Lesson 1.

Geologic Time Scale Elemental Composition of the Earth

 Standard method used in dividing Earth’s long Fe Ni

natural history O S
 Subdivided into different intervals: Si Ca
 Geologic Eon Mg Al
 Geologic Era Na Cr

Geologic Eon- Largest unit of geologic time.

 Phanerozoic Major spheres

 Proterozoic
 Atmosphere
 Archean
Oxygen Carbon dioxide
 Hadean
Nitrogen Water
Geologic Era- Eons are divided into smaller units called Argon Ammonia
Eras Ozone Methane

 Paleozoic
 Hydrosphere
 Mesozoic
 Cenozoic Chemical ions Seawater River water
 Precambrian
Chloride 546mmol kg- 0.22mmol kg-1
1
Sodium 468 0.26
Magnesium 53.1 0.17
Sulfate 28.2 0.11
Calcium 10.3 0.38
Potassium 10.2 0.07
Bicarbonate 2.39 0.96
Bromide 0.84 -
Strontium 0.09 -

 Lithosphere
o Term for the rigid crust and the upper portion
of the Earth’s mantle
 Biosphere
o zone of life
o C,H,O,N,P,S
 Pedosphere
Earth’s Three Layers o The thin soil cover formed from the
weathering of the rocks in the upper portion
 Crust of the crust.
 Mantle
 Core Planets;

 Mercury
 Venus
 Earth
 Mars
 Jupiter
  Saturn o Moh’s scale of hardness.
 Uranus
Primary minerals- Minerals that persist from the original
 Neptune
rocks and appear prominently in the soil.
Moon- natural satellite. Affects tides. Quartz Amphibole
Feldspar Carbonates
Eclipse- solar, lunar
Micas Olivine
Asteroids- debris in the solar system.
Secondary mineral- Minerals which originates from the
Comet- small icy material. Nucleus, coma, dust tail, ion chemical weathering of the less resistant primary
tail. minerals.
Meteor- falling star. Meteoroid, meteorite. Iron group Clay group
Aluminium group Gypsum
Lesson 1.2
Types of rocks
Rock- A solid aggregate of one or more minerals that
forms the essential parts of the earth’s solid crust. Igneous- formed from the solidification of molten rock
material. Mother of all rocks.
Mineral- naturally occurring, inorganic, solid with a
definite chemical composition and are crystalline Classification of Igneous rock;
structure.
1. Based on mode of formation
Basic Characteristics of a Mineral: a.Intrusive (plutonic)
i. Within the earth crust
 Solid
ii. Coarse textured
 Naturally occurring
iii. Granite, diorite, gabbro
 Homogenous substance
b.Extrusive (volcanic)
 Fixed chemical composition
i. Outside the earth’s crust
 Ordered atomic arrangement ii. Fine-grained textured rock.
 Crystalline iii. Basalt, rhyolite, andesite
Properties of Minerals: 2. Based on chemistry
a.Felsic
 Color i. Light colored
o Indicative and is not a reliable property for ii. Quartz content >65%
identification. iii. Rhyolite, granite
 Luster b.Intermediate
o The way light reflects from the surface of a i. Quartz content is 55-65%
mineral. ii. Even mixtures of felsic and mafic minerals
 Cleavage iii. Diorite, andesite.
o To break along one or more smooth parallel c. Mafic
lines. i. Enriched in Mg and Fe minerals
 Fracture ii. Quartz content (45-55%)
o Nature of irregular surface formed by iii. Silica poor rock
breaking in directions other than those of iv. Gabbro, basalt.
cleavage d. Ultramafic
 Streak i. Quartz content (<45%)
o Color of mineral in powdered form; true color ii. dark colored, high magnesium and iron
of the mineral content.
 Hardness iii. Komatite, peridotite.
o Ability of a mineral to withstand 3. Based on texture
abrasion/scratching a.Phaneritic rock
 i. Diorite, granite, gabbro, peridotite. o Bend in the rock.
b. Aphanitic rock  Monocline- simple type of fold.
i. Rhyolite, basalt, andesite, komatite.  Anticline- arch like structure.
 Syncline- warped downward.
Sedimentary rock- formed from weathering products
 Recumbent- axial plante is horizontal
from old rocks and are compacted and cemented
 Magnetism
(lithification.)
o Magnetosphere formed by liquid outer core.
Classification of sedimentary rocks;  Volcanism

1. Clastic sedimentary rocks Isostasy- equal standstill. Archimedes

a. Are composed of other rock fragments that
Orogeny
were cemented by silicate minerals.
b. Conglomerate, breccia. Shale, sandstone,  Mountain formation.
siltstone  “oros” mountain; “genes” stemming from.
2. Chemical sedimentary rocks  Orogenic belts.
a.Forms when mineral constituents in solution and  Deformation and volcanic activities.
forms precipitate.
b.Dolomite, limestone, rock salt, iron ore, chert. Plate boundaries
3. Biological/organic sedimentary rock.  Convergent plate boundary- collision
a.Created when organisms use materials dissolved
 Divergent plate boundary- moving away
in air/water to build their tissue
 Transform plate boundary- slide past each other
b.Coal, coralline limestone
7 major plates
Metamorphic rocks- Produced due to tremendous heat
and pressure. Metamorphism. 1. Pacific plate
2. Antarctic plate
 Limestone – marble
3. North American plate
 Shale – slate 4. South American plate
 Sandstone – quartzite 5. Indo-australian plate
 Peridotite – serpentinite 6. Eurasian plate
Lesson 2.1 7. African plate

Endogenic processes- Geological processes that forms, Lesson 2.2

originates and is located below the surface of the Earth Exogenic process- Processes which occur on Earth’s
 Faulting surface due to the influence of external or exogenic
o Develop when the stresses applied to rock forces.
overcome the internal strength resulting in a Geomorphic agents- wind, water, waves
break/fracture.
 Strike-slip- Vertical and are produced  Weathering
where the stresses are exerted parallel to o The totality of physical, chemical and biological
each other. disintegration of rocks
 Normal- Occurs when tensional forces act o Physical weathering
in opposite directions  Exfoliation due to weathering.
 Reverse- It causes one block to be pushed  Abrasion by water.
up and over the other block.  Pressure release.
 Graben- result in the subsidence of a block  Freeze and thaw
of rock o Chemical weathering
 Horst- two reverse faults causing a block of  Solution
rock to be pushed up.  Carbonation
 Folding  Hydration
  Oxidation  Composite volcano- Conical in shape characterized
by alternate periods of explosive activity and
intermediate viscosity lava flows. Stratovolcano.
o Biological weathering  Volcanic dome- With very steep-sided dome derived
 Caused by several biological activities, like the from highly viscous rhyolitic magma
growth or movements of organisms.  Cinder cone- Steep and conical hill with frothy
ejection derived from volcanic fragments that
Mass movements- result in the transfer of mass of rock accumulate around the vent.
debris down the slope under the direct influence of  Volcanic vents- maybe roughly circular openings
gravity. (craters) or elongated cracks (fissures).
1. Slow movements. Earthquakes- Natural vibrations caused by sudden
a. Creep movements of the Earth’s crust.
b. Solifluction
2. Rapid movements Hypocenter- The point at which the earthquake occurs
a. Earthflow below the Earth’s surface
b. Mudflow
Epicenter- Directly above the focus, on the Earth’s
c. Landslide
surface
i. Slump
ii. Debris slide Body waves
iii. Rock slide
1. Primary waves (P-waves)- fastest kind of seismic
 Erosion- The acquisition and transportation of solid
wave that can travel through solid and liquid layers
materials like rock debris or soil by geomorphic
of the Earth
agents
2. Secondary waves (S-waves)- slower than S waves
 Transportation
and can only move through solid rock.
 Deposition- The erosional agents lose their velocity
and energy on gentle slopes, and materials carried by Surface waves
them start to settle themselves.
1. Love waves- fastest surface wave that moves
 Denudation
the ground from side to side
Volcanism 2. Rayleigh waves- rolls along the ground and
moves the ground in up and down and side to
Volcanoes
side direction.
 Openings in the Earth’s crust which allow molten
Lesson 3.1
rock, ash and gas particles to escape from below the
surface. Renewable resource- Any resource that cycles or can be
 “Vulcan”, roman god of fire and blacksmiths. replaced within a human life span.
 Vent- main opening
1. Biomass energy
 Conduit- channel which magma travels
a.Comes from directly burned for heat/converted to
 Crater- eruption blows top of volcano
renewable liquid and gaseous fuels through
 Tephra- pyroclastic materials
various process.
 Active volcano- has erupted in the last 10,000 yrs. i. Biogas- combustible gas mixture composed
 Dormant volcano- has not erupted in the last 10,000 mostly of methane (CH4 ) and carbon dioxide
yrs. (CO2 )
 Extinct volcano- unlikely to erupt ii. Biodiesel- type of fuel made from nearly any
Types of volcanoes biomass that contains adequate free fatty
acids. Transesterification.
 Shield volcano- Gently sloping and very broad 2. Hydroelectric
volcano that is built up over time by successive lava
flows.
 a.Harnesses the power of water in motion – such as  Brown coal
water flowing over a waterfall - to generate  Low C content, low heating value.
electricity  High moisture content.
b.Hydrology- study of water; hydrologist
c. Water cycle Nuclear energy- Often considered a renewable energy
i. Evapotranspiration source. However, the material from which nuclear
ii. Condensation power is derived is a non-renewable resource.
iii. Precipitation 1. Provisioning (goods such as water, food, medicines,
iv. Infiltration lumber, etc.)
v. Run-off
3. Wind 2. Regulating (purify water, decompose wastes, control
a.Wind is used to produce electricity using the pests, or modify atmospheric gases)
kinetic energy created by air in motion 3. Supportive (assisting with nutrient cycling, seed
4. Geothermal dispersal, primary biomass production, etc.)
a.Energy sources generated deep within the Earth’s
core. 4. Cultural (providing spiritual uplift, scenic views, and
5. Solar outdoor recreation opportunities).
a.Heat and light energy from the sun are the
Soils in the Philippines
ultimate sources of energy of all living things.
b.China; frontrunner 1.Entisols
a.Soils that do not show any profile development
Lesson 3.2
other than A horizon.
Non-renewable resources- Any resource that cannot be b.Have no diagnostic horizons.
replaced during the time of a human life span. 2.Inceptisols
a.Soils with a few diagnostic features
Fossil fuels- hydrocarbons, primarily coal, fuel oil or b.Contain horizons that are thought to form rather
natural gas, formed from the remains of dead plants quickly and result mostly from the alteration of
and animals parent materials.
Crude oil- Naturally occurring. Unrefined petroleum 3.Ultisols
product. Can be refined to produce various products a.Less than 10% weatherable minerals in the
such as gasoline, diesel and other petrochemicals. extremely top layer of soil
b. Less than 35% base saturation throughout the soil.
Natural gas- Petroleum product composed of a mixture 4.Oxisols
of gases rich in hydrocarbons such as methane and a.Generally acidic, but intensive plantation
ethane. agriculture is possible if applied with lime and
Coal- made up mostly of mostly carbon with variable fertilizers.
amounts of other elements like H,S,O,N 5. Andisols
a.Volcanic ash soils.
Types of coal b.Defined by the single property of having volcanic-
ash parent material.
1.Anthracite
c. Exist in all climatic regions
 Hard, high-grade coal
6. Mollisols
 86-97% C content.
a.Dark soils of grasslands
 Lustrous in nature.
b.Thick, dark surface horizon
2.Bituminous
c. Surface horizons generally have granular or crumb
 Soft coal
structures and are not hard when dry
 45-86% C content
7. Histosols
3.Subbituminous
a.Soil order comprising peat soils, with a deep
 35-45% C surface layer of pure organic material.
4.Lignite

Lesson 4.1
Geo hazards- Naturally-occurring geologically related
risks or potential dangers to human lives and properties.
Common Geo-Hazards in the Philippines
1.Earthquakes
 Refers to the violent shaking of the ground
produced due to the sudden or abrupt
displacement of rocks or rock materials below
the earth's surface.
 Man-made or artificial earthquakes may be
caused by; dynamite explosions, bombs, passing
of large trucks.
 Tectonic Earthquakes are the most common
and destructive
 Occur at depths of:
o 0 to 70 kilometers (shallow)
o 70 to 300 kilometers (intermediate)
o 300 to 700 kilometers (deep)
2.Landslides
 Refers to the downslope movement of soil
and rock materials detached from the slope.
 The susceptibility of an area to landslides
depends on factors like
o Geological structure
o Lithology of rocks
o Hydrogeological conditions
o Weathering
o Stage of morphological development
 Slope failures are usually enhanced by
subsurface over saturation by water due to
prolonged heavy rain and ground vibration
due to strong to very strong earthquakes
(seismic activity).
3.Volcanic eruption
 Naturally fundamental geological process
whereby molten materials, ashes and rocks
are emitted or ejected from the vent of the
volcano.
 The most active volcano in the Philippines is
the Mt. Mayon, which had erupted for at
least 58 (as of 2018) times since 1616.
4. Liquefaction
 Process that transforms the behavior of a
water-saturated deposit from a solid to
liquid.
 Extensive sand-boil (water that comes out
onto the ground surface during an
earthquake resulting from liquefaction at
shallow depth) manifestations are
commonly observed.
 Liquefaction induced effects can be
classified into:
o Decrease in lateral and vertical bearing
o Decrease in up-lift force and flow of soil
particle/water.
5. Coastal Erosion
 Geo-process where beach sediments (or any
weathered materials) are gradually or
abruptly removed or washed-out by sea-
related erosional agents.
6. Carbonate sinkholes
 Carbonate rocks, particularly limestone, has
a general chemical composition of Calcium
Carbonate (CaC03 ).
 These fractures became solution channel
ways and, when significantly enlarged,
become caves and caverns.
Hydro-Meteorological Hazards
1.Floods/Flash Floods
 A condition where normally dry land is submerged
by water either from the sea or fresh water from
the creeks/rivers.
 Two Normal Occurrences of Floods
o Devastations caused by Tidal flooding will be
tremendous if high tide is combined with
heavy precipitation.
o Flash floods that occur along the downstream
portion of rivers and nearby lowlands.
2.Tsunamis
 Ocean waves caused by earth movements or
abrupt adjustments on the seafloor, by submarine
landslides, volcanic eruptions, or strong to very
strong earthquakes with epicenters under the
sea.
3. Coastal Storm Surges
 The rise of coastal water generated by
strong winds from a hurricane of a tropical
storm.

Lessons 4.2
Detrimental impacts of Human Beings
2. Nitrous Oxide
1.Loss of Forest
 Converting large tracts of forest into farms for
human food and feeds.
 Raw materials for houses and industrial use.
 Forests play a crucial role in climate change.
 A reduction in forest cover may result to an
increase in CO2 concentration in the atmosphere.
2.Damage to ecosystem
 Loss of plant and animal habitat
 Extinction of plant and animal species
 Decline in biodiversity
 Introduction of invasive species
 Death of coral reef
 Water and soil pollution
3.Overfishing
 More human = increase consumption
 Advanced technologies to detect and catch
most number of fish.
 Loss in fish varieties and quantity of catch.
4. Climate Change Impacts
 Depletion of the ozone
 Global warning
 Disruption of nitrogen cycle
 Acid deposition
 Solid waste
 Plant and animal biomass
 Other chemical reactions
 Sequestered from the atmosphere by plants
as part of the biological carbon cycle.
 Produced during various agricultural and
industrial activities, as well as during
combustion of fossil fuels and solid waste.
3. Methane
 Produced during the production and
transport of coal and petroleum products.
 Organic waste decomposition
4. Flourinated Gases
 Hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, and
sulfur hexafluoride are synthetic and
powerful greenhouse gases that are
produced from a variety of industrial
processes.
 Sometimes referred to as High Global
Warming Potential Gases (High GWP gases)
due to their relatively high potency.


 entis

Greenhouse Gases in the Atmosphere

 GHGs are gases that allow sunlight to freely

pass-through Earth’s atmosphere, heating the
planet’s land and oceans.

Greenhouse Effect

 The warmed Earth releases this heat in the form

of infrared lights that are not visible to human
eyes.
 Some of these invisible lights pass through the
atmosphere back into space. Some are also
absorbed by the GHGs in the atmosphere and
are radiated back to Earth.

Greenhouse Gases

1.Carbon Dioxide
 Burning of fossil fuels