Mizan – Tepi University

Department of Mechanical
Engineering
Manufacturing Engineering II
MEng3182
Chapter 01
Fundamentals of metal forming
processes
Instructors: Srikanth.K & Adane.B
Contents
✓Introduction
✓Basic Types of Deformation
Processes
✓Material Behaviour in Metal
Forming
✓Temperature in Metal Forming
✓Bulk Deformation Processes
✓Sheet metal working Processes
2
 1. Introduction

Forming, or metal forming, is the

metalworking process of shaping metal parts
and objects through mechanical plastic
deformation; the work piece is reshaped without
adding or removing material, and its mass
remains unchanged by the applied of external
forces.
• The tool, usually called a die, applies stresses
that exceed the yield strength of the metal
• The metal therefore deforms to take a shape
determined by the geometry of the die
3
 Stresses in Metal Forming
Stresses to plastically deform the metal are
usually compressive
• Examples: rolling, forging, extrusion
However, some forming processes
• Stretch the metal (tensile stresses)
• Others bend the metal (tensile and
compressive)
• Still others apply shear stresses (shear
spinning) 4
 How metal forming process is different from other
manufacturing processes?
Metal forming Vs other methods of Mfg.
Machining – cut extra material
Casting – melting of metal (Molten Metal)
Metal Forming Process
• Shape/size by deformation
• External forces
• Plastic deformation
• Bulk Deformation Process

5
 Comparison
With machining process-
• large amount of material is removed in the form
of chips
• skilled operator is required
With casting process-
• involves series of operations
• molten material wastage
• machining of component is required
Metal Forming Process
• No material loss
• No machining
• No series of operations
• No skilled operator
6
 1.1. Basic Types of Deformation Processes

Large group of Mfg.

processes in which Performed as Cold,
plastic deformation Warm and Hot working
is used to change the Rolling
shape of the metal
work piece Forging
Bulk
Deformation Extrusion
Wire and Bar
Metal drawing
Forming
Sheet Metal Bending
working Shearing
Mainly
Cold Working Drawing

7
 2.3.Temperature in Metal Forming

▪ For any metal, K and n in the flow curve depend on

temperature
▪ Both strength (K) and strain hardening (n) are reduced at
higher temperatures
▪ In addition, Ductility increases and yield strength
decreases when work temperature is raised
▪ Any deformation operation can be accomplished with lower
forces and power at elevated temperature
▪ Three temperature ranges in metal forming:
1. Cold working
2. Warm working
3. Hot working

8
 1. Cold Working
• Performed at room temperature or slightly above
• Many cold forming processes are important mass production
operations
• Minimum or no machining usually required
Advantages of Cold Forming
• Better accuracy, closer tolerances
• Better surface finish
• Strain hardening increases strength and hardness
• No heating of work required
Disadvantages of Cold Forming
• Higher forces and power required in the deformation operation
• Ductility and strain hardening limit the amount of forming that can
be done
• In some cases, metal must be annealed to allow further
deformation
• In other cases, metal is simply not ductile enough to be cold worked 9
 2. Warm Working

• Performed at temperatures above room temperature but

below recrystallization temperature
• Dividing line between cold working and warm working often
expressed in terms of melting point:
• 0.3Tm, where Tm = melting point (absolute temperature) for
metal
Advantages of Warm Working
• Lower forces and power than in cold working
• More intricate work geometries possible
• Need for annealing may be reduced or eliminated
• Low spring back

10
 3.Hot working

• Deformation at temperatures above the recrystallization temperature

• Recrystallization temperature = about one-half of melting point on
absolute scale
• In practice, hot working usually performed somewhat above 0.5Tm
Advantages of Hot Working
• Work part shape can be significantly altered
• Lower forces and power required
• Metals that usually fracture in cold working can be hot formed
• Strength properties of product are generally isotropic
• No strengthening of part occurs from work hardening
Disadvantages of Hot Working
• Lower dimensional accuracy
• Higher total energy required (due to the thermal energy to heat the work
piece)
• Work surface oxidation (scale), poorer surface finish, Shorter tool life

11
 1. Bulk Deformation Processes

• Characterized by significant
deformations and massive shape changes
• "Bulk" refers to work parts with
relatively low surface area-to-volume
ratios.
• Starting work shapes are usually simple
geometries
• Examples:
• Cylindrical billets
• Rectangular bars 12
 Four Basic Bulk Deformation Processes
a) Rolling – slab or plate is squeezed between opposing rolls
b) Forging – work is squeezed and shaped between opposing dies
c) Extrusion – work is squeezed through a die opening, thereby taking the
shape of the opening
d) Wire and bar drawing – diameter of wire or bar is reduced by pulling it
through a die opening

(a). Rolling (b). Forging (c). Extrusion (d). Drawing

(a) Rolling (b) Forging (c) Extrusion (d) Wire and bar
drawing
Typical products made by rolling process
ROLLING PROCESS
 a) Rolling
• Deformation process in which work thickness is reduced by
compressive forces exerted by two opposing rolls .
• This process involves- - plastic deformation
- reduction in thickness
- increase in length & width

The Rolls:
Rotating rolls perform two main functions:
• Pull the work into the gap between them by friction between
work part and rolls
• Simultaneously squeeze the work to reduce its cross section
16
 Types of Rolling:
1. Based on work piece geometry:
• Flat rolling - used to reduce thickness of
a rectangular cross section
• Shape rolling - square cross section is
formed into a shape such as an I-beam

2. Based on work temperature :

• Hot Rolling – most common due to the
large amount of deformation required
• Cold rolling – produces finished sheet
and plate stock
17
Rolling Mills
Various mill configurations are available to deal with the variety of applications
and technical problems in the rolling process

Two-high rolling mill:

The basic rolling mill consists of two opposing rolls
and is referred to as a two-high rolling mill

Three-high rolling mill:

• Three-high – work passes through rolls in both
directions
• In the three-high configuration, there are three
rolls in a vertical column, and the direction of
rotation of each roll remains unchanged.
 Contd.
Four-high rolling mill:
• Four-high – backing rolls support smaller work rolls.
• There are advantages to be gained in reducing roll
diameter. Roll-work contact length is reduced with a
lower roll radius, and this leads to lower forces, torque,
and power
Cluster rolling mill:
• Cluster mill – multiple backing rolls on smaller rolls
• Another roll configuration that allows smaller working
rolls against the work is the cluster rolling mill

Tandem Rolling Mill:

Tandem rolling mill – sequence of two-high mills. To achieve higher throughput
rates in standard products, a tandem rolling mill is often used.
 DEFECTS IN ROLLING:

1-surface defects
2-structural defects
3-wavy edges-shown in fig. (a)
4-zipper crack-shown in fig.(b)
5-edge cracks-shown in fig.(c)
6-alligatoring-shown in fig.(d)

20
Forging
 Forging Tools

Hammers

Tong chisel
Swage Block
Hamza Abdullah Khan... IIUI
 What is Forging

“The process of giving a

desired shape to a metal
piece by heating and
hammering is known as
forging”.
 B. Forging
Classification of forging operations
Cold vs. hot forging:
– Cold forging – increased strength that results from strain hardening
– Hot or warm forging – most common, due to the significant deformation and the
need to reduce strength and increase ductility of work metal
Impact vs. press forging:
– Forge hammer - applies an impact load
– Forge press - applies gradual pressure
Types of forging dies:
1. Open-die forging
2. Impression-die forging - die contains cavity or impression that is imparted to
workpart. Metal flow is constrained so that flash is created
3. Flashless forging – work part is completely constrained in die
No excess flash is created
 1. Open-die forging
Work is compressed between two flat dies, allowing metal to flow laterally with
minimum constraint

2. Impression-die forging
Compression of work part by dies with inverse of desired part shape
• Flash is formed by metal that flows beyond die cavity into small gap between
die plates
• Flash must be later trimmed, but it serves an important function during
compression:
3. Flashless forging (precision forging)
Compression of work in punch and die tooling whose cavity does not allow for
flash
➢ Starting work part volume must equal die cavity volume within very
close tolerance
➢ Best suited to part geometries that are simple and symmetrical
➢ Often classified as a precision forging process
 Forging defects
1. Unfilled sections:
The die cavity are sometimes not filled by the flowing metal because of improper
design of forging die or using faulty forging techniques
2. Cold shut:
This appears as a small crack at the corners of the forging. This is caused mainly by the
improper design of the die wherein the corner and fillet radii are small as a result of
which the metal does not flow properly into the corner and ends up as a cold shut.
3. Scale pits:
This is seen as irregular depressions on the surface of the forging. This is primarily
caused because of the improper cleaning of the stock used for forging.
4. Die shift:
This is caused by the misalignment of the two halves, making the two halves of the
forging to be of improper shape
5. Flakes:
These are basically internal ruptures caused by the improper cooling of the large
forging. Rapid cooling causes the exteriors to cool quickly causing internal fractures.
This can be remedied by following proper cooling practice.
6. Improper grain flow:
This is caused by the improper design of the die which makes the flow of metal not
following the final intended directions. The choice of proper parting plane greatly
influences the grain flow in the forging.
 Forging Presses
Apply gradual pressure to accomplish compression operation
– Mechanical press - converts rotation of drive motor into linear motion of
ram
– Hydraulic press - hydraulic piston actuates ram
– Screw press - screw mechanism drives ram
Extrusion
 What is extrusion?
Extrusion is the process by which block/billet of
metal is reduced in cross section by forcing it to
flow thorough a die orifice under high pressure.
 C. Extrusion
• Extrusion is the process of confining the metal in a closed cavity and then
allowing it to flow from only one opening so that the metal will take the
shape of the opening. The operation is identical to the squeezing of tooth
paste out of the tooth paste tube
Classification of extrusion process

Extrusion

Hot COLD

Forward Backward Forward Backward

Extrusion extrusion extrusion
Extrusion
Hydrostatic Impact
Cold
extrusion extrusion
extrusion
forging
 Hot extrusion processes
Forward hot extrusion: The process represented in figure below is called
the forward hot extrusion, signifying the flow of metal in the forward
direction, i.e., the same as that of the ram.

Backward hot extrusion: In order to completely overcome the friction, the

backward hot extrusion is used.
Extrusion ratio: Also called the reduction ratio, it is defined as
Ao
rx =
Af
• where rx = extrusion ratio; Ao = cross-sectional area of the starting billet;
and Af = final cross-sectional area of the extruded section

Extrusion Defects
a) Centre-burst: internal crack due to excessive
tensile stress at the centre possibly because of
high die angle, low extrusion ratio.
b) Piping: sink hole at the end of billet under
direct extrusion.
c) Surface cracking: High part temperature due
to low extrusion speed and high strain rates
 Extrusion die features

(a)Definition of die angle in direct extrusion; (b) effect of die angle

on ram force.
• Low die angle - surface area is large, which increases
friction at die-billet interface
– Higher friction results in larger ram force
• Large die angle - more turbulence in metal flow during
reduction
– Turbulence increases ram force required
Typical products of Extrusion
3.Drawing
 Drawing
•Drawing is pulling of
metal through a die or a
set of dies for achieving a
reduction in a diameter.
 D. Wire and bar drawing

Drawing of bar, rod or wire

Ao − A f
r=
Area reduction Ao
where r = area reduction in drawing; Ao= original area of job; and Ar = final work

Bar drawing - large diameter bar and rod stock

Wire drawing - small diameter stock - wire sizes down to 0.03 mm (0.001
in.) are possible
 Wire Drawing:
• Wire drawing is used for reducing the diameter
of a wire. Wire drawing can be done on wires
whose diameter is less than 16mm.
• In this operation, a series of dies with decreasing
hole size are used. Initially the wire is fed into the
die with the largest hole and is drawn through it.
It is then fed into the second die with a smaller
hole and drawn again. This process is repeated
using many dies. In each stage, the hole size of
the die decreases. In the end, a fine wire with
small diameter is obtained. This wire can be
coiled using appropriate machines.
Wire Drawing
Draw die details

Continuous wire drawing

• Continuous drawing machines consisting of multiple draw dies
(typically 4 to 12) separated by accumulating drums
– Each drum (capstan) provides proper force to draw wire stock through
upstream die
– Annealing sometimes required between dies to relieve work hardening
 2. Sheet metal working Processes
• A piece of metal whose thickness is between 0.006(0.15 mm) and 0.25
inches(6.35 mm).
• Anything thinner is referred to as a foil and thicker is considered as a plate.

• Sheet metalworking processes are forming and related operations on metal

sheets
• Sheet-metal operations are always performed as cold working processes and
are accomplished using a set of tools called a punch and die
basic sheet-metal operations
i. Bending: bending involves straining of a metal sheet or plate to take an angle
along a (usually) straight axis.

ii. Drawing: refers to the forming of a flat metal sheet into a hallow or concave
shape, such as cup, by stretching the metal. A blank holder is used to hold
down the blank while the punch pushes into the sheet metal. To distinguish
this operation from bar drawing, the term cup drawing or deep drawing are
often used
 Operation of Punch and Die
• Punch – shape of product: +ve contour
• Die – shape of product –ve contour

Punch
Sheet or plate
Punch

Die Die
2. Sheet metal working Processes(contd.)
iii. Shearing: This process is somewhat out of place in the list of deformation
processes, because it involves cutting rather than forming of the metal. A
shearing operation cuts the work using a punch and die, as shown in
figure. Although it is not a forming process, it is included here because it
is necessary and very common operation in sheet metalworking.

3
1

2
 Sheet metal die design
Three types of sheet metal dies:
1. progressive dies
2. compound dies
3. combination dies

1.progressive dies
The progressive dies perform two or more operations simultaneously in a single stroke
of a punch press, so that a complete component is obtained for each stroke.
2.Compound dies
In a compound die, as distinct from the progressive die, all the necessary
operations are carried out at a single station, in a single stroke of the ram
3. Combination die:
• A combination die is same as that of a compound die with the main
difference that here non cutting operations such as bending and
forming are also included as part of the operation
Drawing
• Drawing is the process of making cups, shells, and similar articles from
metals blanks. The setup is similar to that used in blanking except that the
punch and die are provided with the necessary rounding at the corners to
allow the smooth flow of metal during drawing.
• If the height is more than half the diameter, it is termed deep drawing
which faces the problem of excess wrinkling of the edges
 Shearing operation
The Die shearing operations are more useful where the shears take the form of
the component to be made. The upper shear is called the punch and the lower
shear is called the die. The two widely used processes are blanking and
piercing.
Piercing:
• Also sometimes called punching, the piercing is making holes in a sheet. It is
identical to blanking except of the fact that the punched out portion coming
out through the die in piercing is scrap. Normally a blanking operation will
generally follow a piercing operation.
Blanking:
• It is the process in which the punch removes a portion of material from the
stock which is a strip of sheet metal of the necessary thickness and width.
The removed portion is called a blank and is usually further processed to be
of some use, e.g., blanking of a pad lock key.
Deep drawing die design
In designing a die to work satisfactorily, one has to consider a number of
variables which readily control the performance of the drawing die
• Corner radius on punch: Corner radius on the punch is of the order 4 to 10
times the blank thickness. Too small a corner radius makes for the
excessive thinning and tearing of the bottom of the cup.
• Draw radius on die: Since the draw radius on the die does not contribute
to the cup shape, it can be made as large as possible. A general guide is
raw radius = 4t , where t = blank thickness.
• Clearances: Ideally, the clearance between the punch and the die should
be same as the blank thickness. But the blank gets thickened towards the
edge because of the metal flow and hence, the actual clearance is slightly
higher to account for this thickening. An allowance in the range of 7 to
20% of the blank thickness is provided depending on the cup material and
cup dimensions.
Deep drawing die design (contd.)
• Blank size: It is difficult to find a blank of the exact size required for
making a given shell, because of thinning and thickening of sheet during
drawing. Some relations for calculating the blank diameter for cylindrical
shells for relatively thin materials are as follows:
o 𝐷= 𝑑 2 + 4𝑑ℎ𝑑 ≥ 20𝑟
o 𝐷= 𝑑 2 + 4𝑑ℎ − 0.5𝑟15𝑟 ≤ 𝑑 < 20𝑟
o 𝐷= 𝑑 2 + 4𝑑ℎ − 𝑟10𝑟 ≤ 𝑑 < 15𝑟
Where, r = corner radius on the punch, mm ; h = height of the shell, mm;
d = diameter of the shell, mm; D = blank diameter, mm;
• Trimming allowance:Allowances to provide fro trimming of the uneven
and irregular rim of the deep drawn cup. This is termed as trim allowance.
The trim allowance could be 3mm for the first 25 mm cup diameter and
additional 3mm for each of the additional 25 mm of cup diameter.
• Drawing Force: The drawing force depends on the cup material, its dimensions
and the configuration. The drawing force can empirically be calculated using the
following equation for cylindrical shells.
𝐷
P = 𝜋𝑑𝑡𝑠 −𝐶
𝑑
Where, P = drawing force, N ; t = thickness of the blank material, mm; S =
yield strength of the metal, MPa; C = constant to cover friction and bending, its value
is between 0.6 and 0.7
• Blank holding Force: The blank holding pressure required on the wrinkling
tendency of the cup, which is very difficult to determine and hence it is obtained
more by trail and error. Maximum limit is generally one-third of the drawing force.
• Ironing Force: The ironing force is given by the equation,
𝑡0
F = 𝜋𝑑1 𝑡1 𝑠𝑎𝑣 𝑙𝑜g 𝑒 𝑡1
Where, F = ironing force, N; d1= mean diameter of the shell after ironing;
t1 = thickness of the shell after ironing; t0 = thickness of the shell before ironing;
Sav= average of tensile strength before and after ironing;
• Percentage reduction: The drawing operation relies on the ductility of the blank
material. The ductility is affected by the amount of strain a material takes. The
percentage reduction, P is given by
𝑑
P = 100 1 − 𝐷 Where, d = diameter of the shell, mm; D = blank diameter
 Sheet metal Bending
• Straining sheet metal around a straight axis to take a
permanent bend

Bending of sheet metal

 Sheet metal Bending
Metal below the neutral axis is compressed, while
metal above the neutral axis is stretched, Metal
on neutral axis neither stretched nor
compressed
•The material is stressed beyond the
yield strength but below the ultimate
tensile strength.
•The surface area of the material does
not change much., why??
•Bending usually refers to deformation
about one axis
 V-bend and edge bend
• V-bending - performed with a V-shaped die
• Edge bending - performed with a wiping die

➢ For low production ❖ For high production

➢ Performed on a brake press ❖ Pressure pad required
➢ V-dies are simple and ❖ Dies are more complicated and costly
inexpensive

V-bend Edge bend

 Bend Allowance Formula
  
 A = 2 ( R + K t )
 b 360 ba 
where Ab = bend allowance;  = bend angle; R= bend radius; t =
stock thickness; and Kba is factor to estimate stretching
• If R < 2t, Kba = 0.33
• If R  2t, Kba = 0.50
Spring Back(SB)
Increase in included angle of bent part relative to included angle
of forming tool after tool is removed
• Reason for spring-back:
– When bending pressure is removed, elastic energy remains
in bent part, causing it to recover partially toward its
original shape
 Spring back(SB)

SB= (α’-α’b)/α’b

Spring back in bending is seen as a decrease in bend angle and an increase in

bend radius:
(1) during bending, the work is forced to take radius Rb and included angle b' of
the bending tool,
(2) after punch is removed, the work springs back to radius R and angle ‘.
END