −𝑛𝑛 = 𝑛𝑛
𝑥𝑥
𝑥𝑥 −𝑛𝑛 ≠ −𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛
Proof:
32 ⋅3−2 1 1
32 ⋅ 3−2 =1 = Therefore 3−2 =
32 32 32
Product rule

Fractional exponents
1
𝑛𝑛
𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑥𝑥
Proof:
1 2 1 1
⋅2
9 2 =9 2 = 91 So basically, 9 is the number that squared gives 9, and such a number is 3.
2

Power rule 24
 Exponent rules
Distribute an exponent over a product
𝑥𝑥 ⋅ 𝑦𝑦 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 ⋅ 𝑦𝑦 𝑛𝑛

Proof:
62 = 36 2⋅3 2 = 22 ⋅ 32 = 4 ⋅ 9 = 36 Therefore 2 ⋅ 3 2 = 62 = 36

Quite useful is also the opposite: 22 ⋅ 32 = 62 = 36

Distribute an exponent over a quotient

𝑛𝑛
𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛
= 𝑛𝑛
𝑦𝑦 𝑦𝑦
Proof: Power rule
2
2 2 2 2 ⋅ 2 22 4
= ⋅ = = = 25
3 3 3 3 ⋅ 3 32 9
 Exponent rules
⚠ Important: We can distribute an exponent over multiplication or division, but we can not do this with sum
or subtraction.

𝑥𝑥 ⋅ 𝑦𝑦 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 ⋅ 𝑦𝑦 𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 𝑛𝑛 ≠ 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 + 𝑦𝑦 𝑛𝑛

In fact:
𝑥𝑥 + 1 2 = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑥 + 1 𝑥𝑥 + 1 2 ≠ 𝑥𝑥 2 + 1

26
 Exponent rules - Exercises
Some exercises with expressions
8𝑥𝑥 −3 8𝑥𝑥 −3 𝑥𝑥 3 8 5𝑦𝑦 3 5𝑦𝑦 3 5𝑦𝑦 3 𝑦𝑦 6
= ⋅ = = 1 = 1 ⋅ = 5𝑦𝑦 9
𝑥𝑥 5 𝑥𝑥 5 𝑥𝑥 3 𝑥𝑥 8 𝑦𝑦 −6 𝑦𝑦 6
𝑦𝑦6 𝑦𝑦6

Trick: You can pass a factor across the fraction bar by switching the sign of the exponent. In other words, a
negative exponent at the denominator corresponds to a positive exponent at the numerator and vice versa.

8𝑥𝑥 −3 8 8 5𝑦𝑦 3
= = = 5𝑦𝑦 3 𝑦𝑦 6 = 5𝑦𝑦 9
𝑥𝑥 5 𝑥𝑥 5 𝑥𝑥 3 𝑥𝑥 8 𝑦𝑦 −6

4𝑦𝑦 5 𝑡𝑡 −3 4𝑦𝑦 5 𝑦𝑦 3 4𝑦𝑦 8

−3 8
= 8 3 = 11
9𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡 9𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡 9𝑡𝑡 4
=1+
1
3 3
2 2 2 2 2 4
5 −2 5 7 2 12 2⋅ 12⋅ 3
36𝑧𝑧 𝑦𝑦 3 36𝑧𝑧 𝑧𝑧 3 6 𝑧𝑧 3 6 3 𝑧𝑧 3 63 𝑧𝑧 8 6 6𝑧𝑧 8
= = = 2 = =
𝑧𝑧 −7 𝑦𝑦 4 𝑦𝑦 4 𝑦𝑦 2 𝑦𝑦 6 6⋅ 𝑦𝑦 4 𝑦𝑦 4
𝑦𝑦 3
27
 Factoring - Introduction
What does “factoring” mean?
14 = 7 ⋅ 2, 30 = 6 ⋅ 5 = 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 5
Here, we want to do the same with expressions like:
𝑥𝑥 2 + 5𝑥𝑥 + 6 = (𝑥𝑥 + 2)(𝑥𝑥 + 3)
Terms Factors

There are four techniques that can be used:

1. Pulling out the greatest common factor;
2. Factor by grouping;
3. Factor of quadratics;
a) Difference of squares
4. Difference or sum of cubes.
28
 Factoring - Strategies
1. Pulling out the greatest common factor (gcf)
Objective: Isolate the largest thing that divides each term.
Example:
14 + 49𝑧𝑧 = 7 2 + 7𝑧𝑧 , 𝑥𝑥 4 𝑧𝑧 2 + 𝑧𝑧 5 𝑥𝑥 3 = 𝑥𝑥 3 𝑧𝑧 2 (𝑥𝑥 + 𝑧𝑧 3 )

Anyway, it is always possible to check if the factoring is correct by multiplying out the factors:

✓
𝑥𝑥 3 𝑧𝑧 2 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑧𝑧 3 = 𝑥𝑥 4 𝑧𝑧 2 + 𝑧𝑧 5 𝑥𝑥 3

29
 Factoring - Strategies
2. Factor by grouping (applicable when there are 4 terms)
Objective: Take the terms in couples and isolate the greatest common factor of each.
Example:
(𝑥𝑥 2 + 4) cannot be
factored further
𝑥𝑥 3 + 3𝑥𝑥 2 + 4𝑥𝑥 + 12 = 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥 + 3 + 4 𝑥𝑥 + 3 = (𝑥𝑥 2 + 4)(𝑥𝑥 + 3)

Here we see that 𝑥𝑥 + 3 is the gcf so we

can apply the 1st technique

Practice:
2𝑧𝑧 2 𝑥𝑥 2 + 3𝑧𝑧 − 2𝑧𝑧𝑥𝑥 2 − 3 = 2𝑧𝑧 2 𝑥𝑥 2 + 3𝑧𝑧 − 2𝑧𝑧𝑥𝑥 2 − 3 = 2𝑧𝑧 2 𝑥𝑥 2 − 2𝑧𝑧𝑥𝑥 2 + 3𝑧𝑧 − 3 = 2𝑧𝑧𝑥𝑥 2 𝑧𝑧 − 1 + 3 𝑧𝑧 − 1
= (2𝑧𝑧𝑥𝑥 2 + 3)(𝑧𝑧 − 1)

30
 Factoring - Strategies
3. Factor of quadratics
Requisite: The expression is quadratic (the maximum exponent is 2) or we can rearrange it as quadratic.
Objective:
𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 → (𝑥𝑥 + 𝑑𝑑)(𝑥𝑥 + 𝑒𝑒) Notice that the coefficient of the leading term is 1!

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑐𝑐
Key observation: 𝑑𝑑 and 𝑒𝑒 are such that: �
𝑑𝑑 + 𝑒𝑒 = 𝑏𝑏

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 6
𝑥𝑥 2 − 5𝑥𝑥 + 6 → 𝑏𝑏 = −5, 𝑐𝑐 = 6 Then we need to find 𝑑𝑑 and 𝑒𝑒 such that: �
𝑑𝑑 + 𝑒𝑒 = −5

It is easy to see that 𝑑𝑑 = −2 and 𝑒𝑒 = −3.

𝑥𝑥 2 − 5𝑥𝑥 + 6 = (𝑥𝑥 − 3)(𝑥𝑥 − 2)

Check: 𝑥𝑥 − 3 𝑥𝑥 − 2 = 𝑥𝑥 2 − 3𝑥𝑥 − 2𝑥𝑥 + 6 = 𝑥𝑥 2 − 5𝑥𝑥 + 6 ✓ 31

 Factoring - Strategies
What if 𝒂𝒂 ≠ 𝟏𝟏?
𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐

𝑔𝑔𝑔 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
Now, we look for a factorization (𝑙𝑙𝑥𝑥 + 𝑞𝑞)(𝑚𝑚𝑥𝑥 + 𝑟𝑟) by finding two numbers, 𝑔𝑔 and ℎ, are such that �
𝑔𝑔 + ℎ = 𝑏𝑏

Then we use these numbers to rearrange the 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 term and proceed to factoring by groups, so no need to take
care of 𝑙𝑙 and 𝑚𝑚 at this stage.

Example: Factors Sum

10𝑥𝑥 2 + 11𝑥𝑥 − 6 −60 -60 1 -60+1=-59
−15 4 -30 2 -30+2=-28
𝑔𝑔𝑔 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑔𝑔𝑔 = −60
� → � 11 -15 4 -15+4=-11
𝑔𝑔 + ℎ = 𝑏𝑏 𝑔𝑔 + ℎ = 11
15 -4 15-4=11
… … …

10𝑥𝑥 2 + 11𝑥𝑥 − 6 → 10𝑥𝑥 2 −4𝑥𝑥 + 15𝑥𝑥 − 6 → 2𝑥𝑥 5𝑥𝑥 − 2 + 3 5𝑥𝑥 − 2 = (2𝑥𝑥 + 3)(5𝑥𝑥 − 2) 32
 Factoring - Strategies
There are some expressions for which this trick is ineffective.
Example:
Don’t forget also the negative factors!
5𝑥𝑥 2 + 4𝑥𝑥 − 2 Factors Sum 10 = 5 ⋅ 2 = −5 ⋅ (−2)
-10 1 -10+1=-9
𝑔𝑔𝑔 = 5 ⋅ −2 = −10
� -5 2 -5+2=-3
𝑔𝑔 + ℎ = 4
-2 5 -2+5=3
-1 10 -1+10=9

Another strategy is available, as we will see…

33
 Factoring - Strategies
3a) Difference of squares
Requisite: The expression is quadratic (the maximum exponent is 2 or it is divisible by 2).
Prototype:
𝑎𝑎2 − 𝑏𝑏 2 = (𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏)(𝑎𝑎 − 𝑏𝑏)
Example:
𝑥𝑥 2 − 16 = 𝑥𝑥 + 4 𝑥𝑥 − 4 , 25𝑥𝑥 2 − 9 = 5𝑥𝑥 − 3 5𝑥𝑥 + 3 ,
𝑥𝑥 4 − 1 = 𝑥𝑥 2 − 1 𝑥𝑥 2 + 1 = (𝑥𝑥 + 1)(𝑥𝑥 − 1)(𝑥𝑥 2 + 1)

4) Difference or sum of cubes

Requisite: The expression is cubic (the maximum exponent is 3 or it is divisible by 3).
Prototype:
𝑎𝑎3 − 𝑏𝑏 3 = (𝑎𝑎 − 𝑏𝑏)(𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏 2 )
𝑎𝑎3 + 𝑏𝑏 3 = (𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏)(𝑎𝑎2 − 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏 2 ) 34
 Factoring - Strategies
Example:
𝑧𝑧 3 + 8 = (𝑧𝑧 + 2)(𝑧𝑧 2 − 2𝑧𝑧 + 4)
8𝑥𝑥 3 − 27𝑦𝑦 9 = 2𝑥𝑥 − 3𝑦𝑦 3 4𝑥𝑥 2 + 6𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 3 + 9𝑦𝑦 6

Let’s check the last factorization:

✓
2𝑥𝑥 − 3𝑦𝑦 3 4𝑥𝑥 2 + 6𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 3 + 9𝑦𝑦 6 = 8𝑥𝑥 3 − 12𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 3 + 12𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 3 − 18𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 6 + 18𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 6 − 27𝑦𝑦 9 = 8𝑥𝑥 3 − 27𝑦𝑦 9

35
 Quadratic equations - Theory
The standard form of a quadratic equation is:
𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑥𝑥 + 𝑐𝑐 = 0
where 𝑥𝑥 is the unknown and 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, and 𝑐𝑐 are coefficients.
• The degree of a quadratic equation is 2 (Notice: The degree of an equation describes what the highest
power any variable in the equation is raised to).
• We assume that 𝑎𝑎 ≠ 0, otherwise the quadratic equation reduces to a linear equation.
• There are two possibilities for solving quadratic equations:
1. Factoring;
2. Using the quadratic formula.

Factoring
𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 = 0 → 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 + 𝑔𝑔 = 0 Which is satisfied when 𝑥𝑥 = −𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑒 or 𝑥𝑥 = −𝑔𝑔𝑓𝑓
These are the two solutions.
36
 Quadratic equations - Theory
The quadratic formula
A key parameter to solve a quadratic equation is the Δ, which is expressed as:
Δ = 𝑏𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
In the space of real numbers, ℝ, a quadratic equations admits at most 2 solutions, 𝑥𝑥1 and 𝑥𝑥2 , and according to
the sign of the Δ parameter three possibilities can occur:
1. 𝚫𝚫 < 𝟎𝟎 → No solutions in ℝ;
2. 𝚫𝚫 = 𝟎𝟎 → 𝑥𝑥1 and 𝑥𝑥2 exist and are equal;
3. 𝚫𝚫 > 𝟎𝟎 → 𝑥𝑥1 and 𝑥𝑥2 exist and are distinct solutions.

𝑥𝑥1 and 𝑥𝑥2 are easily found as:

−𝑏𝑏 ± Δ
𝑥𝑥1,2 =
2𝑎𝑎

37
 Quadratic equations - Exercises
Let’s have some practice:
𝑥𝑥 2 − 5𝑥𝑥 + 6 = 0

1) Factoring

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 6
𝑥𝑥 + 𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑒𝑒 = 0 where � 𝑑𝑑 = −2, 𝑒𝑒 = −3
𝑑𝑑 + 𝑒𝑒 = −5
𝑥𝑥 − 2 𝑥𝑥 − 3 = 0 → 𝑥𝑥1 = 2, 𝑥𝑥2 = 3

2) Quadratic formula
−𝑏𝑏± Δ 5± 1
Δ = 𝑏𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 25 − 4 ⋅ 6 = 1 → 𝑥𝑥1,2 = = Then 𝑥𝑥1 = 2, 𝑥𝑥2 = 3
2𝑎𝑎 2

38
 Quadratic equations - Exercises
9𝑥𝑥 2 = −24𝑥𝑥 − 16 → 9𝑥𝑥 2 +24𝑥𝑥 + 16 = 0

1) Factoring
𝑔𝑔𝑔 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑔𝑔𝑔 = 144 144
� → � 12 12
𝑔𝑔 + ℎ = 𝑏𝑏 𝑔𝑔 + ℎ = 24
24

9𝑥𝑥 2 + 12𝑥𝑥 + 12𝑥𝑥 + 16 = 0 → 3𝑥𝑥 3𝑥𝑥 + 4 + 4 3𝑥𝑥 + 4 = 0 → 3𝑥𝑥 + 4 2 = 0 → 𝑥𝑥 = −43

2) Quadratic formula
−24± 0 −24 4
Δ = 576 − 576 = 0 → 𝑥𝑥1,2 = Then 𝑥𝑥1,2 = =−
18 18 3

39
 Quadratic equations - Exercises
3𝑥𝑥 2 + 5𝑥𝑥 − 1 = 0

1) Factoring
𝑔𝑔𝑔 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑔𝑔𝑔 = −3 −3
� → � ?? ??
𝑔𝑔 + ℎ = 𝑏𝑏 𝑔𝑔 + ℎ = 5
5

There are no integer factors!

2) Quadratic formula
−5± 37 −5+ 37 −5− 37
Δ = 25 + 4 ⋅ 3 = 37 → 𝑥𝑥1,2 = Then 𝑥𝑥1 = , 𝑥𝑥2 =
6 6 6

40
 Quadratic equations - Exercises
𝑥𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑥 + 2 = 0

1) Factoring
2
𝑔𝑔𝑔 = 𝑐𝑐 𝑔𝑔𝑔 = 2
� → � ?? ??
𝑔𝑔 + ℎ = 𝑏𝑏 𝑔𝑔 + ℎ = 2
2

There are no integer factors!

2) Quadratic formula

Δ = 4 − 8 = −4 < 0 → No real solutions!

41
 Quadratic equations - Exercises
𝑥𝑥 2 = 16 → 𝑥𝑥 2 − 16 = 0 Notice that here 𝑏𝑏 = 0.

1) Factoring

𝑥𝑥 + 4 𝑥𝑥 − 4 = 0 → 𝑥𝑥 = −4, 𝑥𝑥 = 4

2) Quadratic formula

… too long to apply

42
 Quadratic equations - Exercises
𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 − 3 = 5 → 𝑥𝑥 2 − 3𝑥𝑥 − 5 = 0

1) Factoring
−5
𝑔𝑔𝑔 = 𝑐𝑐 𝑔𝑔𝑔 = −5
� → � ?? ??
𝑔𝑔 + ℎ = 𝑏𝑏 𝑔𝑔 + ℎ = −3
−3

2) Quadratic formula
3± 29 3+ 29 3− 29
Δ = 9 − 4 ⋅ (−5) = 29 → 𝑥𝑥1,2 = Then 𝑥𝑥1 = , 𝑥𝑥2 =
2 2 2

43
 Quadratic equations - Exercises
𝑥𝑥 2 − 3𝑥𝑥 = 0 Notice that here 𝑐𝑐 = 0.

1) Factoring

𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 − 3 = 0 → 𝑥𝑥 = 0, 𝑥𝑥 = 3

2) Quadratic formula
… too long to apply

44
 Absolute value equations - Introduction
What is the action of the absolute value?

3 =3 −3 = 3

Definition: The absolute value of a number is the number itself, if it is positive, or its opposite, if it is negative:

𝑥𝑥 if 𝑥𝑥 > 0
𝑥𝑥 = �
−𝑥𝑥 if 𝑥𝑥 < 0

Graphical interpretation: We can think at the absolute value of 𝑥𝑥 as the distance (which is always positive)
with the origin:
𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥

−𝑥𝑥 0 𝑥𝑥

45
 Absolute value equations – How to solve
Let’s start with an example:
𝑦𝑦 = 5 𝑦𝑦 = ±5
𝑦𝑦 = −5 No solution!

Steps to solve an absolute value equation:

1. Reorganize the equation into the standard form: 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑎𝑎
2. Check the sign of 𝑎𝑎 and solve:
a. If 𝒂𝒂 < 𝟎𝟎 → No Solution
b. If 𝒂𝒂 = 𝟎𝟎 → Solve for 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑎𝑎 only
c. If 𝒂𝒂 > 𝟎𝟎 → Solve for 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = −𝑎𝑎 (double solution)
3. (Optional) Check the result by substituting back.

46
 Absolute value equations - Exercises
5𝑦𝑦 − 3 = 5
The equation is in the standard form and 5 > 0, then we expect two solutions:
8
1. 5𝑦𝑦 − 3 = 5 → 5𝑦𝑦 = 8 → 𝑦𝑦 =
5
2
2. 5𝑦𝑦 − 3 = −5 → 5𝑦𝑦 = −2 → 𝑦𝑦 = −
5

3 𝑥𝑥 + 2 = 4
2 2
𝑥𝑥 = , then 𝑥𝑥 = ±
3 3

3 2𝑧𝑧 − 1 + 41 = −5
46
2𝑧𝑧 − 1 = − The right-hand side is negative! No solution!
3

47
 Questions

Thanks for your attention!

Email: aabushaikha@hbku.edu.qa

48