LEGUMES

Companions for a source of nitrogen?

Assessment 1: Technical Report.

The University of Melbourne

2022

Michelle G Dyason

Abstract
Nitrogen (N2) is one of the most abundant molecules making up the world and is essential for life, which we
obtain via ingesting plants and other animals. The nitrogen cycle has six processes: nitrogen fixation,
assimilation, nitrification, decomposition, ammonification, and denitrification that are, mainly, controlled by
biological processes (Galloway 2014). Plants can use two forms of mineral N: ammonium nitrogen (NH 4-N)
and nitrate-nitrogen (NO3-N). Organic N is not directly available to plants, it must go through a slow process
of mineralization to become available as NH4 or NO3 (Soumare et al. 2020). Once mineralized, N quickly moves
through the soil. It is common and scientific knowledge that legumes are a big part of the N-cycle; they grow
nodules on their roots around symbiotic bacteria and they, plus free-living bacteria, can fix atmospheric N2 into
inorganic forms that plants can use. Today, the Haber-Bosch process fixes atmospheric N2 into NH3, but,
unfortunately, this is inducing overuse of N, which is pushing us over environmental planetary boundaries
(Rockström, Steffen, Noone, Persson, F. Stuart Chapin, et al. 2009). We need a new source of N. The abundant
received wisdom on companion planting suggests legumes are a key source. However, is this received wisdom
about legumes credible? In what follows, I discuss the credibility of this information with help from the
philosophy of science.
Michelle G Dyason.
Legumes: Companions for a source of nitrogen?

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................................ 2
CONTEXT ............................................................................................................................................................................ 2
AIMS ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 2
RESULTS ................................................................................................................................................................ 3
COMPANION PLANTING .............................................................................................................................................. 3
DISCUSSION ......................................................................................................................................................... 4
LEGUMES TRANSFER TO COMPANIONS ................................................................................................................ 4
CONCLUSION ...................................................................................................................................................... 5
REFERENCE LIST .............................................................................................................................................. 6

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Michelle G Dyason.
Legumes: Companions for a source of nitrogen?

INTRODUCTION

… as if Nature could support but one order of understandings...

Thoreau, Walden

CONTEXT

Today, the internet is information is at our fingertips. When one questions, people respond: ‘ask
Google’. The internet awakened a plethora of ‘experts’, especially concerning gardening. The internet
is awash with green thumbs. However, misinformation runs parallel with experts (e.g., see Bartok
2009). So, metaphorically, which manure is the good manure? Answering this requires help from the
philosophy of science: experts seeking to demarcate science from pseudo-science, a difficult
endeavour, I return to momentarily.

Admittedly, I, too, enjoy food gardening and rely on information to ensure my bounty. An intriguing
approach described on the internet and popular books is companion planting. It theorises biodiversity
as key, with which my learned experience concurs. Therefore, this report focuses upon discerning the
fertility of companion planting: is it fruitful? Is it science or pseudo-science? However, given the
constraints of time and space, I demarcate my topic: legumes. Specifically, do legumes transfer the
nitrogen (N) their symbionts fix? This is an important question today because a fundamental aim of
sustainable agriculture is N-use efficiency (Kebede 2021; Soumare et al. 2020; Gliessman 2007). This
aim is to address the environmental destruction that over-use of N-based fertilizer is causing the planet
(FAO 2011; Kebede 2021; Gliessman 2007; Soumare et al. 2020). However, N is essential for all life;
it is a molecule that builds “nucleotides for DNA and RNA plus amino acids for proteins” amongst
other things (Anon 2021, p.1947; Galloway 2014; Stein & Klotz 2016). Consequently, this study is of
great importance to the global community.

AIMS

Returning, briefly, to philosophy of science. Demarcating pseudo-science from science, requires

outlining received wisdom on legumes’ status as an N-supply to companions. I ask, is this relation of
legumes to companions credible? It is, if it has corroboration via currently accepted science and leads
to scientific discovery (Lakatos 1976). Therefore, I seek corroboration from peer-reviewed papers.
Methodologically, the Humean problem of induction informs induction cannot claim eternal truths;
thus, we can never know the empirical, that is, scientific theory will always be true. Consequently,
following Gieryn (1999, p.xii) I assess, “Is it useful? If so, by whom, for what?”. I conclude on
credibility and utility of this companionship.

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Michelle G Dyason.
Legumes: Companions for a source of nitrogen?

RESULTS

COMPANION PLANTING

Regarding legumes, experts Wikipedia (2022), and Green Life Soil Co (TGLSC n.d.) concur, legumes’
N-fixation is useful to plants in proximity, but how, is a moot question. Comparably for GrowVeg
(Pleasant 2018) beans fix N so demand less N vis-a-vis companions. Likewise, Gardening Know How
(Grant 2020) explains via the Three Sisters, North American indigenous peoples practice, N-fixing
beans provides N enriching soils. Again, no mention of how. Unfortunately, the Diggers Club (n.d.)
relevant webpage pay-wall, restricts access. So, I browsed Cornell University’s Cooperative Extension
(n.d.) to learn about the Three Sisters. This informed it is a Haudenosaunee, or their imposed name
Iroquois, custom. Their website is broken, so I downloaded the PDF version (Eames-Sheavly 1993).
From the broken website and the poor-quality PDF, beans fix N, but inadequately; Cornell recommend
applying N-fertiliser until fixed-N accumulates. However, Cornell University’s colonial interpretation
circumscribes my research into this practice, which I cannot remedy presently. I next investigate
Sustainable Gardening Australia (SGA). SGAs (Tuton n.d.) scepticism results from insufficient science
and its foreign origins engender its effectiveness there, not here; accretive is our lack understanding it.
SGA mention N-fixation as one reason for companion planting, but no further mentions, even their
“most comprehensive companion planting chart in the known universe (maybe)” includes beans, yet,
the ‘how it works’ column is blank. Curiously, Tuton’s trajectory, underpinned by limited science, talks
subjectively as if disproof. This surprised me. As a volunteer for SGA, I know some SGA volunteers
are scientists; so, I searched their website for N-fixation, but zero results. Bewildered, I turned to
Gardening Australia (ABC 2012), who, informatively, gave unbiased advice and with fewer words.
They (ABC 2012) suggest planting N-fixing legumes with “nitrogen gobblers” without explaining how
N-transfers to “leafy greens”. My limited research on legumes as companions, shows popular
dogmatism begs this question: N-fixes are beneficial companions because they fix N, a circular
argument.

There is, however, disagreement deriding this argument. This counter argument advises no N transfers
as legumes grow; the only N Fabaceae’s (and many other plant families, see table 1) supply is when
decomposed (Pavlis n.d.; Redfearn & Anderson 2016). There is, however, serious weakness with this
argument: Pavlis’ (n.d.) provision of proof. The two links he offers as evidence against, both link Tang
et al (2018), who support transfer. I address this below. Presently, I highlight Redfearn & Anderson
(2016) provide no evidence for their agreement with this contention. Nevertheless, the USDA (Anon
1998) disagree, claiming during growth companion grasses use 36% of legume’s fixed-N: legumes
benefit. How to assess who is credible? Corroboration: from peer-reviewed papers on N-transfer,
which I discuss next.

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Michelle G Dyason.
Legumes: Companions for a source of nitrogen?

Table 1. Actinorhizal Plants: Families, Genus & distribution of N-fixing families. Source: (Dawson 1986, n.p.)

DISCUSSION

LEGUMES TRANSFER TO COMPANIONS

I begin with the article (Tang et al. 2018) Pavlis (n.d.) links as evidence for and against legumes as N-
providing companions. Its results are interesting: when intercropped, both garlic and broad bean
absorb more N than when monocultures (Tang et al. 2018). Further, 14.85% of the 15N injected into
broad bean transfers to garlic when intercropped. Moreover, the rhizosphere of both, broad bean and
garlic, held more N after injecting, which suggests broad bean exudes N from its roots, a mechanism
of N-transfer. Interestingly, Tang et al (2018) applied urea, which decreased N around the roots.
Maybe because the symbionts cease N-fixing when enough soil N is present (Reed, Cleveland &
Townsend 2011; Postgate 1982; Simms & Lee Taylor 2002; Soumare et al. 2020; Smercina et al. 2019;
Islam & Adjesiwor 2018), which suggests we over-feed plants.

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Michelle G Dyason.
Legumes: Companions for a source of nitrogen?

Nevertheless, difficultly arises in measuring N transfer, although, scientists have published measures.
For example, Stern (1993) estimates fixed-N ranges between 25 – 155 kgs p/h. More recently, Islam
& Adjesiwor (2018) estimate 0% to 73% of fixed-N transfers, and He et al (2003) between 20 to 50%.
Caution these figures, though, Fustec et al (2010), Kebede (2021), and Stagnari et al (2017) explain
difficulties in generalising N-transfer rates exacerbates because each genus and species fix different
amounts; plus, many extraneous factors, like farmer’s crop and soil management, effect N-fixation and
transfer.

CONCLUSION

Regardless, clearly, science corroborates N-fixing legumes share their N. Furthermore, N-transfer is
topical in scientific discovery. For example, as Fustec et al (2010) and others (e.g., Islam & Adjesiwor
(2018), Mus et al (2016), Kebede (2021), Stagnari (2017)) indicate, more research is necessary because
replacing manufactured N is essential for sustainable agriculture, and legumes prove enabled for this
challenge. Legumes are useful companions, for N.

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Michelle G Dyason.
Legumes: Companions for a source of nitrogen?

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Legumes: Companions for a source of nitrogen?

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Legumes: Companions for a source of nitrogen?

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