18me55 Fpe

Maharaja Education Trust (R), Mysuru
Maharaja Institute of Technology Mysore

Belawadi, Sriranga Pattana Taluk, Mandya – 571 477
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi,

Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi & Recognized by Government of Karnataka
Lecture Notes on
FLUID POWER ENGINEERING – 18ME55
Prepared by
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Maharaja Education Trust (R), Mysuru
Belawadi, Sriranga Pattana Taluk, Mandya – 571 477
Vision/ ಆಶಯ
“To be recognized as a premier technical and management institution promoting extensive

education fostering research, innovation and entrepreneurial attitude"
,
Mission/ ಯ
 To empower students with indispensable knowledge through dedicated teaching and

collaborative learning.
 To advance extensive research in science, engineering and management disciplines.

,
 To facilitate entrepreneurial skills through effective institute - industry collaboration and

interaction with alumni.
,
 To instill the need to uphold ethics in every aspect.

.
 To mould holistic individuals capable of contributing to the advancement of the society.
.
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Vision:
“To excel in technical education by producing Mechanical

Engineers who are competitive, contributing and sustainable in the
global socio technological front”
Mission:
1. To enrich teaching learning experience through distinguished

practices and ever improving infrastructure.
2. To enhance student performance through constant guidance,
motivation and mentoring.
3. To develop distinct skills, leadership qualities and creative
thinking among the learners through sensible endeavors.
Program Educational Objectives (PEO):
Mechanical Engineering Graduates will be able to;
1. Pursue their professional career in core and allied domains.

2. Continuously upgrade their professional skills through higher
education and/or other learning programs.
3. Exhibit strong professional and social ethics, and participation in
interdisciplinary ventures.
Program Specific Outcome (PSO)
1. Apply the acquired knowledge of mechanical engineering to

develop techniques and systems by drawing inferences through
investigations using modern tools.
2. Analyze and solve practical problems in mechanical engineering
with profound concern about the society and environment.
Program Outcomes
1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering

fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems.
2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of
mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems
and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate
consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental
considerations.
4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and
research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and
synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.
5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and
modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex engineering
activities with an understanding of the limitations.
6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to
assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities
relevant to the professional engineering practice.
7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering
solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need
for sustainable development.
8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and
norms of the engineering practice.
9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or
leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the
engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and
write effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and
receive clear instructions.
11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and
leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to
engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.
COURSE OVERVIEW
Subject: FLUID POWER ENGINEERING Subject Code: 18ME55

Fluid power engineering as a subject in VTU curriculum for 5th semester Mechanical
Engineering discipline outline the fundamentals, advantages, applications and structure of
fluid power systems and the applications of Pascal’s Law as well. It emphasis the concepts
involved in maintenance of such systems as well. The syllabus emphasizes the study on
understanding, classification, construction and working of pumps and actuators and
assesses their performance. Selection factors of pumps are also highlighted. The
constructional and working details of various control components and their accessories are
also targeted through this course. With the adverse information on all the aspects of fluid
power systems, hydraulic and pneumatic circuits could be designed and the influence of
signal processing elements in those circuits and in multi cylinder applications is analyzed in
the study.
COURSE OBJECTIVES
1. To understand the concepts and relationships surrounding force, pressure, energy
and power in fluid power systems
2. To examine the concepts centering on sources of hydraulic power, rotary and
linear actuators, distribution systems, hydraulic flow in pipes and control
components in fluid power systems
3. Exposure to build and interpret the hydraulic and pneumatic circuits related to
industrial applications
4. To familiarize with logic controls and trouble shooting
COURSE OUTCOMES
COs Description
Apply the fundamentals of fluid power system to interpret the construction and
18ME55.1
working of various components in fluid power systems
18ME55.2 Identify the performance parameters of hydraulic pumps and actuators
18ME55.3 Select different components for hydraulic and pneumatic circuits
Analyze the functional requirements of a fluid power transmission system for a
18ME55.4
given application
Design an appropriate hydraulic/pneumatic circuit or combination circuit like
18ME55.5
electro-hydraulics, electro-pneumatics for a given application
Prof. Ramanandan H S Prof. Krishna Prasad Prof. Sachin B

Faculty & Course Coordinator Faculty Faculty
Prof. RAVIKUMAR K S Dr Y D CHETHAN Dr MOHAMED KHAISAR

Facilitator NBA Coordinator HOD
SYLLABUS
COURSE CODE CREDITS L-T-P ASSESSMENT DURATION

CIA SEE
FPE 18ME55 4 3-2-0 3 HRS
20 80
Module 1: Introduction to fluid power systems (10hrs)
Fluid power system: components, advantages and applications. Transmission of power at

static and dynamic states. Pascal’s law and its applications.
Fluids for hydraulic system: types, properties, and selection. Additives, effect of temperature
and pressure on hydraulic fluid.
Seals, sealing materials, compatibility of seal with fluids. Types of pipes, hoses, and quick
acting couplings. Pressure drop in hoses/pipes. Fluid conditioning through filters, strainers;
sources of contamination and contamination control; heat exchangers.
Module 2: Pumps and actuators (10hrs)
Pumps: Classification of pumps, Pumping theory of positive displacement pumps,

construction and working of Gear pumps, Vane pumps, Piston pumps, fixed and variable
displacement pumps, Pump performance characteristics, pump selection factors, problems on
pumps.
Accumulators: Types, selection/ design procedure, applications of accumulators. Types of
Intensifiers, Pressure switches /sensor, Temperature switches/sensor, Level sensor.
Actuators: Classification cylinder and hydraulic motors, Hydraulic cylinders, single and
double acting cylinder, mounting arrangements, cushioning, special types of cylinders,
problems on cylinders. Construction and working of rotary actuators such as gear, vane,
piston motors, and Hydraulic Motor. Theoretical torque, power, flow rate, and hydraulic
motor performance; numerical problems. Symbolic representation of hydraulic actuators
(cylinders and motors).
Module 3: Components and hydraulic circuit design Components (10hrs)
Classification of control valves, Directional Control Valves-symbolic representation,

constructional features of poppet, sliding spool, rotary type valves solenoid and pilot operated
DCV, shuttle valve, and check valves. Pressure control valves - types, direct operated types
and pilot operated types. Flow Control Valves -compensated and non-compensated FCV,
needle valve, temperature compensated, pressure compensated, pressure and temperature
compensated FCV, symbolic representation.
Hydraulic Circuit Design: Control of single and Double -acting hydraulic cylinder,
regenerative circuit, pump unloading circuit, double pump hydraulic system, counter balance
valve application, hydraulic cylinder sequencing circuits, cylinder synchronizing circuit using
different methods, hydraulic circuit for force multiplication; speed control of hydraulic
cylinder metering in, metering out and bleed off circuits. Pilot pressure operated circuits.
Hydraulic circuit examples with accumulator
Module4: Pneumatic power systems (10hrs)
Introduction to Pneumatic systems: Pneumatic power system, advantages, limitations,

applications, Choice of working medium. Characteristics of compressed air and air
compressors. Structure of pneumatic control System, fluid conditioners-dryers and FRL unit.
Pneumatic Actuators: Linear cylinder – types of cylinders, working, end position cushioning,
seals, mounting arrangements, and applications. Rotary cylinders- types, construction and
application, symbols.
Pneumatic Control Valves: DCV such as poppet, spool, suspended seat type slide valve,
pressure control valves, flow control valves, types and construction, use of memory valve,
Quick exhaust valve, time delay valve, shuttle valve, twin pressure valve, symbols.
Module5: Pneumatic control circuits (10hrs)
Direct and indirect actuation pneumatic cylinders, speed control of cylinders - supply air
throttling and exhaust air throttling.
Signal Processing Elements: Use of Logic gates - OR and AND gates in pneumatic
applications. Practical examples involving the use of logic gates.
Multi- Cylinder Application: Coordinated and sequential motion control, motion and control
diagrams. Signal elimination methods, Cascading method- principle, Practical application
examples (up to two cylinders) using cascading method (using reversing valves). Electro-
Pneumatic Control: Principles - signal input and output, pilot assisted solenoid control of
directional control valves, use of relay and contactors. Control circuitry for simple signal
cylinder application
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Anthony Esposito, “Fluid Power with applications”, Pearson edition,2000 .

2. Majumdar S.R., “Oil Hydraulics”, Tala McGRaw HllL, 2002 .
3. Majumdar S.R., “Pneumatic systems - Principles and Maintenance”, Tata McGraw-Hill,
New Delhi, 2005
REFERENCE BOOKS:
1. John Pippenger, Tyler Hicks, “Industrial Hydraulics”, McGraw Hill International Edition,
1980.
2. Andrew Par, Hydraulics and pneumatics, Jaico Publishing House, 2005.
3. FESTO, Fundamentals of Pneumatics, Vol I, II and III.
4. Herbert E. Merritt, “Hydraulic Control Systems”, John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
5. Thomson, Introduction to Fluid power, Prentcie HaIl, 2004 6. John Watton, “Fundamentals
of fluid power control”, Cambridge University press, 2012.
SCHEME OF EXAMINATION:
Two questions to be set from each module. Students have to answer five full questions,
choosing one full question from each module.
INDEX
SL. No. Contents Page No.

1 Module 1: Introduction to fluid power systems 1-18
2 Module 2: Pumps and Actuators 19-61
3 Module 3: Components and Hydraulic circuit design 62-92
4 Module 4: Pneumatic control systems 93-124
5 Module 5: Pneumatic control circuits 125-158
Maharaja Institute of Technology, Mysore Department of Mechanical Engineering
Module 1
Introduction to Fluid Power Systems
What is Fluid Power?
Fluid power is the technology that deals with the generation, control and transmission of
power using pressurized fluids.
 Fluid power is used to push, pull, regulate or drive virtually all the machines of the
modern industry. For example, fluid power steers and brakes automobiles, launches
spacecraft, harvest crops, mines coal, drives machine tools, control airplanes and even
drills teeth.
 When the fluid used is liquid then fluid power is called Hydraulics.
 Similarly when fluid used is gas then fluid power is called Pneumatics.
 Hydraulic system use liquid such as petroleum oils, synthetic oils and water.
 First hydraulic fluid to be used was water because its readily available. However
water has many deficiencies in comparison to hydraulic oils. For example water may
freeze more readily; it’s not a good lubricant and tends to rust metallic components.
 In hydraulic system, water is used with certain additives to improve lubrication, rust
protection and prevent freezing when it’s necessary.
Generally there are 2 different types of fluid systems
1. Fluid transport systems – have their sole objective is to deliver the fluid from one
place to another to accomplish some useful purpose. For example pumping water to
homes in the pumping stations.
2. Fluid power systems – are designed specifically to perform work and it’s
accomplished by using a pressurized fluid with fluid cylinder and motor which are
also called actuators.
 Fluid cylinder produces a forces resulting in linear motion. Whereas fluid
motor produces a torque resulting in rotary motion. Thus fluid power system
provide the muscle to do desired work.
Components of Fluid Power System

There are six basic components required in the hydraulic system.
1. Tank- to hold the hydraulic oil
2. Pump – to force the oil through the system.
3. Electric motor or power source to drive the pump
4. Valves to control oil direction, pressure and flow rate.
5. Actuator to convert the pressure of the oil into mechanical force or torque to do
useful work.
6. Piping which carries the oil from one location to another.
Module1: Introduction to fluid power system Page 1

Construction and working
 Hydraulic system generally requires a fluid to operate and consequently the

piping must be acts as a closed loop, in order to transfer the fluid from storage
to tank to one side of the piston and returned from piston to the storage tank.
 An air tank to store a given volume of compressed air.
 A Compressor to compress the air that comes directly from the atmosphere.
 An electric motor or other prime mover to drive the compressor.
 Valves to control air direction, pressure and flow rate.
 Actuators. Which are similar in operation to hydraulic actuators.
 Piping to carry the pressurized air from one location to another
(i) To extend the cylinder, port A is connected to the pressure line and
Port B connected to the Tank
(ii) To reverse the motion, port B connected to Pressure line and Port A to
the tank.
(iii) In its central position the valve locks the fluid in to the cylinder.
Advantages of Fluid Power System
1. Fluid power systems are simple, easy to operate and can be controlled accurately:
Fluid power gives flexibility to the equipment without requiring a complex mechanism.
I.e. using fluid power, we can start, stop, accelerate, decelerate, reverse or position large
forces/components with great accuracy using simple levers and push buttons.
2. Multiplication of forces: Linear or rotary force can be multiplied by a fraction of a
kilogram to several hundreds of tons.
3. Low-speed torque: Unlike electric motors, hydraulic motors can produce a large amount
of torque while operating at low speeds.
4. Constant force or torque: Fluid power systems can deliver constant torque or force
regardless of speed changes.
5. Low weight to power ratio: The hydraulic system has a low weight to power ratio
compared to electromechanical systems. Fluid power systems are compact.
6. Fluid power systems can be used where safety is of vital importance: Safety is of vital
importance in air and space travel, in the production and operation of motor vehicles, in
mining and manufacture of delicate products.

7. Economical: Not only reduction in required manpower but also the production or
elimination of operator fatigue, as a production factor, is an important element in the use
of fluid power.
8. Multifunction control: A single hydraulic pump or air compressor can provide power
and control for numerous machines using valve manifolds and distribution systems.
Disadvantages of Fluid Power System
1. Hydraulic oil leakages are impossible to eliminate completely. Disposal of waste oil or
used oil is also biggest problem
2. Hydraulic lines can burst, possibly resulting in injuries to people due to high speed oil jets
and flying pieces of metal if proper design is not implemented
3. Most hydraulic oils can cause fires, if an oil leak occurs in an area of hot equipment
4. Hydraulic elements have to be specially treated to protect them from rusting, corrosion,
dirt etc.
5. Hydraulic oil posses many problems if it disintegrates due to ageing and chemical
deterioration
6. Hydraulic equipment and devices are quite expensive and hence initial investment will be
high
7. Hydraulic equipment and devices should be machined to highest accuracy.
Applications of Hydraulic System

1. Automobile power steering systems
2. Automobile braking systems
3. Agriculture equipment’s used to harvesting of crops
4. Industrial hydraulics trucks
5. To drive excavators or earthmovers
6. Hydraulic jacks
7. NC and CNC machines
8. Aircrafts and Spacecrafts
9. Overhead trams
10. Oceanography
Transmission of power at static and dynamic states
(a) Transmission of power at static is nothing but hydrostatic condition. It’s concerned
with mechanics of still fluid and uses theory of equilibrium conditions in fluid.
It describes motion of fluid without considering the forces and moments causes the motion.
OR
It describes the motion of fluid without considering the forces and moments causes the
motion.
Example positive displacement pumps like Reciprocating Pump, here motion of the fluid
from one place to another with the help of linear motion of the piston.
Note: - Force acting at any point of the fluid is remains same in all the directions.

(b) Transmission of power at dynamic state is nothing but hydrodynamic condition

deals with mechanics of moving fluid & uses flow theory.
I.e. motion of fluid with considering forces and moments causes the motion.
Example Non-positive displacement pump like centrifugal pump, here motion of the
fluid from one place to another due to development of centrifugal force due to rotation
of impeller.
Difference between Transmission of power at Static and dynamic state
Transmission of power at Static state Transmission of power at dynamic state

Fluid flow is discontinuous initially from sump to Fluid flow is Continuous from sump to pump
pump and pump to discharge tank
It requires Positive internal seal It does not requires Positive internal seal
Pressure remains same at any point of the fluid Here output pressure varies depends on area of
the casing.
Pascal’s Law
Pascal’s law reveals the basic principle of how fluid power systems perform useful work.
This law can be stated as follows: Pressure applied to a confined fluid is transmitted
undiminished in all directions throughout the fluid and acts perpendicular to the surface in
contact with the fluid

Application of Pascal’s Law – Analysis of Simple Hydraulic Jack
Application of hydraulic jack we can see in car service station
Consider a simple hydraulic jack as show in the figure.

 Here downward input force F1 applied to the small diameter piston 1, oh having an area A1,
hence pressure P1 is developed & its transmitted through the oil of the Piston 1.
 This pressure is transmitted through, the oil to the large diameter Piston 2, of having an area
A2 hence pressure P2 developed. This pressure p2 acts on the piston 2 develop force F2.
Fluids for Hydraulic System
1. Water: The least expensive hydraulic fluid is water, its easily available, but tendency to
rust & corrosive also ineffective lubrication due to variation of temperature.
2. Petroleum Oils: These are the most common among the hydraulic fluids which are used
in a wide range of hydraulic applications. Improved lubrication, prevent rust;
flammability is the major issue & ready to ignite.
3. Water glycol: its non-flammable fluid, 35-55% water & glycol up to 50%, improved
viscosity, prevent rust & foaming.
4. Synthetic oil: fluid based on chemicals such as phosphate ester, Non-flammable & can be
used at high temperature.

Properties of Fluids used in hydraulic system
1. Viscosity: Viscosity is the measure of the fluid resistance to flow at a definite

temperature and pressure.
 At low velocity leads to increase in temperature, excessive wear, internal leakage
& decrease in pump efficiency. Example- water & petrol.
 At high Velocity leads to high resistance to flow, pressure loss & pressure drop.
Example-Honey & Tar.
2. Viscosity Index: it’s the rate of change of viscosity with temperature, i.e. temperature
increases viscosity decreases & vice-versa.
 If fluid having relatively stable viscosity at extreme temperature said to have high
viscosity index.
3. Demulsibility: it’s the ability of oil to separate water from it and to resist emulsification
i.e. it resists tends to form foam.
 With proper degree of refining, a hydraulic can have a high degree of
Demulsibility.
 Formation foam leads to excessive oxidation & pump cavitations also reduces
lubricating property.
4. Oxidation stability: It is the ability of the fluid to resist oxidation or deterioration during
the service life of the fluid.
 Most of the oxidation products are readily soluble in oil and additional reaction
forms gums, sludge and varnish. 
5. Lubricity & Lubricating value: it’s ability of a fluid to perform satisfactorily i.e. to
minimize friction and hence wear is due to a property called lubricating value
 Lubricating value is directly related to its chemical nature and chemical affinity
for metals.
6. Rust and corrosion: Corrosion may be due to acidity or alkalinity of the oil called as
neutralization number & corrosion is eating away the surfaces.
 Rust is due to prolonged exposure of surface to moisture i.e. Many systems will
be idle for long periods after working at elevated temperatures. This permits
moisture to be condensed on the surfaces resulting in rust
Desired Qualities of Hydraulic Systems

1. Proper viscosity
2. High viscosity index
3. High degree of Demulsibility
4. Oxidation stability and oxidation resistance
5. High lubricating value
6. Rust and corrosion preventive
7. Prevent formation of sludge’s, gums and varnish.

Selection of Hydraulic fluid

Selection of the hydraulic oil is mainly depends on the properties of the fluid like
viscosity, viscosity index, Demulsibility, oxidation stability, lubricity & Rust & corrosion.
 An air system is recommended for fairly medium amount of pressure and motion
of the actuator
 Combination of air and oil is recommended when greater precision and accuracy
of motion of actuator is desired
 An oil hydraulic system is preferred when greater pressure and extremely precise
and accurate motion is desired
 Working environment also influence the type of system to be selected
Additives
Various additives are added to the fluid to sustain the important characteristics
1. Anti-foaming: They are added to reduce foaming of fluid. i.e. chemicals in this additive
group possess low interfacial tension, which weakens the oil bubble wall and allows the
foam bubbles to burst more readily. Ex: Oil Insoluble Silicone.
2. Anti-wear: Wear resistant chemicals are added to the fluid to protect critical hydraulic
components from wear.
 They are activated by the heat of contact to form a film that minimizes wear.
 They also help protect the base oil from oxidation and the metal from damage by
corrosive acids.
3. Corrosion inhibitor: chemicals are added to protect surfaces from chemical attack by
water.
4. Biocides: water-based lubricants or emulsifying chemicals are added to the fluid
control the growth of bacteria.
5. Emulsifier: these are added to facilitate formation and stabilization of an emulsion.
6. Lubrication Oiliness agents: Extreme Pressure (EP) agents are added to the fluid to
enhance lubrication characteristics for effective full film boundary lubrication between
the mating parts.
7. Flocculants: Chemicals added to dispersion of solids in a liquid to combine fine particles
to form floe or small solid masses in the fluid.
8. Oxidation inhibitor: Anti-oxidation additives are added to provide anti-oxidation
characteristics.
 Oxidation changes the chemical characteristics of the fluid.
 Oxidation is the general attack of the weakest components of the base oil by
oxygen in the air.
9. Deionisation: Elements which provide hardness like calcium, manganese, iron, and
aluminium salts are removed through deionization of the water
10. Vapour phase inhibitor: Prevention of oxidation or corrosion of metals in contact with
the vapour phase of the fluid is ensured by addition of appropriate chemicals

Effect of Temperature and pressure on Hydraulic fluid
(a) Effect of Temperature on Hydraulic Fluid

The temperature affects the viscosity of hydraulic fluid. The viscosity of liquids decreases with
the increase of temperature.
Viscosity is a measure of fluid resistance to flow.
i. High temperature leads to low viscosity, fluid flow is easy and its appearance is thin.
ii. Low temperature leads to high viscosity, fluid flow is difficult and appearance is
thick.
Too high viscosity results in
 High resistance to flow which causes sluggish operation.
 Increased power consumption due to frictional losses
 Increased pressure drop through lines and valves.
Too low viscosity results in
 Internal oil leakage past the seal
 Excessive wear due to breakdown of oil between mating parts.
Example: internal pump components, sliding spool inside a valve.
(b) Effect of Temperature on Hydraulic Fluid
If the fluid is highly viscous generates more friction & heat and causes high pressure drop.
 Sluggish operation
 Low-mechanical efficiency
 High power consumption.
On the other hand if the fluid is low viscosity
 Permit efficient low-drag operation
 But tend to increase wear, reduce volumetric efficiency and promote leakage.
Seals
The seal is an agent which prevents leakage of oil from the hydraulic elements and
protects the system from dust/dirt.
 Internal leakage does not result in loss of fluid from the system because the fluid returns
to the reservoir. This leakage increases as component clearance between mating parts
increases due to wear. Example clearance between piston and cylinder bore.
 External leakage represents the loss of fluid from the system. Improper assembly of the
pipe fittings is the most common cause of external leakage.
Function of the Seal
1) Prevent leakage both internal and external

2) Prevent the dust and other particles entering into the system
3) Maintain pressure
4) Enhance the service life and reliability of the hydraulic system and its elements over a
long service period

CLASSIFICATION OF SEALS
According to the method of sealing
1) Positive sealing: A positive seal prevents even a minute amount of oil from getting past.
A positive seal does not allow any leakage whatsoever (external or internal).
2) Non-positive sealing: A non-positive seal allows a small amount of internal leakage,

such as the clearance of the piston to provide a lubrication film.
According to the relative motion existing between the seals and other parts
1) Static seals: These are used between mating parts that do not move relative to one
another. These are relatively simple. They are essentially non-wearing and usually
trouble-free if assembled properly.
2) Dynamic seals: These are assembled between mating parts that move relative to each
other. Hence, dynamic seals are subject to wear because one of the mating parts rubs
against the seal.
According to geometrical cross-section
1) O-rings
 O-ring is the most widely used seal for hydraulic systems.
 It is a moulded synthetic rubber seal that has a round cross-section in its free state.
 O-ring seals give effective sealing through a wide range of pressures and temperatures
 An O-ring is installed in an annular groove machined in to one of the mating parts.

 When it is initially installed, it is compressed at both its inside and outside diameters.
 When the pressure is applied, the O-ring is forced against a third surface to create a
positive seal.
 O-rings give effective sealing at very high pressures.
 O-rings are most commonly used static seal.
2) Compression Packings [V- and U-Shape Seal]

 V-ring and U-ring seals are compression type seals that are used in virtually all types
of reciprocating motion applications.
 These include rod and piston seals in hydraulic and pneumatic cylinders, press rams,
jacks and seals on plungers and pistons in reciprocating pumps.
 They are also suited to certain slow rotary applications such as valve systems

3) T-ring seal
 T-ring seal is a dynamic seal that is extensively used to seal cylinder-pistons, piston rods
and other reciprocating parts.
 It is made of synthetic rubber moulded in the shape of the cross-section T and reinforced
by backup rings on either side.
 The sealing edge is rounded and seals very much like an O-ring.
4) Piston cup packings

 Piston cup packings are designed specifically for pistons in reciprocating pumps and
pneumatic and hydraulic cylinders.
 They offer the best service life for this type of application, require a minimum recess
space and minimum recess machining, and can be installed easily and quickly.
5) Piston rings
 Piston rings are seals that are universally used for cylinder pistons.
 Piston rings offer substantially less opposition to motion than synthetic rubber
(elastomer) seals.
Sealing Materials
Various metallic and non-metallic materials are used for fabrication of seals that are used
in hydraulic systems. Leather, metals and elastomers are very common seal materials.
1. Leather
 The material is rugged and inexpensive. However, it tends to squeal when dry and
cannot operate above 900C, which is inadequate for many hydraulic systems.
 Leather does operate well at cold temperatures to about -500C.
2. Buna-N
 This material is rugged and inexpensive and wears well.
 It has a rather wide operating temperature range (-450C to 1100C) during which it
maintains its good sealing characteristics.
3. Silicone
 This elastomers has an extremely wide operating temperature range (-650C to
2300C).
 Hence it is widely used for rotating shaft seals and static seals where a wide
operating temperature is expected.
 Silicone is not used for reciprocating seal applications because it has low tear
resistance.
4. Neoprene
 This material has a temperature range of -500C to 1200C.
 It is unsuitable above 1200C because it has tendency to vulcanize.

5. Tetra-fluoro-ethylene
 This material is most widely used plastic for seals of hydraulic systems.
 It is tough, chemically inert, waxy solid, which can be processed only by
compacting and sintering.
 It has excellent resistance to chemical breakdown up to temperatures of 370 0C.
6. Viton
 This material contains about 65% fluorine.
 It has become almost a standard material for elastomer type seals for elastomer
type seal for use at elevated temperatures up to 2500 C.
 Its minimum operating temperature is -300C.
Compatibility of seal with fluids
Pipes and Hoses
In a hydraulic system, the fluid flows through a distribution system consisting of pipes
(conductors) and fittings, which carry the fluid from the reservoir through operating components
and back to the reservoir.
Since power is transmitted throughout the system by means of these conducting lines, it follows
that they must be properly designed in order for the total system to function properly.
Hydraulic systems use primarily four types of conductors

1) Steel pipes
2) Steel tubing
3) Plastic tubing
4) Flexible hoses
 The choice of which conductor to use depends primarily on the systems operating
pressures and flow rates.
 In addition, the selection depends on environmental conditions such as the type of fluid,
operating temperatures, vibration, and whether or not there is relative motion between
connected components.
1) Steel pipes: Less expensive than steel tubing.
2) Steel tubing: It provides greater plumbing flexibility and neater appearance and require
fewer fittings.

3) Plastic tubing: Increase industrial usage because it is not costly, and circuit can be easily
hooked up due to its flexibility.
4) Flexible hoses: Flexible hoses are used when hydraulic components such as actuators are
subjected to movement.
 Examples of this are found in portable power units, mobile equipment, and
hydraulic powered machine tools.
 Hose is fabricated in layers of elastomer (synthetic rubber) and braided fabric or
braided wire, which permits operation at higher pressures.
 The outer layer is normally synthetic rubber and serves to protect the braid layer.
The hose can have as few as three layers or can have multiple layers to handle
elevated pressures.
Quick Acting Couplings
 Couplings are precision components, engineered for specific uses with exact dimensions
and close tolerances.
 These are used for both plastic tubing and flexible hose.
 It is used mainly where the conductor must be disconnected frequently from a
component.
 This type of coupling permits assembly and disassembly in matter of a second or two.
Example in connecting or disconnecting a tractor and its hydraulically actuated
agricultural component.
The three basic designs are

1) Straight through: The design offers minimum restriction to flow but does not prevent
fluid loss from the system when the coupling is disconnected.
2) One-way shutoff: This design locates the shutoff at the fluid source connection but
leaves the actuator component unblocked. Leakage from the system is not excessive in
short runs, but system contamination due to the entrance of dirt in the open end of the
fitting can be a problem, especially with the mobile equipment located at the work site

3) Two-way shutoff: This design provides positive shutoff of both ends of pressurized lines
when disconnected. Such couplings put an end to the loss of fluids. As soon as you
release the locking sleeve, valves in both the socket and plug close, creating a positive
seal. There is no chance of premature flow or waste due to a partial connection.
Pressure drop in hoses/pipes

When a fluid is flowing through a pipe, the fluid experiences some resistance due to
which some of pressure of fluid is lost.
This loss of pressure is classified as
1. Major losses: due to viscous effects in straight pipe or due to friction
In a fluid flow, frictional loss is the pressure loss or head loss that occurs in
pipe due to effect of the fluids viscosity near the surface of the pipe.
Therefore due to this outlet pressure is always less than the inlet pressure.
According to darcy-weisbach equation
2. Minor losses: due to viscous effects in pipe

 Bend, elbow & T – change the direction of flow
 Valves – used to adjust the flow rate
 Sudden contraction/expansion – slow down/speed up flow
 Gradual contraction/expansion- diffuser/Nozzle
 Entrance in to pipe system from reservoir
 Exit from pipe system into reservoir
Fluid conditioning through Filters and strainers
Hydraulic components are very sensitive to contamination. The cause of majority of

hydraulic system failures can be traced back to contamination. Hence for proper operation and
long service life of a hydraulic system, oil cleanliness is of prime importance.
Strainers and filters are designed to remove foreign particles from the hydraulic fluid.

Filters are devices whose primary function is the retention of insoluble contaminants from fluid,
by some fine porous medium.
 Filters are used to pick up smaller contaminant particles because they are able to
accumulate them better than a strainer.
 Particle sizes removed by filters are measured in microns. The smallest sized particle that
can be removed is as small as 1 μm.
Strainers is a coarse filter, whose function is to remove large particles from a fluid using a wire
screen.
 Fluid flows more or less straight through it. It does not provide as fine a screening action
as filters do, but offers less resistance to flow.
 The smallest sized particle that can be removed by a strainer is as small as 0.15 mm or
150 μm.
CLASSIFICATION OF FILTERS
Based on filtering methods
1. Mechanical: This type normally contains a metal or cloth screen or a series of metal
disks separated by thin spacers. Mechanical filters are capable of removing only relatively
coarse particles from the fluid.
2. Absorbent: These filters are porous and permeable materials such as paper, wood pulp,
cloth, cellulose and asbestos. Paper filters are impregnated with a resin to provide added
strength. In this type of filters, the particles are actually absorbed as the fluid infiltrates
the material. Hence, these filters are used for extremely small particle filtration.
3. Adsorbent: Adsorption is a surface phenomenon and refers to the tendency of particles to
cling to the surface of the filters. Thus, the capacity of such a filter depends on the
amount of surface area available. Adsorbent materials used include activated clay and
chemically treated paper.
Depending on the amount of oil filtered by a filter
1. Full flow filters: In this type, complete oil is filtered. Full flow of oil must enter the filter
element at its inlet and must be expelled through the outlet after crossing the filter
element fully. This is an efficient filter. However, it incurs large pressure drops. This
pressure drop increases as the filter gets blocked by contamination.
Generally, these filters are provided with a safety valve before it which cracks when the
filter is unacceptably blocked.

2. Proportional filters (bypass filters): In some hydraulic system applications, only a

portion of oil is passed through the filter instead of entire volume and the main flow is
directly passed without filtration through a restricted passage.
 As the main flow passes through the venturi, a localized low pressure is created. This
pressure differential across the filters, influences the filter to draw a proportion of the
fluid through the filter and hence called proportional flow filter. It is characterized by low
pressure drop and hence pressure relief valve is not necessary.
Sources of contamination and contamination control
All hydraulic fluids contain contaminants to one degree or the other. Excessive solid
contaminants in the hydraulic fluid will cause premature failure of even excellently designed
hydraulic system.
i.e. solid contaminants in the hydraulic fluid made improper lubrication on moving parts such as
pump, hydraulic motor, valves & actuators.
Types of Contaminants
For reliable operation of hydraulically controlled system an absolutely clean fluid is

essential. The common contaminants in fluid may be in the form of:
1. Particulate matter
2. Water
3. Air
4. Chemical reaction products such as gums, sludges etc.
5. Other non-compatible fluids such as acids, paints, varnishes etc.
Source of Contamination and contamination control
1. Built in metal chips: During manufacturing such as, welding scales, lapping compound,
sand from casting particles of metal during machining.
2. Generated within the system during Operation: Excessive fluid velocities erode the
inner surface of pipes and components surfaces and add to the fluid
3. External source: Air entering the reservoir contains dirt and moisture which causes
formation of rust on the walls of the reservoir and get into the fluid

4. Generated during maintenance: Frequent opening and closing of the system, exposing
the system for unfavorable environments, addition of fluids to the reservoir during filling-
up operation etc.
5. Acid by-products, sledges, elastomer particles generated by seals and airborne solids
Effects of Solid contaminats
Solid contamination effects the power transmission, cooling process and lubricating ability of
the hydraulic fluid.
1. Solid contaminants interfere with the power transmission by blocking small orifices in
the devices such as pressure valves and flow control valves.
The action of a valve is affected which are unpredictable and unsafe.
2. Solid contamination interferes with the cooling process by forming sludges on the
walls of the reservoir.
Heat transfer from the fluid to the reservoir wall is slowed down resulting in higher
operating temperature of the system
3. The most serious effect that contamination can have on the system is when it affects
the lubricating ability of the fluid.
Classification of solid contaminants
Solid contaminants can classify by their size relative to the clearance between the moving parts of
a hydraulic component.
Example radial clearance between piston and the bore of the hydraulic cylinder:
There are three relative sizes:
1) Smaller than the clearance
2) Equal to the clearance
3) Larger than the clearance
 Contaminants that are smaller than the clearance can collect inside the clearance when the
hydraulic cylinder is not operating.
 Contaminants of the same size as the clearance rub against the mating surfaces, causing
the break down in a lubricating film.
 Large contaminants interfere with the lubrication by collecting at the entrance of the
clearance and blocking fluid flow between the mating surfaces.

Heat exchangers
 Heat is generated in hydraulic system because no component can operate at 100 %
efficiency
 Significant sources of heat include the pump, pressure relief valve, and flow control
valves
 Excessive temperature increases rate of oxidation of the hydraulic oil and reduces its
viscosity. Similarly, low temperature of the fluid increases the viscosity resulting in loss
of power.
 This leads to deterioration of seals and packing’s and accelerates the wear between
closely mating parts such as valves, pumps and actuators
 If the fluid operating temperature in a hydraulic system becomes excessive, this means
that the heat generation rate is too large relative to the heat-dissipation rate.
 So in order to increase the heat-dissipation rate, coolers are commonly used they are also
called “Heat exchangers”.
 In some application, the fluid must be heated to produce a satisfactory value of
viscosity. Such cases, heat exchanger are also called as “Heaters”
There are two main types of heat-dissipation heat exchangers:
1) Air coolers
2) Water coolers
Air-Cooler
 Air coolers are expensive cooler and power required to operate is less compared to water
cooler
 The fluid is made to pump through tubes made of aluminium or some other metal
provided with fins on its surface
 Heat present in the fluid is transferred to the outer surface of the tube and is dissipated in
to atmosphere by blowing air
 Air coolers are less efficient that water coolers and tend to be ineffective in environment
of high ambient temperature
 Air cooler is preferred only when water is not readily available or scarcity.
Water cooler
Water cooling the most common method employed for cooling any system. Figure shows
shell & tube exchangers which is fitted in the return line of the tank.
 Cold water is passed through the tube & it surrounds the hot fluid.
 Here water floes in the opposite direction of the flow of fluid & it termed as counter
flow cooler.

 Heat removed from the fluid by the water can be regulated thermostatically to
maintain desired temperature.
 Clean water should be used to avoid the cooler from clogging.

Module 2
PUMPS and ACTUATORS
Pump which is a heart of the hydraulic system, it coverts mechanical energy into
Hydraulic energy. Mechanical energy delivered to the pump via prime mover such as
electrical motor.
 Due to mechanical action, the pump creates a partial vacuum at inlet, this permits
atmospheric pressure to force the fluid through the inlet line to pump.
 Pump then pushes the fluid into the hydraulic system.
CLASSIFICATION OF PUMPS
1. Positive displacement Pump

2. Non-positive displacement pump
Positive displacement Pump

 This type of pump universally used for fluid power system.
 Here pump ejects fixed amount of fluid into the hydraulic system per revolution of
pump shaft rotation.
 Such a pump is capable of overcoming the pressure resulting from the mechanical loads
on the system as well as the resistance to flow due to friction.
Non-positive displacement pump

 This type is generally used for low- pressure, high-volume flow applications.
 Normally their maximum pressure capacity is limited to 250-300psi.
 This type of pump is primarily used for transporting fluids from one location to another.
 Common types of Positive displacement pumps are the Reciprocating pump.
Pumping theory of Positive displacement pump
 Pump operates on the principle where by a partial vacuum is created at the pump inlet
due to internal operation of the pump.
 This allows atmospheric pressure to push the fluid out of the oil tank(reservoir) & into
the pump intake.
 Pump then mechanically pushes the fluid out of the discharge line.
Module2: Pump and Actuators 19

Gear Pump
 A gear pump consists of two meshing gears identical in all respect one of them
coupled to a driving shaft known as driver gear and drives the second gear called the
driven gear.
 These gears are enclosed inside housing with side plates often called wear/pressure
plate, the pumping chamber formed between the gear teeth.
There are 3 types of gear pump based on the meshing of gears.
1. External gear pump
2. Internal gear pump
3. Gerotor pump
4. Lobe pump.
External gear pump

 External gear pump which develops the flow by carrying the fluid between the teeth
of two meshing gears.
 gears may be either spur/helical, each gear is mounted on a shaft one of these shaft is
coupled to the prime mover i.e. driver motor.
 Two ports are provided to serve as inlet port & delivery port and are located on
opposite sides of the housing.

 For better performance, port should be large, straight & unobstructed as possible.
Working principle
 One of the gear is connected to a drive shaft connected to a prime mover, second gear
is driven as it meshes with driver gear.
 Oil chamber is formed between the gear teeth, pump housing & side wear plates.
 Suction side is where teeth come out of mesh and here volume expands brings about
reduction in pressure to below atmospheric pressure. Fluid is pushed into this void by
atmospheric pressure because oil supply tank is vented to atmosphere.
 The discharge side is where teeth go into mesh and volume decreases between the
mating teeth. since the pump has a positive internal seal against leakage the oil is
positively ejected into the outlet port.
Volumetric displacement of the external gear pump can be found by calculating volume of
the hollow cylinder.
Where
Do – outside diameter of gear teeth
Di - inside diameter of gear teeth
L – length of the gear teeth
VD- Displaced volume of pump
N- Rpm of pump
QT – Theoretical flow rate

Volumetric efficiency of external gear pump

There must be small clearance between tip & pump housing, due to this some of the
oil at the discharge port can leak directly back to suction port.
This means QA ≤ QT, its depends on volumetric displacement & pump speed.
Volumetric efficiency of external gear-pump is approximately 90%.
Internal gear pump
 It consist of one gear which is inside the outer gear, inner gear has shaft driven by
motor & has a teeth protrude outward.
 Outer gear has teeth protrude inward at centre of the pump, has inner gear rotates it
meshes with outer gear.
 The liquid is trapped in the gear spaces & carried from inlet to discharge.
 Stationary crescent divider separates intake & discharge portion of the fluid.
 The configuration & operation of internal gear pump as shown in the figure. The
design consists of internal gear, a regular spur gear, a crescent shaped seal & external
housing.
 As power applied to the either of the gear, motion of the gear draws fluid from the
reservoir & forces it around both sides of the crescent seal, which acts as seal between
suction & discharge port.
 When teeth mesh on the side opposite to the crescent seal, the fluid is forced to enter
the discharge port of the pump.
Gerotor Pump
 One of the most common types of internal gear pump is called “Gerotor pump”.
 A Gerotor pump combines an internal gear inside an external gear without crescent
seal.
 In this case inner gear has one tooth lee than the external gear & its keyed to the
driving shaft.


 As the gear rotates, each tooth of the inner gear is in constant mesh with teeth of
annular.
 As the annular has one teeth more than the inner gear it rotates at slower speed.
 During the first half, space between the rotating teeth increases from smaller to large
volume & drawing the fluid into the chamber.
 Similarly during the second half, space between the rotating teeth decreases from
larger volume to smaller volume forcing the fluid into the outlet port.
Lobe Pump
Lobe pump operates similar fashion to the external gear pump. i.e. external meshing
gear pump. But unlike external gear pump both the lobes are driven externally so that they
are not actually in contact with each other.
 They are quiter than other type of gear pump.
 Due to the small number of mating elements the lobe pump output will have some
amount of pulsation.
 Although VD is generally greater than that of other types of gear pump.
Advantage
It’s suitable for shear sensitive fluids as well as fluid with entrapped gases & particles.
Disadvantage
Relatively low pressure & pulsating discharge

Vane Pump
Vane pump are also known as rotary pump and operates on the principle of increasing
& decreasing volume.
 Increase in volume causes the vacuum which draws the fluid into the chamber & fills
up the space.
 Decrease in volume causes the fluid to be forced out of the chamber under pressure.
Here vanes are allowed to track along a ring called “cam-ring”.
 Rotor which contains radial-slots, is splined to drive shaft and rotates inside a cam-
ring.
 Each slot contains a vane designed to mate with surface of the cam-ring rotor turns.
 Centrifugal force keeps the vanes out against the surface of cam-ring.
Working
 During one-half revolution of rotor rotation, volume increases between rotor & cam-
ring, resulting volume expansion causes a reduction of pressure, this is called suction
process which causes fluid to flow through inlet port & fill the void.
 As the rotor rotates second half revolution, surface of ca, pushes vane back to their
slots & trapped volume is reduced. This positively ejects the trapped fluid through
discharge port.
Volumetric displacement of vane pump

The above figure of vane pump reveals that there is an eccentricity between centreline
of the rotor & centreline of the cam ring. If the eccentricity is zero there will be no flow.

Pressure Compensated vane pump (variable displacement)

Some vane pump has provision for mechanically varying the eccentricity such a
design is called variable displacement pump.
 Here Hand-wheel or pressure compensator can be used to move the cam-ring to
change the eccentricity.
 The direction of the flow through pump can be reversed by movement of the cam-ring
on either side of the centre.
 The design we seen in the figure is a pressure compensated one in which system
pressure acts directly on the cam-ring via hydraulic piston on the right side.
 This force the cam-ring against the compensator, spring-loaded piston on the left side
of the cam-ring.
 If the discharge pressure is large enough, it overcomes the compensator spring force
& shifts the cam-ring to the left this reduces eccentricity.
 Eccentricity is maximum when discharge pressure is zero, as the discharge pressure
continues to increases, zero eccentricity is finally achieved then pump flow become
zero.
 Such a pump basically has its own protection against excessive pressure build up.

Balanced vane pump

 In order to increase life of the bearing balanced type of vane-pump are used.
 A balanced vane pump is one which consists of two intake & two outlet ports
diametrically opposite to each other. Therefore as pressure ports opposite to each
other a complete hydraulic balance is achieved.
 Disadvantage is that it cannot be designed as a variable displacement unit because
of symmetrical construction.
 Here instead of having a circular cam ring, a balanced vane pump has an elliptical
housing which forms two separate pumping chambers on opposite sides of the
rotor.
 Here side loads from outlet to inlet in both direction is nullified & effective side
loads on the bearing is zero. This eliminates the bearing side loads & thus permits
higher operating pressure.
 As the rotor rotates, volume increases between rotor & cam ring this causes the
suction process & similarly decreases in volume causes discharge process.
Piston Pump
 A piston pump works on the principle that a reciprocating piston can draw in fluid
when it retracts in a cylinder bore and discharge it when it extends.
 In case of piston pumps number of pistons reciprocates simultaneously at different
positions w.r.t the bore and also at different extending and retracting actions all
housed in a single block of cylinders.
 The basic question is how to mechanize a series of reciprocating pistons.
There are two basic types of piston pumps.

 One is the axial design, having pistons that are parallel to the axis of the cylinder
block. Axial piston pumps can be either of the bent axis configuration or of the swash
plate design.
 The second type of piston pump is the radial design, which has pistons arranged
radially in a cylinder block.

In-line Piston pump (Swash plate Design)

Swash plate of the inline piston pump may be either Fixed or rotating.
 Fixed swash plate is called Fixe cam plate.
 Rotating swash plate is called Wobble plate.
Fixed swash plate axial piston pump

 In this case cylinder block is made to rotate, piston, piston shoe and shoe plate all
rotate against the fixed swash plate.
 Swash plate is called cam plate provided they have sloping surfaces.
 As the cylinder block rotates, the piston shoe follows the surface of the swash plate.
Since the swash plate is at an angle to the axis of the driving shaft, piston has to
reciprocate within the cylinder bore.
 Oil is drawn during the first half of the rotation and delivered through the second half
of rotation of the cylinder block through the inlet and outlet ports.
Wobble plate axial piston pump

 Wobble plate is connected to the driving shaft and cylinder block, shoe plate are
fixed.
 The driver rotates the swash plate and the shoe plate fixed on that moves the piston in
and out thus reciprocating inside the bores of the cylinder.
 Wobble plate is also referred as rotating cam plate.
 Similarly Oil is drawn during the first half of the rotation and delivered through the
second half of rotation of the cylinder block through the inlet and outlet ports.

Variable displacement of axial piston pumps

There are two types of Variable displacement of axial piston pumps
 Swash plate design
 Bent axis design
Swash plate design

Due to the variation in angle of the swash plate and its influences on the discharge is
illustrated in the below figure with basic concept of swash plate design.
 It can be observe that larger the swash plate angle larger will be the displacement
(discharge) Shown in figure (b).
 Smaller discharge can be obtained with a smaller angle of swash plate shown in figure
(a)
 Zero discharge can be obtained with a zero angle of swash plate shown in figure (c).
 Maximum angle of inclination can be depends on the diameter of the hole made in the
swash plate and generally limited to 17.50.
Bent axis design
 It consists of a cylinder block , housing, pistons and drive shaft.

 The centerline of the cylinder block is set at an offset angle relative to the centerline
of the drive shaft.
 The cylinder block contains a number of pistons arranged along a circle.

 The piston rods are connected to the drive shaft flange by ball-and-socket joints and
are forced in and out of their bores as the distance the distance between the drive shaft
flange and cylinder varies.
 A universal link keys the cylinder block to the drive shaft to maintain alignment and
assure that they turn together.
Volumetric displacement of bent axis piston pump is similar to that of swash plate
axial piston pump.
Qth = (VD * N) m3/min
Radial Piston pump

 The construction and operation of radial piston pump is as shown in the figure.
 It mainly consists of a pintel to direct fluid in and out of the cylinders, a cylinder
barrel with pistons, and a rotor containing a reaction ring.
 The pistons remain in constant contact with the reaction ring due to centrifugal force
and back pressure on the pistons.
 For pumping action, the reaction ring is moved eccentrically with respect to the pintle
or shaft axis.
 As the cylinder barrel rotates, the pistons on one side travel outwards, this draws in
fluid as each cylinder passes the suction ports of the pintle.
 When a piston passes he point of maximum eccentricity, it is forced inward by the
reaction ring this forces the fluid to enter the discharge port of the pintle.
Volumeric displacement
 Volumetric displacement of the pump varies with offset angle 6 0 as no flow is
produced when cylinder block centre line is parallel to the driveshaft cenreline.
 θ can vary from 0 to a maximum of about 300.
 Fixed displacement units are usually provided with 230 to 300 offset angles.
 Variable displacement units are available with a yoke and some external control to
change the offset angle such as a stroking cylinder.


Pump Performance
The performance of a pump is a function of the precision of its manufacture. An ideal

pump is one having zero clearance between all mating parts. Since this is not possible,
working clearances should be as small as possible while maintaining proper oil films for
lubrication between rubbing parts.

PUMP SELECTION FACTORS
The main parameters affecting the selection of a particular type of pump are as follows:
1) Maximum operating pressure.
2) Maximum delivery.
3) Type of control.
4) Pump drive speed.
5) Type of fluid.
6) Pump contamination tolerance.
7) Pump noise.
8) Size and weight of a pump.
9) Pump efficiency.
10) Cost.
11) Availability and interchange ability.
12) Maintenance and Spares.
ACCUMULATORS
A hydraulic accumulator is a device that stores the potential energy of an incompressible
fluid by means of either gravity, mechanical springs or compressed gases.
 The stored potential energy in the accumulator is a quick secondary source of fluid power
capable of doing useful work as required by the system.
 Accumulator holds high pressure fluid for a longer period without keep on running the
pump.
 It eliminates pressure ripple, it acts as source of hydraulic energy in case of power failure
and it also provides for leakage compensation.
CLASSIFICATION OF HYDRAULIC ACCUMULATORS
1. Weight loaded or gravity accumulator

2. Spring-loaded accumulator
3. Gas-loaded accumulator
a. Non-separator type
b. Separator type
 Piston type
 Diaphragm type
 Bladder type

Weight loaded or gravity accumulator

 It’s the oldest type of accumulators used. It consists of piston/Ram ‘R’ mouned in a
vertically mounted cylinder ‘C’.
 Piston is loaded with dead weight on its platform as shown in the figure.
 A hydraulic fluid under pressure from the pump enters into bottom of the cylinder via
check valve. Oil pushes the piston/ram upwards.
 The weight placed on the platform of the piston it exerts pressure on the fluid entering
the accumulator cylinder.
 Force exerted on the fluid by means of ram/piston is constant regardless of position of

ram therefore fluid pressure in the cylinder is constant.
Advantages
 They supply oil at constant pressure.
 Can serve several hydraulic system at a time.
Disadvantages
 It’s extremely larger in size & heavy weight makes unsuitable for portable and mobile
applications.
Spring-loaded accumulator
 Spring loaded accumulator is similar to the weight loaded accumulator except that the
piston is pre-loaded with a spring. i.e. it stores energy in the form of a compressed
spring.
 Hydraulic fluid under pressure from the pump enters into bottom of the cylinder via
check valve.
 Oil pushes the piston to move upwards & compress the spring.

 Compressed spring is the source of energy that acts against the piston & forcing the
fluid into hydraulic system to drive the actuators.
 Pressure generated in this type of accumulator depends on the compression rate of the
spring.
 This type of accumulator delivers only a small volume of oil relatively at low
pressure.
 It should not be recommended for high cycle rate because spring will undergo fatigue
due to its elasticity resulting in an inoperative accumulator.
Gas-loaded accumulator
 Gas-loaded accumulator popularly used in industries. Here force is applied to the oil
using compressed gases.
 This type of accumulator is operated in accordance with Boyle’s law of gases.
Example – volume of the gas in accumulator cut in half & pressure were doubled.
Compressibility of gases accounts for storage of potential energy.
Non-separator type
 In this type of accumulator oil & gas are not separated.
 It consists of fully enclosed shell containing an oil port on the bottom & gas changing
valve on top.
 Here because of there is no physical separator between oil & gas therefore gas directly
pushes the oil.
 Main advantage of this type is ability to handle large volume of air.

 Disadvantageous is absorption of gas in the oil hence it’s not recommended for high
speed pump because entrapped gas in the oil cause cavitations & damage to the pump.
Separator type
In this type there is a physical barrier between gas and oil. This barrier effectively
uses compressibility of gas.
a. Piston type of accumulator

 It consists of a cylinder with a freely floating piston with proper seals and piston serves as
barrier between oil & gas.
 Its operation begins by charging the gas chamber with a gas (nitrogen) under a pre-
determined pressure; this causes the free sliding piston to move down.
 Once the accumulator is pre-charged.
 Hydraulic fluid can be pumped into the oil port as the fluid enters the accumulator; it
causes the piston to slide up, thereby compressing the gas that increases its pressure.
 This pressure is then applied to the hydraulic fluid and forced into the hydraulic system to
drive the actuators.

b. Diaphragm type of accumulator

 In this type, diaphragm serves as elastic barrier between hydraulic fluid & nitrogen gas.
 Shut-off button is provided at the base of the diaphragm, it prevents the damage by
avoiding the pressing into oil port when gas being charged.
 In operation, when hydraulic pump delivers oil into the accumulator it deforms the
diaphragm as the pressure is increased, the gas gets compressed, volume decreasing &
stores hydraulic energy.
 This type of accumulator is compact & it’s small weight to volume ratio.
 Advantageous over piston type because it has no sliding surface & no lubrication
required.
 It’s suitable for air-bone application.
Bladder type of accumulator

 In this type of accumulator gas & hydraulic fluid are separated by a synthetic rubber
bladder.
 Here bladder is filled with nitrogen until the designed pre-charge pressure is achieved.
 When hydraulic fluid is pumped into accumulator, bladder contracts, compressing the gas
and increasing the pressure in the accumulator & stores hydraulic energy.
 One of the greatest advantage of this type of accumulator is the positive sealing between
gas & oil-chambers.
 Quick response of the light weight bladder makes accumulator suitable for pressure
regulating, pump pulsation & shock damping applications.

Applications of accumulators
1. Accumulator as an Auxiliary power source

 One of the most common application of accumulator is an auxiliary power source.
 The purpose of the accumulator in this application is to store oil delivered by the
pump during the portion of working cycle. Accumulator then releases stored oil o
demand to complete the cycle, there by serving as a secondary power source to assist
the pump.
 Here accumulator is used in conjunction with 4/2 manually actuated spring return
direction control valve.
 When the valve is actuated, oil flows from the accumulator to head end of the
cylinder & extends the cylinder. While this desired operation is occurring (i.e. during
extension stroke) accumulator being charged by the pump.
 When the valve is deactivated the cylinder retracts rapidly because the oil flows from
both pump & accumulator to the rod end of the cylinder.
 This will help in using the smaller size of the pump.
2. Accumulator as a leakage compensator

 In this application accumulator is used as a compensator for internal or external
leakage during extended period of time in which system is pressurized but not in
operation.
 Here accumulator is used in conjunction with 4/2 manually operated, spring return
DCV & a pressure switch.
 When pump switched on it charges both accumulator & system.
 When pressure in the accumulator & system reaches the set pressure the switch opens
automatically & cut-off power supply to electrical motor & motor stops driving the
pump.
 If there is any leakage in the system accumulator supplies oil to compensate.
 therefore whenever system pressure drops to minimum pressure, pressure switch
makes contact & restores the power supply to the electrical motor until system has
been recharged.
 This will saves electrical power & reduces heat in the system.

3. Accumulators as an emergency power source

 Some hydraulic system demands for the retraction of the cylinder as safety measures
when normal supply of oil pressure is lost due to pump or electrical power failure.
 In this circuit solenoid actuated, - way direction control valve used in conjunction
with the accumulator.
 When DCV is energised, oil flows to the blank end of the cylinder & also through the
check valve into accumulator & rod end of the cylinder. i.e. accumulator charges as
the cylinder extends.
 If the pump fails due to an electrical failure, solenoid will de-energise & shifting
valve to spring off-set mode.
 Then the oil stored under pressure is forced from the accumulator to the rod end of the
cylinder. This retracts cylinder to its starting position.

4. Accumulator as hydraulic shock absorber

 Hydraulic shock is also called “ water hammer” is caused by the sudden stoppage or
deceleration of a hydraulic fluid flowing at relatively high velocity in pipeline.
Example this occurs normally in case of rapidly closing valve.
 Due to rapidly closing of valve this creates compression wave travels at the speed of
sound upstream to the end of the pipe & back against to the closed valve, causes
increase in the line pressure.
 This wave travels back & forth along the pipe length until it’s energy finally
dissipated by friction.
 The resulting rapid pressure pulsations or high-pressure surge may cause damage to
the components of hydraulic system.
 If an accumulator is installed near rapidly closing valve, the pressure pulsations or
high pressure surge are suppressed.

Pressure intensifier/ hydraulic intensifier

A pressure intensifier is a device that used to increase the pressure in a hydraulic circuit to
a higher value, than that of provided by pump.
 It takes the high volume, low-pressure flow from the pump and converts a portion of this
flow to a required value of high pressure.
Principle operation of pressure intensifiers
The principle operation of an intensifier is illustrated in the above sketch.

Where P1- supply pressure
P2-Required/output pressure
A1- area of smaller side of the cylinder/ area of the piston
A2- area of larger side of the cylinder/ area of the rod
 As shown in the sketch besides larger side of the piston force applied
Types of intensifier
Depending upon construction and working medium following design intensifiers are
in use
a) Single acting intensifiers
b) Double acting intensifiers
c) Air-oil intensifiers.

Single Acting intensifier

 Single acting intensifier consists of a low pressure chamber of comparatively bigger
area & high pressure chamber of smaller cross-sectional area.
 It has a piston with two active areas.
 The larger end of the piston is in the low-pressure chamber and the smaller end of the
piston is in the high-pressure chamber (area).
 The low pressure fluid from the pump exerts a force on larger piston area the same
force is transmitted to smaller side piston area.
 Since area is smaller in high pressure area, high pressure is developed in chamber
with same force.
Double acting intensifiers

 Double acting intensifiers consists of a large piston with piston rod extending to both
sides of the piston.
 The large area of the piston is exposed to the low-pressure fluid and piston rod area
connected to the high pressure side on both the sides of the piston.
 When low pressure fluid enters either side of the big piston, it causes the movement of
the piston.
 The movement of the piston results in movement of the piston rod, forcing the fluid
out at intensified high pressure.
 A double-acting intensifier is symmetrical about the vertical centreline.
 Therefore the movement of the piston in either direction results in an intensified fluid
output from any of the two outlet ends.
 Thus double acting intensifier simulates the operation of the two-single acting
intensifiers.

Air-oil Intensifiers
 In an air oil intensifier, the low pressure oil is replaced by pressurized air.
 It consists of oil cylinder and air cylinder and its mainly used for clamping devices.
 The air exerts its pressure on the bigger area of the piston, causing it to move.
 The movement of the cylinder causes the fluid in the booster chamber to get forced
out due to the motion of the piston rod.
 Some types of air-oil intensifiers are capable of producing an output hydraulic
pressure of 200bar.

Control for Fluid power circuits

There are seven basic electrical devices used in the control of fluid power systems:
namely manually actuated push-button switches, limit switches, pressure switches,
temperature switches, solenoids, relays and timers.
1. Pressure Switch/Sensors
 Pressure switches open or close their contacts based on system pressure.
 They generally have high pressure and low pressure setting. For example it may be
necessary to start or stop a pump to maintain a given pressure.
 I.e. low pressure setting would start the pump and high pressure setting would stop it.
 Pressure switch that can be wired either normally open (NO) or normally closed (NC)
as marked on the screw terminals.
 Pressure switches have three electrical terminals: C (common), NC (Normally
closed), NO (Normally open)
 When wiring in a switch, only two terminals are used, common terminal “c” always
with either “NC” or “NO” depending upon whether switch is to operate at normally
open or normally closed condition.
Working principle of Pressure Switch

 Pressure switch uses diaphragm or bellow as the sensing element.
 The inlet pressure is applied to the bottom of the operating piston. This piston is
forced upwards by the inlet pressure against the range spring.
 The tension of the range spring can be adjusted so that it is compressed at a certain
pressure or set point.
 When this pressure reached, the operating pin will hit the trip button on the micro
switch and change it over.
 Normally the open contacts (NO to C) will become closed and similarly closed
contacts (NC to C) will open.
 The pressure at which the micro switch changes over is set by adjusting the trip
setting nut.

Temperature Switch/ Sensor
 Temperature switch is an instrument that automatically sense a change in temperature

and open or closes an electrical switch when a predetermined temperature is reached.
 This switch can be wired either normally open or normally closed.
Working principle of Temperature switch

 Liquid filled temperature switches comprises a sensing bulb and bellows element.
 Bulb is immersed in media whose temperature is being controlled. The bellow
element senses fluid pressure (liquid or gas) as temperature increases with in the
media.
 Fluid in the sensing bulb reacts to temperature variations and increases the pressure
in bellows element when temperature raises.
 A rise in the sensing bulb temperature compresses the bellows moves the main
spindle upwards until spring force and bellows pressure are in equilibrium.
 This movement the spindle is transferred to the switch and cause on or off action
depending on set point of the temperature switch.
Level Switch/Sensor
 Level switches work in a system with level sensors, and are used to detect the level of
liquids or fluidised solids within a container.
 Level switches use a float to sense the level of a liquid surface, actuating an electrical
switch by the motion of the float.
 The electrical schematic symbol for a level switch is actually based on this type of
mechanism, with a round “ball” float drawn as the actuating element:

 The Magnetrol float switch mechanism uses a mercury tilt bulb, tilted by a magnet’s
attraction to a steel rod lifted into position by a float.
 The float directly senses liquid level, positioning the steel rod either closer to or farther
away from the magnet.
 If the rod comes close enough to the magnet, the mercury bottle tilts to change the
switch’s electrical status:

Actuators
An actuator is used to convert the energy of fluid back into the mechanical power. The
amount of output power developed depends upon:
 Flow rate
 Pressure drop across the actuator
 Overall efficiency.
Thus, hydraulic actuators are devices used to convert pressure energy of the fluid into
mechanical energy.
Depending on the type of actuation, hydraulic actuators are classified as follows:
1) Linear actuator: For linear actuation (hydraulic cylinders)
2) Rotary actuator: For rotary actuation (hydraulic motor).
Linear Actuator
 Hydraulic linear actuators, as their name implies, provide motion in a straight line. They
are usually referred to as cylinders, rams and jacks.
 The function of hydraulic cylinder is to convert hydraulic power into linear mechanical
force or motion.
 Hydraulic cylinders extend and retract a piston rod to provide a push or pull force to drive
the external load along a straight-line path.
Classification of Hydraulic cylinders

Hydraulic cylinders are broadly Classified into 2 types based on number of ports on the
cylinder and entry of high pressure oil which causes only extension or both extension and
retraction.
1. Single-acting cylinder exerts force either on extension or retraction: They require an
outside force to complete the second motion (either by a spring or by the weight load).
2. Double-acting cylinder generate force during both extension and retraction: Directional
control valve alternately directs fluid to opposite sides of the piston Force output varies
between extension and retraction.
Hydraulic cylinders are of the following types:

 Single-acting cylinders
 Double-acting cylinders
 Double rod cylinders
 Tandem cylinders
 Telescopic cylinders
 Cushioned cylinders
1. Single acting cylinders

 A cylinder where in the extension is due to high pressure oil and it acts only on the
cap end side of the piston.
 Single acting cylinder is featured by a single port at the cap end side of the cylinder.

 In this case retraction of the cylinder is either due to gravity (Self-retract) or due to
spring provided on the rod end side of the cylinder.
 Gravity retracted cylinder can be placed in any position except horizontal where as
spring retracted cylinder can be placed in any position.
 Main drawback of spring retraced cylinder are they occupy additional space in the
cylinder resulting in increase in length of the cylinder for a given output.
2. Double acting cylinders

 Cylinders where in both extension and retraction are due to high pressure oil are called
Double acting cylinders. i.e. high pressure oil acts on both surfaces of the piston.
 The cylinder is featured by two ports for entry and exit of high and low pressure oil
during its extension or retraction.
 This type of cylinders is most commonly used and find its application in industrial
hydraulics.
Working of double acting cylinders

 During extension stroke high pressure oil enters the port A and starts extending the
cylinder and at the same time low pressure oil exit from the rod end cylinders through
port B.
 During retraction stroke, high pressure oil enters the rod end of the cylinder through
port B and retracts the cylinder at the same time low pressure oil exit through the port
A and this continues till the end of retraction.
Double acting cylinders can be of 2 types

a) Differential Cylinders
b) Non-differential cylinders
(a) Differential Cylinders
 Double acting cylinder on which different forces exist on either sides of the piston surface
due to the same fluid pressure.
 Forces acting on a surface due to fluid pressure is the product of the pressure and the
effective area on which the fluid pressure is acting.
 There exist different forces on the either surface of the piston, due to their difference in
effective area.
(b) Non-differential Cylinder

 Non-differential cylinder also called through-rod cylinder is the one where exists
same force on either side of the piston surface due to the same fluid pressure.
 This can be achieved by providing piston rod of same diameter either side of the
piston surfaces.

Special type of Cylinders

The most commonly used hydraulic cylinder for industrial applications is double acting cylinder.
(a) Telescopic Cylinder
(b) Tandem cylinder
(a) Telescopic Cylinder

 It has multiple cylinders that are mounted concentrically one within the other.
 It consists of a series of nested tubular segments called sleeves. These sleeves work
together and provide a longer working stroke or extension than possible with standard
cylinders.
 The maximum force that can be exerted depends on the diameter of the smallest sleeve of
the cylinder.
(b)Tandem cylinder
 Higher forces can be achieved for a given pressure of oil and cylinder bore size by
mounting two cylinders in series or in line with a common piston rod and such an
arrangement is called tandem cylinder.
 A tandem cylinder is used in applications where a large amount of force is required from
a small-diameter cylinder.
 Pressure is applied to both pistons, resulting in increased force because of the larger area.
 The drawback is that these cylinders must be longer than a standard cylinder to achieve
an equal speed because flow must go to both pistons.

Cushioned Cylinders
 When the cylinder piston is actuated, the fluid enters the cylinder port and flows through
the little check valve so that the entire piston area can be utilized to produce force and
motion.
 For the prevention of shock due to stopping loads at the end of the piston stroke, cushion
devices are used like plunger.
 Cushions may be applied at either end or both ends. They operate on the principle that as
the cylinder piston approaches the end of stroke; an exhaust fluid is forced to go through
an adjustable needle valve that is set to control the escaping fluid at a given rate.
 This allows the deceleration characteristics to be adjusted for different loads.
OR

Cylinder Mounting and arrangements

The main function of a cylinder mounting is to provide a means of securing the cylinder.
The method of mounting can affect ; maximum rating or maximum thrust loading of the cylinder.
The basic types of cylinder mountings are
 Foot Mounting
 Flange Mounting
 Swivel Mounting
Cylinder mountings may be

a) Rod end cylinder mounting
 Plain type
 Threaded type
 Flange type
 Clevis type
b) Cylinder body mountings may be
 Plain mounting
 Foot mounting
 Flange mounting
 Trunion mounting
 Clevis mounting
 Bracket mounting
Foot Mounting
 Foot mounting is used where cylinder is to be mounted on to the surface parallel to
the axis of the cylinder.
 These types of mountings are rigid, but mounting bolts are subjected to compound
stresses.
 This method offers the most convenient method of mounting.
Flange Mounting
 Flange mounting is the most rigid and strongest method of mounting, since
mounting bolts are subjected to only tensile stress.
 Here during operation no misalignment of rod is present or possible.
Trunion Mounting
 Trunion mounting, absorbs force on cylinder centerline and Swivel flange mounting bolts
are under the influence of compound stresses (tension & shear).
 Swivel flange mounting may be centre or blind end position.

Clevis Mounting
 This is similar to Trunion (Pivot) mounting but allows for some misalignment of the rod
while absorbing force on cylinder centre line.
 Clevis mounting may be piston mounting or blind end Mounting.
Hydraulic Rotary Actuators

Are those which converts hydraulic energy into mechanical energy in the form of rotary
motion & torque are commonly called hydraulic motors.
 System fluid enters the housing and applies pressure to the rotating internal parts. This, in
turn, moves the power output shaft and applies torque to rotate a load.
 A hydraulic motor closely resembles hydraulic pump in their construction.
 In case of hydraulic motor, pressure oil pushes the freely moving element, there by
developing torque & continuous rotary motion.
Classification of Hydraulic motor

 Based on the type of freely moving internal element
a. Gear motor
b. Vane motor
c. Piston motor
d. Screw motor
e. Torque generator
 Based on displacement
a. Fixed displacement – examples gear motor, vane motor, Piston motor
b. Variable displacement - examples vane motor, Piston motor
 Based on Speed & torque
a. High speed & low torque motor
b. Low speed & high torque motor
c. Limited rotation motor

Gear Motor
Gear motor consists of a pair of matching gears enclosed in a housing and driven by fluid
pressure. One of the gear is connected to an output shaft, and the other is an idler. Here System
fluid enters the housing and applies pressure to the rotating internal parts. This, in turn, moves the
power output shaft and applies torque to rotate a load.
Based on the method of meshing of gears C

a. External gear motor
b. Internal gear motor
c. External Gear Motor

External gear motor consists of a pair of gears of the same size and tooth form meshing
externally, one of the gears will be connected an output shaft and other idler as shown in the
figure. Here gears are enclosed in a housing and are driven by oil pressure.
Working
 High pressure oil enters on one side of the casing and unmesh the gears and forces it to
rotate.
 Gear motor develops torque due to hydraulic pressure acting on the surrounding faces of
the gear teeth.
 Here direction of rotation of the motor can be reversed by reversing the direction of flow.
 Close tolerance between gears and housing helps in controlling of oil leakage and
increases volumetric efficiency.
 The main Advantage of external gear motor Simple in design and subsequent low cost.
Note:- The oil under high pressure follows the path of least resistance, which is around the
periphery of the inner side of the housing and comes out at low pressure through outlet
provided on the opposite side of the inlet.
Internal Gear motor

In this case one of the gears with external teeth meshes internally with another gear
having internal teeth. This internal toothed gear is called annular.
There are two types of internal gear motors.
a. Direct drive Gerotor motors
b. Orbiting-Gerotor motors.

Direct drive Gerotor motors

Construction
 A Direct drive Gerotor motors consists of a set of inner and outer gear and an output shaft
connected to the inner gear.
 The inner gear has one tooth less than the outer gear.
 The shape of both the inner and outer gears is same and they are in contact in all the
times.
 Stationary kidney shaped inlet and outlet ports are built into the motor housing.
Working
 High pressure oil enters the motor through the inlet port, since the inner gear has one
teeth less than the outer gear, a pocket (A) is formed between two inner teeth and outer
teeth.
 The kidney shaped inlet port is so designed such that once the pocket is full; the fluid
flow is shut off with tip of the inner gear and providing a seal.
 As the inner and outer gears rotate in a pair another pocket(G) is formed and the previous
pocket (A) has moved around the opposite kidney shaped outlet port.This continues and
continuous rotation is generated.
Vane Motor
Vane motor is a positive displacement motor which develops torque at its output shaft by
allowing high pressure oil act on the rectangular vane which is slide in & out of slots provided in
a rotor splined to the drive shaft.
Construction
 Vane motor consists of a rotor, vanes, cam-ring, inlet & outlet ports and casing.
 Rotor has radial slots in which the vanes will slide in & out and rotor is connected to the
driven shaft.
 The assembly of the rotor, vanes & shafts are placed inside the cam-ring eccentrically.

Working
 High pressure oil enters the motor through the inlet port, acts on the small projected area
of vane develops force & torque this causes rotation of the rotor
 As rotor rotates because of the eccentricity between rotor & cam-ring, vanes slides in &
out resulting in more surface area hence high force & torque will develop.
a. Unbalanced vane Motor

In case of the unbalanced vane motor, two different pressure are exist one is system pressure
Ps and other is outlet pressure Po.
 Here system pressure Ps will be greater than the outlet pressure resulting in side
loading on the motor shaft.
 This side loading is due to only one pair of inlet & outlet ports.
 Side loading causes unbalanced forces on the shaft & its bearing resulting in
discontinuous & non-uniform speed & torque this reduces the efficiency of the motor.
b. Balanced vane Motor

 Side loading of the unbalanced vane motor & its effect on torque can be prevented by
replacing circular cam-ring by elliptical cam-ring.
 In these arrangement two pressure quadrants opposite to each other therefore force
acting on the shaft is balanced and such motors are called Balanced vane motor.
 Centerline of the rotor & centerline of the cam-ring are same hence balanced vane
motor are fixed displacement motor.
Construction and Working
 It consists of 2 inlet & outlet ports , centre-axis of rotor and elliptical housing are
same.
 When oil under pressure is supplied to inlet, it exerts force on vane due to which
cylindrical rotor rotates and shaft also rotates. Finally oil under pressure comes out
from the outlet.
 Pressure loading on the motor shaft & bearing occurs but two inlet & outlet ports
nullified it.
 Therefore it provides better service & longer life compared to unbalanced vane motor.

Piston Motor
Piston motor are hydraulic linear motor where pressure energy contained in the fluid
is converted into to & fro motion of the piston and in turn rotary motion develops the torque
by rotation of the shaft.
 Its most efficient motor compared to other types.
 Its capable of generating high speed & torque.\
 It develops an output torque at the drive shaft by allowing oil to act on the piston.
There are two types of piston motor
1. Axial piston motor
2. Radial Piston motor
Axial piston motor
a. In axial piston motor- the piston reciprocates parallel to axis of the cylinder
block.
 Fixed displacement
 Variable displacement
b. Bent-axis piston motor - the piston reciprocates at an angle to axis of the cylinder
block.
Radial piston motor- piston reciprocates radially or perpendicular to the axis of the output
shaft.
Inline axial piston motor (fixed displacement) – Swash plate design)

(i) Fixed swash plate – in this case cylinder block is made to rotate, piston, piston
shoe & shoe-plate all rotating against foxed swash plate
(ii) Wobble plate – in this case wobble plate is connected to the driving shaft &
cylinder block & shoe plate are fixed.
Inline axial piston motor (fixed displacement type – Swash plate design)
 Here axis of the cylinder block and motor drive shaft is collinear. It consists of
cylinder block, piston, piston-shoe & shoe-plate all rotate against the fixed swash
plate & output shaft.
 Cylinder block is fixed to the output shaft; piston reciprocates in & out of the
cylinder block parallel to the output shaft.
 Spring & shoe-plate holds the piston shoe against the swash plate and swash plate is
set at an angle to the piston.
Working
 As pressurized fluid enters the inlet its fed through kidney shaped opening to the ¾
piston situated over the opening.
 Pressure over the end of this opening exerts the force on the piston.

 This piston pushes the outwards in the cylinder block towards the swash-plate as this
happens result will be output torque this causes rotation of the output shaft.
Inline axial piston motor (variable displacement type)

 In case of variable displacement type, displacement of a piston motor is the function
of piston motor is the function of the offset angle or swash plate angle for a given
motor.
 If it’s possible to vary the offset angle by some means then such motors are called
variable displacement motor.
 In variable displacement motor the swash plate is mounted on a swinging yoke. here
angle can be varied by various means such as lever, hand wheel or servo control.
Case1: If the offset angle is increases the displacement & hence the torque capacity increases
but speed of the driveshaft decreases.
Case2: conversely by reducing the angle it reduces torque capability but increases drive shaft
speed.
Case3: minimum angle are usually provided so that torque & speed stay with in operating
limits.

Axial piston motor (Bent axis design)

 It consists of cylinder block, housing, piston & drive shaft. Here centerline of the
cylinder block is set at an angle relative to the centerline of the drive shaft.
 Cylinder block contains a number pistons arranged along a circle and universal link
couples flange & cylinder block.
 Piston rods are connected to the drive shaft flange by ball and socket joint and are
forced in & out of the cylinder bore as distance between drive shaft flange & Cylinder
varies.
 When oil under pressure is applied to inlet, it exerts force on the piston due to which
cylinder block rotates this causes rotation of the shaft.
 Oil under pressure coming out from the outlet.
Radial Piston Motor

In Radial piston motor, pistons reciprocates radially or perpendicular to the axis of
output shaft. Radial piston motors are low speed & high torque motors.
 When high pressure oil introduced into the cylinder, the piston will be pushed
outwards.
 For this action of the cylinder block containing the piston will rotate & hence the
output shaft of the motor connected to the cylinder block also rotates.
 Radial piston motor may be either fixed or variable displacement type.
 Variable displacement can be achieved by changing the length of the piston stroke.
 Length of the stroke is controlled by eccentricity of the cylinder block with respect to
the rotor.

Theoretical torque, power and discharge of hydraulic motor
Actual torque developed by the hydraulic motor are less than the theoretical torque
motor should develop, this is due to frictional losses.
1. Theoretical torque Tth
Tth = VD * P – N-m/rev
VD = theoretical discharge m3/rev
P = pressure of oil entering the motor N/m2
Theoretical torque is a function of pressure ‘P’ and Volumetric displacement V D.
2. Theoretical Power Pth
Pth = Tth * N
Pth = 2 π N Tth / 60 *1000 ---KW
Pth = 2 π N VD * P / 60 *1000 ---KW
3. Theoretical discharge Qth
Qth = VD (m3/rev) * N (rev/sec)
Qth = VD * N -----m3/sec
Performance of Hydraulic Motor

Performance of any mechanical system depends on the precision manufacturing of its
element & maintenance of the close tolerance under the design operating conditions.
Hydraulic motor performance is also evaluated on the basis of 3 efficiencies.
1. Volumetric efficiency ηvol
2. Mechanical efficiency ηmech
3. Overall efficiency ηo
1. Volumetric efficiency ηvol

Volumetric efficiency of a hydraulic motor is the ratio of theoretical displacement to actual
displacement.
ηvol = ( Qth / Qact ) * 100
Here Qth (m3/sec) = VD (m3/rev) * N (rev/sec)
Note: - Actual displacement to rotate a motor is greater than theoretical discharge due to its
leakage.
2. Mechanical efficiency ηmech
Mechanical efficiency of a motor is the ratio of actual torque delivered by the motor to
the theoretical torque.
ηmech = (Tact / Tth) * 100

Tth (N-m/rev) = VD ((m3/rev) ) * P (N/m2)

Tact = ( Pact * 60)/( 2 π N) -----N –m
3. Overall efficiency ηo
Overall efficiency of a motor is the product of the volumetric efficiency and
mechanical efficiency.
ηo = ( ηvol * ηmech ) / 100
Symbolic representation of Hydraulic actuators (Cylinders and motors)


Module 3
Hydraulic Components and Hydraulic Circuit Design
Introduction
One of the most important considerations in any fluid power system is control. If
control components are not properly selected the entire system will not function as required.
Fluid power is controlled primarily through the use of control devices called valves. The
selection of this valve depends not only on the type also size, actuating technique and remote-
control capability.
For example in some situation motion or speed of the actuator need to be controlled
and also need to reversed, for reversing the direction of flow of oil has to be changed. In
addition to this speed of the actuator and torque developed by the actuator need to be
controlled depending on the requirement. The above controls are achieved by controlling the
following parameters of the oil which has been energized.
 Direction of flow
 Discharge or flow rate – Q
 Pressure – P
Definition of control valve
The mechanical device which controls the parameters of a fluid energy such as
pressure P, discharge Q and direction of flow is called Control valve.
Classification of hydraulic valves

Based on the type of function performed, valves are classified as follows
1. Directional control valve – determines the path through which a fluid traverses in a
given circuit i.e. they establish direction of motion of a hydraulic cylinder.
a) Check valve – poppet type, Ball type, pilot operated type etc.,
b) Sliding spool valve
c) Rotary valve
d) Solenoid controlled valve
e) Shuttle valve
2. Pressure control valve – protects the system against overpressure, which may occur
due to excessive over loads or due to closing of valve. In general pressure control is
accomplished by
a) pressure reducing valve
b) Pressure sequencing valve
c) Pressure relief valve.
d) Pressure unloading valve
e) Counter balance valve
3. Flow control valve – controls the fluid flow rate in various lines of a hydraulic
circuit.
a) Needle valve
b) Non-pressure compensated valve
c) Pressure compensated valve.
Module3: Hydraulic Components And Hydraulic Circuit Design Page 62

Directional control valve

As the name indicates, directional control valve allow, stop and control the direction
of flow of a fluid in a hydraulic /Pneumatic system in order to reversing the direction of
motion of the actuator.
Classification of DC valves
Directional control valves are classified based on many factors
1. Internal valving element
 Poppet valve
 Spool valve (Sliding spool/Rotary spool)
2. Number of flow path
 Two-way
 Three-way
 Four-way
3. Method of actuation of internal valving element
 Manual actuation
 Mechanical actuation
 Electrical actuation
 Hydraulic actuation
 Pneumatic actuation
 Combination of any of the actuation.
4. Method of connection to the hydraulic circuit
 Pipe thread
 Straight thread
 Manifold mounted
5. Size
 Infinite position – valve which allows any position between fully open and
fully close to regulate either pressure or flow rate.
 Finite position – valve which used to allow or block the fluid flow and simply
perform ON/OFF type operation.
Symbolic representation of Direction control valves

The symbolic representation of direction control valve depends on 2 parameters such
has ports and positions. For example m/n valve, where m always represents ports and n
always represents position
1. Ports – represents openings on the valve body for interconnections between pump,
system and tank. One of the methods designating a valve is by number of ports and
it’s denoted by m.
2. Position - of a valve does not represent its location or orientation in the hydraulic
system but to the position of the internal valving element that can occupy when
actuated it’s denoted by n.

 Each position of a valve is designated by a square block and number of adjoining

square block indicates the possible number of positions of the valving element.
 In multi-position valve, number of ports are shown only in one square bock.
a. 4/3 valve means 4 ports and 3 position.
b. 2/2 valve means 2 ports and 2 position.
c. 5/3 valve means 5 ports and 3 position
3. Way – refers to the flow path including reverse flow, direction of flow is denoted by a
line with a shaded arrow head .
Naming of ports: ports on valves are named using alphabet to give specific meaning P, A,
B and T.
P ------- pump port
A ------ port to system
B ------ port to system
T ------ port to tank
All these are external connection i.e. tank port indicates the port is an external connection
to the tank and similarly others as follows.
For example – 4/3 valve indicates a 4-port/3 position control valve.
 This valve has 3 control positions – extended, off and retract of the cylinder.
 When the valve lever is in the retracted position, it connects port P to A and port B
to T, so that pump flow goes to the port A to cause retraction of cylinder while
fluid returns from B to T.
 In the off position, the port A and B are blocked, while pump flow is connected P
to T thus simply returning oil back to sump.
 In the 3rd position port P is connected port B and port A is connected to port T and
causes extension of the cylinder.

Type of DC valve, graphic symbol and physical action
Constructional features and working various types of DCV

1. Check valve
 Check valves are direction control valves which allow flow in only one direction
and hence they are also known as unidirectional flow valves.
 These valve allow free flow in one direction while blocking the flow in other
direction while blocking the flow in the other direction.
 These type of valve contains poppet or similar items like ball, cone etc, as the
valving element.
 Figure shows check valve with different types of valving element.

Advantages
a. Highly responsive and insensitive to contaminations
b. Absolute sealing ability in the closed position and no/little leakage takes place.
Disadvantages
a. It’s not suitable for large size of applications.
Ball type check valve
 Figure shows simple arrangement of a ball and seat type direction control valve.
 In this valve, ball is held by a spring pressure and is always seated on the valve seat.
 Whenever a high pressure fluid is supplied from the ball side, it pushes the ball
against the spring pressure and fluid flows through the valve in the direction shown
with the arrow.
 As soon as the supply is stopped, ball move back to its seat under spring pressure and
the return flow is blocked (indicated by dotted line and arrow).
2. Poppet valve
 Poppet valve is most commonly used directional flow control valve; it consists of
simple disc, cone or ball as valving element.
 The valve has cylindrical arrangement, with a valve seat in between the two ports 1
and 2 as shown in the figure.
 Port 1 is connected to the high pressure fluid supply (Compressor/fluid pump) and
port 2 is connected to the device which high pressure fluid is required.
 The ball is operated by a plunger with a push button and is always held against the
spring pressure.
 In operation, when fluid under pressure enters the port 1 and since the valve is closed
it cannot enter the outlet port 2.

 When push button is depressed so that plunger moves downwards and opens the ball
valve and fluid flows from port 1 to port 2.
 Similarly when push button is released, the spring forces the ball valve back to it’s
seat there by stops the fluid supply from port 1 to port 2.
3. Spool valve – may be either sliding type or rotary type
a. Sliding spool valve
 Sliding spool valve consists of a spool, inside a valve casing.
 A spool is a step machined cylindrical member having 2 to 3 lands. The lands
machined to close dimensional tolerance and will have a sliding fit in the bore
of the valve body.
 Opening or closing of the ports is provided in the valve casing by actuating the
spool by external force.
 Based on the position of the land with reference to the ports the flow is
directed from port P to Port A or B or T, A to T and B to T.
Some example of spool valve and their operations are discussed here
1. 3/2 spool valve
 The principle and operation of 3 ports 2-position siding spool valve is as shown in
the figure.
 It has a cylindrical body with 3 ports P, T and A. one port receives the pressurized
fluid into the cylinder say (port P), second port is connected to an actuation

system (Port A) and third port connected to the return line (port T) i.e. to sump or
atmosphere.
 In position 1 the spool is connecting ports P to A and port T is blocked, this
allows pressurized fluid flow from P to A therefore it activates the device
connected to the line.
 In position 2 port P is blocked there by cutting the supply and spool connecting
ports A to T therefore fluid freely flows out to the sump/atmosphere.
 Such a valve used in the single acting cylinder.
b. Rotary spool valve

 Rotary spool valve is consists of a rotating spool that is fitted inside a circular casing
with close tolerance.
 The hydraulic fluid is directed through the longitudinal grooves or passage provided
on the rotating spool which in turn connects the ports.
 The spool is rotated either by hand/electrical means and brought to different positions
to obtain different control actions.
 In position 1, the fluid power supply P is connected to port A (P-A) while the return
line T is connected to port B (T-B).
 In the position 2 spool is rotated by a quarter turn, such that all the ports and supplies
are cut-off completely this is called cut-off position of the valve.
 In the position 3 spool is rotated by another quarter turn, such that power supply is
connected to port B (P-B) while return line T is connected to port A (T-A).

Advantages of rotary valves

 They are simple, compact and require low operating forces.
 They can be used for reversing the cylinders and motors.
 Usually used as pilot valves in pilot operated directional control spool sliding valves.
Disadvantages of rotary valves
 They are not suitable for high pressure operations like hydraulic systems hence they
are preferred to pneumatic system.
Method of actuation of spools
To effect the direction of flow using DCV, the spool has to be brought to different
positions within the valve casing, this can be achieved by moving the spool by the application
of external force.
The movement spool from the normal position to other position is called actuation.
The different methods of actuation employed are
a. Manual actuation
b. Mechanical actuation
c. Electrical actuation
d. Pneumatic actuation
e. Hydraulic actuation
f. Combination of any of the actuation.
a. Manual actuation – can be provided by using the muscle power i.e. either using
hands or legs.
 Lever and push button type are operated by hand.
 Pedal type is operated by leg.
b. Mechanical actuation – here spool can be operated by mechanical means using
spring, roller, plunger etc.,
c. Electrical actuation – most common type of actuation of spool in DCV are by using
the electrical power through solenoid. Here electrical power may be DC or AC.

4. Solenoid actuated DCV

Solenoid is made up of two basic parts, a coil and an armature as shown in the
figure a. By applying electrical signals to the coil creates a magnetic field which
attracts the armature towards it which in turn pushes the spool and interconnects the
ports for different actions of the valve.
Construction and operation

 The operation of solenoid controlled spool valve is as shown in the figure b.
 In normal position, the ports 1 and 2 are open and port 3 is closed i.e. fluid flows from
pressurized supply P (oil sump) to return line T ( sump) that means there is no fluid
supply to the cylinder.
 When solenoid is actuated by passing the current through it, magnetises and pulls the
iron core towards it this in turn pulls the spool towards right and opens the port 3(A)
and blocks the port 1(T) this is called actuated position.
 Now fluid flows from port 2(P) to port 3(A) that means cylinder connected to the port
receives required pressurized fluid and gets activated.
 When solenoid is deactivated by stopping the current supply which in turn gets
demagnetised then spool pushed back to its original position by spring pressure.

Pressure control valve

Pressure control valves are safety devices that protect the fluid power system against
the excessive of pressure build up.
The main function of the pressure control valves are
 Limiting the maximum system pressure as a safety measure.
 Regulating or reducing the pressure of a fluid medium in a particular portion of the
hydraulic system.
 Unloading the system pressure.
 Assisting sequential operation of actuators in a circuit by controlling the pressure of
the fluid.
Note: - pressure control valve always associated with a spring, i.e. actuating of the valving
element against the spring takes place due to pressure of the fluid and return of the valving
element due to spring.
Classification of pressure control valve

Based on the type of function to be performed
a) Pressure relief valve
b) Pressure reducing valve
c) Pressure unloading valve
d) Pressure sequencing valve
e) Pressure counter balancing valve
1. Pressure relief valve- is basically a safety device, whose function is to protect the
system against the excessive pressure. This is normally a closed valve and its most
commonly used valve in the hydraulic system.
The main function of this valve is to limit the pressure in the system to the
prescribed maximum pressure by diverting the required quantity of oil from output of
the pump to tank when preset pressure of the system is reached.
There are two types of pressure relief valve
a. Direct acting pressure relief valve
b. Pilot operated pressure relief valve
a. Direct acting pressure relief valve
 Figure illustrates the operation of a simple relief valve, here poppet (ball/cone) is
always held closed in a valve seat by the force of a stiff compression spring.
 Pressure, with which it’s held, can be adjusted by rotating the screw cap.
 Higher the spring pressure applied on the poppet higher is the cracking pressure
required for valve opening.
 When the pressure in the line is less than the spring pressure, the valve remains closed
to the tank and open to the system.
 When the system pressure reaches a high enough valve, the resulting hydraulic force
acting on the poppet exceeds the spring force and the poppet forced off it’s from seat,
this permits the flow through the pump outlet to the tank.
 The amount of opening of the poppet depends on the differences in pressure between
The fluid pressure and spring pressure.

 The pressure at which valve starts opening is called cracking pressure. As the flow
through the valve increases the poppet is forced further from it’s seat causing the
increased compression on the spring.
 When the valve is by-passing its full rated flow, the pressure will be considerably
higher than the cracking pressure and this pressure is called full-flow pressure.
Note:- difference between the cracking pressure and full flow pressure is called
“Pressure over ride”.
Advantages
 Suitable for low flow or low discharge application.
 Low internal leakage
Disadvantages
 If pressure over ride is high and hence precise pressure control is not possible.
b. Pilot operated pressure relief valve
Construction
 Pilot relief valve is a poppet type of valve, while main relief valve is a piston and
stem type.
 Pilot valve is provided with an adjustment screw, which can be operated to setting
the pilot-relief pressure.
 The main relief piston is held in position with a light bias spring, keeping the
stem normally in the closed position thus not allowing the fluid to flow.
 The main relief piston also has an orifice through which the fluid under pressure
can enter and reach other side of the piston, this flow is connected to the pilot
relief valve through pilot line and finally connected to the tank as shown in the
figure.

Working
 In operation high pressure fluid enters the piston chamber through the orifice and to
the pilot valve.
 As the working pressure being less than the pilot spring pressure, the pilot relief valve
remains closed, also fluid pressure is exerted on both the side of the piston are same
hence main relief valve remains in the closed position due to hydraulic balance and
under the light bias spring.
 When the system pressure exceeds the pilot pressure, pilot relief valve opens and
small flow starts towards the tank line, at this moment small pressure drop across the
piston is induced.
 The pressure at the bottom of the piston being high, while the pressure at the top
being lower this leads to hydraulic imbalance.
 This makes the piston stem to lift off its seat and flow starts directly from the pressure
port to the tank line thus relieving the main system from excessive pressure.
Advantages
 It reduces the pressure override
 Suitable for high pressure and high volume system.
Disadvantages
Low internal leakage.
Pressure reducing valve – this type valve used to maintain reduced pressure in a specified
locations of the hydraulic systems. These valves are normally open 2-way valve that closes
when subjected to downstream pressure.
Construction
 It has spring loaded spool, whose actuating pressure can be set with the help of a
pressure setting screw.
 The normally open position of the spool keeps the flow from pressure port to the
downstream(outlet).
 There is an internal passage (bleed hole) in the spool connecting the outlet bypass line
and other end of the spool leading to tank.

Working
 In operation as long as pressure in the downstream (outlet) line below the spring
pressure, the spool remains normally open and allows a free flow between the
upstream and down stream.
 When the downstream pressure (outlet) exceeds the valve setting pressure, spool
under this pressure moves partially to the right there by partially blocking the flow to
the outlet.
 But there is a continuous flow through the by pass and bleed hole in the spool to the
spring chamber and leading to the drain line/tank.
 This flow prevents the spool valve from closing completely and always keeps a
reduced pressure in the downstream line.
 The throttling effect due to the flow through the bleed hole generates heat which need
to be taken care.
Pressure unloading valve

 Pressure unloading valve unload the fluid energy at a low pressure, where as a
Pressure relief valve unload the fluid energy by utilizing full system pressure
resulting in high energy losses.
 The necessity of unloading fluid energy arises when two pumps are used which
provide large volume of oil at a low pressure and one of them must be unloaded when
small quantity of oil required at high pressure, this will save the system from
undesired heat energy to a great extent.
Construction
 It consists of primary and secondary port, primary port is connected to the pump and
secondary port is connected to the tank.
 A spool with a piston is housed inside the valve, the movement of the spool is
controlled by the external signal which in turn controls the passage of the secondary
port.
 Spool is provided with a spring through it and movement of the spool is controlled by
the difference in pressure between primary port and the pressure extended by the
spring.

 Spool in turn controls the passage of the secondary port and based on its position the
extra fluid energy is unloaded into the tank through secondary port.
Working
 In operation when the system pressure acting on the piston is too low the valve
remains closed.
 If the system pressure exceeds the set pressure it acts on the spring compressing it,
there by the spool move upwards, this in turn opens the passage to the secondary port
and fluid energy flows into the tank.
 This continues till the system pressure reduces to the set pressure.
Pressure Sequence valve

Pressure sequence valve is used in a hydraulic system for operations in a definite or
sequential order i.e. one after the other with many actuator in the hydraulic system. For
example sequence may be clamping the job followed by machining operation.
Construction
 Figure shows the assembled view of a two position pressure sequence valve and
valves are normally closed.
 This 2-way pressure sequence valve regulates the sequence of functions to occur in a
hydraulic circuit.
 In the normally closed condition fluid flows freely through the primary port to operate
first phase until pressure setting of the valve is reached.
 As the spool moves to the right flow of fluid is diverted to secondary port to operate
second phase of sequence.
 Sequence valve is resembles to the direct acting pressure relief valve except that their
spring chambers are generally drained externally to the tank.

Working
 In operation during normally closed condition, the sequence valve allows fluid to flow
directly to the primary circuit to perform its first function like Clamping until the
valve pressure setting reached.
 When pressure in the primary circuit rises above set pressure and it’s sensed by the
pressure-sensing passage.
 This pressurized fluid acting on the spool (pilot line) and overcomes the force exerted
by the spring.
 Now spring is compressed, the spool shifts and fluid flows to the secondary circuit to
perform its secondary function like machining/bending/drilling etc.,
Pressure counter balance valve – the purpose of a counter balance valve is to maintain
control of a vertical hydraulic cylinder to prevent it from descending due to the weight of its
external load.
Construction
 The primary port of this valve is connected to the bottom of the cylinder and
secondary port is connected to a Direction control valve (DCV).
 Here pressure setting of the counter balance valve is somewhat higher than is
necessary to prevent the cylinder load from falling due to its weight as shown in the
figure a.
Working
 When pump flow is directed via DCV to the top of the cylinder, the cylinder piston
pushed downwards.
 This causes pressure at the primary port to increase to a value above the pressure
setting of the counter balance valve and thus raise the spool of the CBV, this opens a
flow path through the counterbalance valve for discharge the secondary port to the
DCV and back to the tank.
 Similarly while raising the cylinder, an integral check valve opens to aloow free flow
for retracting the cylinder as shown in the figure b and figure c shows graphical
symbol for a counter balance valve.

Flow control valve

The function of flow control valve is to control the speed of the hydraulic actuators
(Cylinder and motors) by controlling the discharge/ Flow rate Q.
 This is carried out by varying the cross section of an orifice and thus varying the
discharge or flow rate of the actuator.
Factors affecting the flow rate of a fluid

1. Orifice size or opening
2. Pressure of fluid
3. Fluid temperature
Orifice size or opening

 The flow or velocity ‘V’ of a fluids depends on the flow rate Q and cross-sectional
area A of flow mathematically expressed as V = Q / A.
 It can be observed from the above relation that the velocity of flow is inversely
proportional to the cross sectional area of flow for a given flow rate. i.e. as cross
sectional area decreases the velocity flow increases and vice-versa.
 This is the one of the method adopted for controlling the speed of the actuator i.e. by
varying the orifice size or opening, the flow velocity of a fluid can be varied.
Pressure of fluid
 Square of the discharge of a fluid (Q2) is directly proportional to the drop in pressure
(∆P) across the orifice.
i.e. Q2 α ∆P-----------1
and V = Q / A
i.e. Q = V * A -------2
From 1 and 2
V2A2 α ∆P--------3
 From the above equation if the speed of an actuator is to be maintained constant using
a flow control valve, one should be careful to see that the pressure drop across the
valve is zero.
 But it is not possible to maintain constant speed of an actuator using a conventional
flow control valve because there is always some drop in pressure hence the discharge
and finally the flow hence such valve is called non-compensated flow valve.
Fluid temperature
 The viscosity of a liquid varies with temperature and is inversely proportional to the
temperature, i.e. as the temperature increases viscosity of the fluid decreases and the
fluid becomes thin and flow easily and vice-versa.
 I.e. temperature influences viscosity and viscosity in turn influences velocity of flow.
 Temperature of a flowing fluid increases due to external resistance to flow like
sudden expansion and contraction is passage, sudden change in direction,
environment and so on, which in turn influences the velocity of the actuator.

 If a conventional flow control valve is used to control the speed of an actuator there is
no compensation for change in temperature and such valves are called non-
compensated flow control valve.
Classification of Flow control valve

It’s broadly classified into two types
1. Non-compensated flow control valve
2. Compensated flow control valve
Non-compensated flow control valve

These flow control valves does not compensate for the variation of flow due to either
pressure or temperature. I.e. as pressure varies flow rate also varies similarly as temperature
of fluid varies its viscosity varies which affects the flow rate.
In other words non-compensated flow control valve are those valve in which flow
rate varies due to variation in pressure and temperature for a given orifice opening.
Different types of non-compensating flow control valves are
a. Sliding spool valve
b. Needle valve
c. Globe valve
d. Gate valve
e. Ball valve
Sliding spool valve
 Sliding spool valve as the name indicates has a sliding spool inside a cylindrical
jacket which on sliding controls the flow by blocking the orifice partially or
completely.
 Sliding spool valve often combines the flow, direction control and hence functions
also has direction control valve.
 Here spool is located centrally in a bore, land blocks the flow through the passage, it
alternatively permits selected flow of fluid as spool moves with in the bore.
Needle valve
 Needle valve is most commonly used hydraulic flow control valve.
 In this type, valve seat is variable area orifice and it also consists of a needle or
pointed stem and it’s connected to the adjustable screw knob.
 The opening between the needle and orifice can be adjusted by turning the knob
manually i.e. raising or lowering the needle in order to control the discharge.
 These valve are often made out of steel and also used as stop valve to prevent flow of
fluid from one part in the hydraulic circuit to another part.

Globe valve
 This valve basically a 2-way valve and consists of a circular disc at the end of a
threaded stem.
 Threaded stem engages with the inner threaded portion of the body as shown in the
figure.
 Here area for flow of fluid is much larger compared to needle valve and hence flow
capacity is much larger at a lower pressure drop than needle valve of same size.
 Since area of flow is not so gradually reducing as in case of needle valve hence this
valve is not suitable for throttling purpose.
Gate valve
 This valve has a large cylindrical body with a frustum of cone at the end which serve
as a gate between the inlet and outlet of the valve.
 The gate is freely mounted to a threaded stem as shown in the figure.
 The threaded portion of the stem operates in the matching internal thread provided in
the body of the valve, this in turn moves the gate up and down, opening and closing
the passage.
 Gate valve provides much larger opening than needle valve and globe valve resulting
much larger flow capacity in a lower pressure drop.
 Gate valve not normally flow control valve but are generally used as shutoff fluid
flow or to open the line to full flow.
Compensated flow control valve

To achieve constant discharge or flow rate, flow should be pressure compensated or
temperature compensated or both and such a flow control valve is called compensated flow
control valve.
i.e. valves automatically changes the valve adjustment opening or maintaining constant
pressure drop across the orifice to provide constant flow.
The above requirement can be achieved by
a. Maintaining a constant pressure drop across the valve by adjusting the throttle is
called Pressure compensated flow valve.
b. Adjusting the throttle for variation in temperature of the fluid is called
temperature compensated flow control valve.

Pressure compensated flow control valve – automatically compensates for any changes in
pressure occurs due to changes in work load by adjusting throttle of the valve in order to
maintain constant pressure drop across the orifice.
Methods of pressure compensation
a. Restrictor type
b. By-pass type
Restrictor type
 In this type of valve, orifice is made in a shaft by forming a notch.
 As the shaft rotates, orifice varies it’s size and flow is provided according to the
opening of the orifice.
 The pressure difference across the orifice/throttle is the difference between outlet A
and inlet B at the orifice.
 The pressure at A is the pressure in conjunction with spring pressure causes a
downward resistance for an upward pressure at B. i.e. hydrostat piston is balanced
between intermediate pressure below and load pressure above.
 Hydrostat piston is normally open by a light spring, however it starts to close as inlet
pressure increases and overcomes the light spring force.
 As the hydrostat piston moves up, the flow reduces due to blocking of passage at B.
 Similarly if the load at A increases spring moves the hydrostat piston downwards,
increasing the passage and hence flow is provided at B.
Case a – if the inlet pressure from pump increases, then rate of flow increases. To
compensate this, in the mechanism, inlet pressure acts on the spool moves up thus the
area of flow reduces and the flow comes to normal.
Case b – if the outlet pressure increases, then rate of flow will decreases. To
compensate this, in the mechanism, outlet pressure acts on the spool moves down thus the
area of flow increases and the flow comes to normal.

Temperature compensated flow control valve – automatically compensates for any

changes in temperature occurs due to changes in viscosity of the fluid by adjusting throttle of
the valve.
 If the temperature (T) of oil increases, then naturally its viscosity will reduce and
hence rate of flow will increase.
 To compensate this, in the mechanism, there is a “temperature sensitive element” it
has high thermal expansion; it expands due to rise in temperature and moves towards
left thus reduces the passage for oil to flow. Hence flow comes to normal.
 At the same time, compensator piston is move against the spring hence at the inlet
itself quantity of fluid entering into the valve is more, this compensates the flow rate
is effected by the viscosity of the fluid.

Hydraulic Circuit Design and Analysis

Hydraulic circuit consists of various hydraulic components like pump, actuators and
control valves, pipe/hoes etc., are interconnected in such a way that they will perform specific
task. Hydraulic circuits are design logically before actually implementing on real systems.
There are three important considerations when analyzing or designing hydraulic
circuits
1. Safety of operations
2. Performance of desired function
3. Efficiency of operation
It’s very important for the fluid power technician or designer to have a working
knowledge of components and how they operate in a circuit. Hydraulic circuit are developed
using graphic symbols for all components. Before hydraulic circuit can be understood, it is
necessary to know these fluid power symbols.
All hydraulic circuits’ starts with job like lifting of load, pulling or pushing of load,
rotation of tool head, clamping and de-clamping of job etc.
Control of cylinders
Control of cylinders mean extending and retracting the cylinder, holding the cylinder
in a particular position between extension and retraction, holding the cylinder at the end of
either extension or retraction etc.
Also basic structure of any circuit can be split into 3 parts
1. Power generation part which is known as drive section.
2. Control system part which basically comprises of DCV, PRV and FCV
3. Actuator part which is nothing but cylinder
Control of a single acting cylinder

In single acting cylinder extension of the cylinder is due to the oil pressure acting on
the blank end of the cylinder and retraction is occurs due to either gravity or due to spring.
If the retraction is occurs due to gravity the cylinder has to be placed vertically otherwise it
should be in a spring offset mode.

Working
 Figure shows the circuit diagram for control of a single acting cylinder, it consists of
3/2 manually operated spring return DCV and normally it will be in the retracted
position.
 In this position valve of the pump port is blocked and cylinder outlet port A is
connected to the tank port T.
 When the valve is operated manually, the pump port (P) opens, flow is directed into
the cylinder (A) and causes extension of the cylinder.
 Once the extension is achieved, PRV opens-out and flow starts to flow through the
PRV in the by pass line.
 When DCV is deactivated pump port is blocked and cylinder line (A) routed to the
tank line T.
 Now cylinder starts retracting under spring pressure and oil flows back into the tank
through tank port (T).
Control of a Double acting cylinder

In case of a single acting cylinder the extension of the cylinder occurs due to high
pressure of the oil and retraction is due to either gravity or spring return. But in case of a
double acting cylinder both extension and retraction of the cylinder due to oil pressure.

Working
 In position 1 of the DCV, port P is connected to B and port A is connected to T.
 Here port B is connected to the rod end of the cylinder and port A is connected to the
blank end of the cylinder, this results in high pressure of the oil flowing to the rod end
and retracting the cylinder.
 At the same time low pressure oil from the blank end of the cylinder, flows to the tank
from port A to T.
 When valve is brought to actuated position (i.e. position 2) by supplying electrical
power to the solenoid, port p is connected to the port A and port b to port T.
 In this position high pressure oil enters the blank end of the cylinder this causes
extension of the cylinder and low pressure oil flowing to the tank T through port B.
Dwell position of a cylinder

In the case of a double acting cylinder, 4/2 DCV causes change of position from
normal to actuated position and actuated to normal position respectively.
Retention or holding of the cylinder either in extension or retracted position during for
a particular duration of time is called dwell position of a cylinder.
Example of necessity of a dwell position

During drilling operation number of components are held in a fixture and taken out of
the fixture after the operation and another job is loaded on to the fixture.
The job is secured in the fixture by the extension of the cylinder during the drilling
operation and the cylinder is said to be in the dwell position.
Working
 Figure shows double acting cylinder with 4/3 DCV here port A and port B of the
valve is connected to the blank end and rod end of the cylinder respectively.
 The 4/3 DCV is normally in the position (P1) i.e. pump port P is connected to the
Tank port T and Port A & B are closed and during this condition cylinder in the
retracted position.
 When the valve is brought position (P2), port P is connected to A and port B is
connected to Port T, in this position high pressure oil enters the blank end of the
cylinder and extends the cylinder.

 At the end extension valve is brought to normal position (P1) resulting in port P is
connected to T and port A and B are blocked and cylinder will be remain in the
extended position which is called dwell position.
 After completion of the job during extended position, the valve position shifted to P3,
where in P is connected to B and A is connected to T resulting in retraction of the
cylinder during which job is removed another job is loaded.
 Shifting the valve from position P2 to P3 or P3 to P2 is done by lever.
Regenerative Circuit
In the case of a double acting cylinder the speed of retraction will be greater than
speed of extension for a given output discharge of the pump Qp, this is because effective area
of the piston on rod end side is smaller than blank end side of the piston.
Regenerative circuit are used to increase the speed of the extension of cylinder than
speed of retraction or at least speed of extension made equal to speed retraction.

 Figure shows typical regenerative circuit basic purpose is to increase the speed of the
extension stroke.
 During extension stroke fluid from the pump enters blank end of the cylinder, where
as used fluid available on the rod end side flows back and mixed with main pressure
line flow this arrangement is known as regenerative arrangement because of increased
flow rate, piston speed increases.
Working
 During extension stroke, flow from the pump enters the DCV, which is kept at the
position 1 by operating the lever.
At point J, the flow from the rod end side enters and gets mixed with the main line
flow this is nothing but regeneration of used fluid, due to increased quantity of flow
pressure flow increases.
 The increased quantity of fluid, flows through the DCV from P to A which enters
blank end of the cylinder which moves at a faster rate than normal flow rate.
 For the retraction stroke, the DCV shifted to position 2, this blocks the flow coming
from pump port p hence flow travels through the line B from the point J and causes
return stroke in the cylinder.
 The used fluid available on the piston side flows towards tank through the DCV in
which it travels from A to T.

Speed control of a hydraulic cylinder
There are basically two methods of controlling speed of an hydraulic cylinder, either
by controlling the either by flow into the cylinder or going out of the cylinder. To achieve this
flow control valve is used. Flow control valves are nothing but throttling device which can
control the fluid flowing through it.
Commonly used method of speed control as follows
a) Meter-in circuit
b) Meter-out circuit
c) Bleed-off circuit
Meter-in circuit
This method is also called as primary control method, in this method speed control is
achieved by placing the flow control valve in between pump and actuator. Therefore the oil
flowing into the actuator is metered hence its called meter-in circuit.
Working
 Circuit comprises of 4way 2 position push button operated spring return DCV, FCV at
the inlet line to the cylinder and pump & PRV arrangement.
 When DCV is actuated manually to the left envelope mode, flow from the pump P is
directed to the blank end of the cylinder port A through the FCV also noted that there
is a check valve it is in closed position and the flow is passed through the metering
orifice.
 Therefore depending upon the orifice opening the flow is metered to the inlet port A
hence extension of the cylinder is controlled.
 When DCV actuated manually to its right envelope mode, the flow lines are reversed,
pump line is directed to the rod end of the cylinder B while port A is connected to the
tank line T.
 The cylinder starts retracting as the flow enters the port B and at the same time flow
from port A passes through the FCV also noted that check valve opens out thus flow
by passes the orifice valve and flows through the check valve without any restriction.

 Thus in retraction, the cylinder moves back to its full design speed as the flows are
not metered.
Meter-out circuit
This method is also called as Secondary control method; in this method speed control
is achieved by placing the flow control valve in between actuator and tank. Therefore the oil
flowing out of the actuator is metered hence it’s called meter-out circuit.
Working
 Circuit comprises of 4way 2 position push button operated spring return DCV, FCV at
the outlet line of the cylinder and pump & PRV arrangement.
 When DCV is actuated manually to the left envelope mode, flow from the pump P is
directed to the blank end of the cylinder port, cylinder extends.
 Fluid from the rod end of the cylinder is forced out of the port B, since there is a FCV,
flow has to pass through it therefore flow rate is metered.
 Also note that there is a check valve along with the FCV, it is remains closed when
fluid being forced out of port B to the tank line T.
 When DCV is actuated manually to right envelope mode, pump line P is directed to
the cylinder port B while port A is connected to the tank line T.
 Fluid under pressure enters the cylinder port B by passing the FCV and flows through
the check valve hence flow enters the cylinder and retracts with full design speed.
Bleed-off circuit
This method is also called as by pass control method. Here flow control is achieved
by placing the flow control valve between the pump line and tank line, either before the DCV
or after therefore it controls the fluid by bleeding the excess oil not needed by the actuator.
Working
 During extension of the cylinder, pressurized oil from the pump flows through the
DCV P to A and enters blank end of the cylinder and forces it for the forward stroke.
 Here some amount of oil from the pump is by-passed/bleed-off to the return line
according to the opening in the FCV, which actually controls the oil that is allowed
flow towards the cylinder hence acts as control circuit.

 Some of amount of oil available on the rod side flows towards the tank through DCV
through B to T this return line also contains by passed oil to control the speed of the
actuator.
 Similarly same case repeated in the retraction stroke.
Pump unloading circuit

Pump unloading is necessary part to avoid the damage to the components when the
pressure line is blocked in the circuit. In such cases unloading valve is used.
Unloading condition is required to take place at 3 points
a) At the end of forward stroke
b) At the centre spool position of DCV
c) At the end of retraction stroke.

Construction
 Unloading circuit uses a spring-centred 4-way 3-position DCV along with a unloading
valve.
 Unloading valve similar in construction and operation of PRV, which are designed to
bypass the flow to the tank when they exceed the system set pressure. i.e. valve senses
the line pressure to activate (A normal PRV senses its own line pressure while
unloading valve senses external line connected to the actuator port.
 Here pilot line of the unloading valve is connected to the pressure line of the system
after the check valve i.e. pilot gets activated when line pressure exceeds a preset
pressure.
Working
 In the neutral position, pump port being blocked, as the line pressure increases, this is
sensed by the unloading valve and then pressure is relieved by the valve.
 When the valve is actuated by the left envelope mode, cylinder starts extending under
the line pressure.
 At the end of the stroke, no more flow takes place and line pressure exceeds the set
pressure sensed by the unloading valve and valve opens out and allows flow to the
tank.
 Similarly when valve actuated to the right envelope mode, cylinder starts retraction.
 At the end of the stroke, pressure builds-up, which is sensed by the unloading valve
and the flow is directed to the tank.
Counter balance valve circuit

It can also call back pressure valve circuit. It is basically used with the vertical
actuators. In such cases in order to prevent accidental falling of weight due to its own weight
or sudden draining out of oil from the cylinder.

Working
 In operation during the forward stroke the DCV activated to right envelope mode, the
flow of oil from the pump enters to the cylinder through the port P to B.
 This arrangement used for holding the load even at idle state or controlling the free
falling of the weight counter balance valve is used.
 Here oil available on the rod end side will be able to open the Counter balance valve
when the pressure during the forward stroke crosses the set value then forward stroke
starts.
 Also oil from the rod end of the cylinder flows directly to the tank through DCV A to
T.
 Similarly when DCV shifted to left envelop mode, the oil from the pump enters into
cylinder through DCV (P to A) and check valve.
 Used fluid available on the blank end of the cylinder flows back to the tank T through
port B.
Locked cylinder circuit using pilot operated check valve

In many engineering applications, load and hence cylinder needs to be locked in its
position, so that the load remains fixed. For example in a hydraulic crane, the load lifted to a
particular height, will be kept in its position by locking the cylinder for safety considerations.
Working
 In this circuit, the cylinder ports are provided with pilot operated check valves, so that
reverse flow is blocked in the check valve un actuated condition.
 When the DCV is operated in its left envelope mode the flow is directed to the
cylinder port A through the check valve CV1.
 However for the cylinder to extend, fluid has to flow out of the cylinder at the rod end
side through port B.
 At this stage the check valve CV2 is opened by the pilot line so that port B is directed
to the tank line T.

 Similarly in the retraction mode, flow easily passes through the CV2 from pressure
line to port B, while reverse flow from port A to tank line T is achieved by the
opening of check valve CV1 through pilot line.
Hydraulic cylinder Sequencing circuit

This is one of the most common application of hydraulic circuit where a sequence
valve causes the two cylinder to be operated sequentially. To achieve this two sequence valve
are used. In this case both the cylinders are double acting cylinders.
Example:
This is a typical press operation, in which first clamping cylinder is activated to clamp
the work-piece and next bending cylinder is activated to perform the bending operation. In
the reverse sequence, bending cylinder is retracted first and clamping cylinder is retracted to
remove clamp force.
Working
 In operation, when DCV is actuated to its left envelope mode, the pump line P is
directed to the port A in the clamp cylinder, thus causing extension.
 As the cylinder extends completely, back pressure backpressure builds up in the line
and actuates the sequence valve SV1 and opened to allow the oil to blank end of the
cylinder 2 this causes extension of the bending cylinder.
 At the same time oil from rod end of the cylinder flows to the tank through DCV B to
T.
 When DCV is actuated to its right envelope mode, pump port P is directed to the port
B of the bending cylinder causes retraction.
 At the end of retraction, the line pressure builds up and actuates the sequence valve
SV2 and then allow the oil to flow into port b of the clamping cylinder this causes
retraction of the clamping cylinder.
 At the same time oil from blank end of the cylinder flows to the tank through DCV A
to T.

Module 4
Pneumatic Power Systems
Introduction to Pneumatic Systems:
A System that uses compressed air or pressurized gas as a fluid and transmits energy
contained in it to do the useful mechanical work is called “pneumatic system”.
Advantages of Pneumatic Systems

In the current scenario pneumatic system are widely used in almost all the sectors
because of following advantages.
 Economical – pneumatic systems are less expensive compared to hydraulic system
and maintenance cost also less.
 Safer System – compressed air used as a working medium which will neither catch
fire nor explode.
 Eco-Friendly–compressed air do not produce any pollutants.
 Can work in harsh Environments – it’s not effected by harsh environment such as
temperature, dust and corrosion.
 Ease of control of speed and pressure
Limitations of Pneumatic System

 Limited to low pressure and low force applications.
 Generation of compressed air expensive compared to electricity.
 Exhaust air noise is unpleasant hence it require silencer.
 Because of compressibility of the air, uniform speed of the actuator cannot be
achieved due to uneven motion of the piston.
 Fluid medium should be processed before they use to ensure the absence of moisture
& dust which may cause excessive wear & corrosion.
Applications of Pneumatic system

 Low pressure applications
 Used in many production line and assembly line like Drilling, Punching, Clamping.
 Automaton and Robotics
 Textile industry
 Automobile industry
 Pharmaceutical industry
 Medical equipment’s
 Food processing, Packaging and Paper industry
 Assembly units
Choice of Working Medium:

1. Air : is recommended for Medium pressure and Moderate work
2. Oil: is recommended for High pressure and heavy duty work
3. Air + Oil: is recommended for Great precision and accuracy of the motion of actuator

Characteristics of Compressed Air:

1. Availability: Air is practically available in abundant everywhere
2. Transportation: Air can be transported easily in pipelinesand even over long
distance
3. Storage: Compressed air can be stored in reservoir and can be transported easily
4. Temperature: Compressed air is relatively insensitive to the temperature fluctuations
5. Explosion: Compressed air does not offer the risk of explosion
6. Cleanliness: Unlubricated exhaust air is clean and also leakage of lubricated air if any
is not harmful
7. Speed: Compressed air is fast flowing operating medium. This property enables high
working speeds of actuators and other elements
8. Overload safe: Pneumatic tools and operating elements can be loaded to the point of
stopping and are therefore overload safe
9. Components: Pneumatic systems simple in construction & relatively inexpensive.
Structure of Pneumatic Control System

Pneumatic control systems consists of following parts which are arranged in such a
manner to achieve high pressure air at normal temperature.
 It consists of air-intake, filter, compressor driven by electric motor, air-treator,
reservoir, control valve, actuator and exhaust.
Fig: Structure of Pneumatic Control System

 The electric motor drives the compressor.
 The compressor creates the suction pressure and draws in air through the filter.
 The filter arrests the suspended particles like dirt, dust etc and allows clean air in to
the compressor
 The compressor compresses the air from atmospheric pressure to higher pressure due
to which air gets heated up.

 The hot air is then passed through the air cooler and treator unit, where hot air is
cooled and moisture and other gases present in the air are removed
 The treated high pressure air is then stored in the reservoir. The reservoir is fitted with
the pressure switch to monitor the pressure of the compressed air.
 The compressed gas is used to run the actuator at the desired speed.
Fluid Conditioners/Preparation of compressed air

Air used in the pneumatic system must be clean and dry without any contaminants
like traces of oil, water vapour, dirt & dust etc.
 Atmospheric air contains smoke, dust, moisture which are harmful to the mechanical
components of the pneumatic system & it needs to treated before stored in the
reservoir.
 Removal of harmful elements from compressed air is called “Preparation of
compressed air”.
Stages of Air Treatment:
 The figure below shows the stages of air treatment:
Compressed air prepared or treated in three stages

1. First, inlet filtering removes particles which can damage the air compressor like dust
particle.
2. Next, there is need to dry the air to reduce the humidity lower the dew point. This is
normally performed between the compressor and the receiver and is termed as
“primary air treatment”
3. The final treatment consist of further steps to remove moisture, dirt and the
introduction of a fine oil mist to air for lubrication. This stage is termed as
“secondary air treatment”
Filters
Primary function of a filter is to arrest dirt & smoke particles entering the compressor,
pneumatic elements & actuators to prevent damage to them.
Filters are classified as follows:
1. Dry Filters: With replaceable cartridges, similar to those found in motor car air filter
2. Wet Filter: Where the incoming air is bubbled through an oil bath then passed
through a wire mesh filter.
Main purpose of this is that dust & Dirt particles get attached to oil droplets during the
bubbling process and are consequently removed by the wire mesh

Air-Dryers
During compression the humidity and dew point of air increases. To bring the level of
humidity & dew-point to a reasonable level, excess moisture is to be removed. In bulk air
system the air is passed through a simple cooler which aids in condensing the moisture &
drained off.
1. Air Filter and Water Trap separator:
 The figure shows the typical water trap separator
 Air enters the inlet of the unit and undergoes a sudden reversal in its direction of flow and
swirls with the help of deflector cone
 Both the action of reversal and swirling deflector cone causes heavier particles to flung
out of the separator wall and get collected at the bottom of the unit
2. Delique-scent Dryer
If the absolutely dry air is needed, chemical dryers must be employed. The chemical dryer
generally considered are ‘deliquescent dryers’.
 A chemical agent called “dessicant” is used in this type of dryer
 This absorbs water vapor and slowly dissolves to form a liquid which collects at the
bottom of the unit where it can be drained
 The dessicant material is used up during the process and its necessary to replace the
material often

3. Refrigerated Dryer:
 This type of dryer chills the air to just above 00 C condensing almost all the water out
and collecting the condensate in separator
 Efficiency of the unit is improved with second heat exchanger in which cold air
leaving the dryer pre-chills incoming air.
 Air leaving the dryer has a dew point similar to the temperature in the main heat
exchanger
Lubricators:
Lubricator ensure proper lubrication of moving parts of pneumatic components. To
reduce the friction between moving parts in pneumatic systems, the compressed air is mixed
with a controlled amount of oil before being used.
 Function of the lubricator is similar to carburettor in an automobile.
 As air enters at the inlet it’s velocity increases and pressure reduces due to its venture
effect.
 This difference in pressure at inlet and after venture cause oil to raise in the raiser
tube.
 This oil comes out at the inlet point of air in the form of the fine spray and mixes
with the air.
 A needle valve adjust the pressure difference across the oil jet and hence to controls
the oil flow rate.
 The air-oil mixture is because of high velocity of air forced to swirl as it leaves the
central cylinder tube resulting in excess large oil particles thrown out of the air
systems and falling back to the oil bath.

Air-Pressure Regulator
 Compressor control and maintains system air pressure within a given range whenever
there is a drop in pressure in the receiver.
 Compressor may start/stop automatically when the pressure in the receiver reaches
maximum value of its range this is generally accomplished with the help of pressure
switch.
 A relief valve is provided as a stand by to protect the compressor in case of pressure
switch fails.
There are essentially 3 methods of local pressure control as shown in the figure
Method 1
 Here pressure regulator simply restricts the air flow to the load.
 This type of regulator has 2 ports and requires some minimum flow to operate.
 If dead end load is used which draws no air, the pressure will raise to the main
manifold pressure and such regulators in which air must pass through the load are
called non-relieving regulators.
Method 2
 Here regulator vents air to the atmosphere without passing through the load.
 This type of regulator has 3 ports one for supply, one for receiver and the other for
vent such regulator called relieving regulator.
Method 3
 If load is quite large and flow requirement are beyond capacity of ordinary in-line
regulator.
 Here pressure control loop comprises of pressure transducer, electronic controller and
a separate vent valve.
 This method is generally used if the pressure regulating cannot be maintained locally
at the point where the pressure has to be controlled.

FRL Unit
With the advantage of manufacturing technology, the independent devices for
conditioning of compressed air, i.e. filtering, regulating and lubricating is combined in to one
unit which is known as FRL Unit.
FRL unit stands for Filter, Regulator and Lubricator unit
 The Filter with water separator
removes dirt, pipe scales, rust
and condensate from the
compressed air
 The Regulatoris a diaphragm
operated, relieving type, keeps
the working pressure of air fairly
constant irrespective of the
pressure fluctuations
 The Lubricator is a mist type.
The required lubrication is set
by adjusting the screw. The
amount of oil atomized is
proportional to the air flow
Pneumatic Actuators
Actuators are those which has motion or to which motion has imparted. If the motion
has imparted by energy contained in air or pressurized gas then it’s called pneumatic
actuators.
 Similar to hydraulic actuators, pneumatic cylinders are also use for gripping/moving
of objects in various industrial applications.
 Since the operating medium is air, pressure is less and hence lighter in construction.
Pneumatic actuators are broadly classified in to two types. They are
1. Linear cylinder - actuators which are designed to produce linear motion are also
called air cylinders.
2. Rotary Cylinder - . Actuators which are designed to produce rotary motion are
popularly known as air motors.
Linear Cylinders
 Linear pneumatic cylinders, popularly known as air cylinders are used for the
generation of straight rectilinear motion.
 Air cylinders are generally made of either aluminium or non-ferrous material
including plastic to reduce weight and improve heat transfer co-efficient and reduce
corrosive action of air.
 Air cylinders essentially consists of a tube, sealed at both ends by covers and fitted
with a piston or piston rod.
 Compressed air is admitted through a port at one end which produces linear motion of
the piston.

Classification of air cylinders

Based on the operating principle is classified into 2 types
1. Single acting cylinder
2. Double acting cylinder
Single acting cylinder

 In the case of single acting cylinder compressed air is applied on one side of the cylinder
which extend the cylinder (Piston)
 The method of retraction depends on the application of the cylinder and they are
classified as follows
a) Spring Return type - If the cylinder is required to produce high force during
extension as in case of forming/ clamping operation and very small force is required
to retract then spring is used.
b) Gravity Return type – If the cylinder is used to lift the load then gravity will retract
the piston and normally in vertical position is preferred.
Construction of Single Acting Cylinder:
 A single acting cylinder consist of following main parts Two end covers, Cylinder tube,
Piston and piston rod, Spring and Tie rods
 Figure shows the assembled figure of construction
 Cylinder tube is held in position by the two end covers
 The piston-rod assembly reciprocates inside the cylinder, the retraction being affected by
the spring.
 Both inlet and outlet covers are provided on the piston end covers
 During the operation Compressed air enters the inlet port of the cylinder & extends it and
Low pressure air is expelled through the exhaust port during retraction.

Types of single acting cylinder:

a) Diaphragm cylinder
b) Rolling diaphragm cylinder
Diaphragm cylinder
 It consists of built in diaphragm of rubber, plastic or even metallic type.
 It’s capable of generating very high forces with very short strokes and are commonly
called thrusters. Thrust equal to product of air pressure and effective area of
diaphragm. T = Pair * A effective
 Stroke is normally limited to a maximum of about one third of cylinder diameter.
Rolling diaphragm type – in this type diaphragm roll inside the cylinder and piston fastened
is extended.
Double acting Cylinder

In Double Acting Cylinders compressed air acts on either side of the piston for
extending and retracting of the piston.
Construction of Double Acting Cylinder:
 Double Acting Cylinders consists of two end covers with one port on each, cylindrical
tube, piston and piston rod.
 End caps can be secured to be two ends of the cylindrical tube by welding, tie rods or
threaded connection.
 Cylinder rod assembly reciprocating inside the cylinder

Working
 Normally position of the cylinder will be in the retracted position.
 High pressure compressed air is allowed into cylinder through port A by 4/2 DCV.
 The piston extends and air on the rod side escapes through the port B.
 Similarly high pressure compressed air allowed into the cylinder through port B and
retraction takes place, the air on the piston side escapes through port A.
Types of Double Acting Cylinders:

1. Through-rod Cylinders
2. Telescopic Cylinders
3. Impact cylinder
4. Diaphragm cylinder
5. Rodless cylinder
Through-rod Cylinder
 To maintain same force during extending and retraction same effective area should be
maintained.
 This can be achieved by having a piston rod of same diameter on either side of the
piston, such cylinders are called Through-rod Cylinder.
 Main advantage of such type of cylinder is stability of the operation and efficiency of
the system can be improved.
Telescopic Cylinder
 Sometimes necessity arises to have long stroke length of the piston but available space is
limitation for placing single cylinder of such stroke length, in such situation telescopic
cylinders may be used.
 It consists of series of annular, nested tubes, placed one inside the other.
 The total stroke length of the cylinders is equal to sum of effective extension of the each
cylinder.
 In the fully retracted position the length of the cylinder will be equal to length of the
conventional cylinder.
 Force being equal to product of pressure and effective area of smallest cylinder.

Impact cylinder
 These type used in metal forming operations where large force is required for a short
interval of time.
 Large impact loads can be generated by accelerating a hammer connected to a high
velocity piston rod of a cylinder and thus allowing it to strike the target, such cylinders
are called Impact Cylinders.
 Effective area of the piston on head end side is smaller than the effective area of the
piston on the rod end side. i.e. A2 > A1
Working
 Initially the cylinder is retracted by applying high pressure air through port R.
 Now compressed air applied to both ports E and R, cylinder remains in the retracted
position because force exerted on the piston rod side higher than the piston side.
 Suddenly piston area X experiences port E pressure with large volume of air
accumulated it is extends rapidly to a very high velocity.
Diaphragm Cylinder
 This is similar to single acting diaphragm cylinder but thrust or force being developed
both during extension and retraction.
 Here force developed is quite high with very short stroke and such cylinders are
useful where force is of prime importance rather than stroke length.
Rod less cylinder

 Rodless cylinders are those cylinder having piston without piston rods.
 It consist of cylinder tube with a piston head housed inside. The piston moves to and fro
inside cylinder due to compressed air.
Rodless cylinders are classified as:

 C-shaped Housing Type
 Magnetic type Rodless cylinder
Cable type Rodless cylinder

End Position Cushioning:

Air cylinder are fast-acting and the piston will tend to accelerate over the whole
length of the stroke and develops shock loads on the caps. To avoid this decelerating device
or cushion is generally provided in the cylinder geometry.
This normally takes the form of a cushion chamber in the end of the cylinder, into
which nose part (Plunger) plunger of the piston enters.
 End caps have to withstand shock loads at extremes of piston travel
 These loads arise not only from fluid pressure, but also from kinetic energy of the moving
parts of the cylinder and load
 These travel shock loads can be reduced with cushion valves built into the end caps as
shown in the figure.
 In operation deceleration starts when the tapered plunger enters the opening in the cap,
this restricts the exhaust flow from the barrel to the port.
 The exhaust flow route is now via the needle valve which reduces the speed and the end
of travel impact.
 The Needle valve is adjustable to allow the deceleration rate to be set.
 A check valve is also included in the end cap to allow free flow to piston during direction
reversal i.e. it gives near full flow as the cylinder extends.

SEALS
Seals are used to avoid leakage and for smooth, wear free operation. Depending upon
the type of construction, seals are used at different locations in a linear cylinder.
1. Piston Seals:
 Piston seals or piston rings are used between the piston and the cylinder barrel.
 These rings can be either metallic or non-metallic.
 Steel rings coated with zinc phosphate or manganese phosphate give a good life and
operate smoothly.
 Non-metallic rings made of PTFE (polyterafloroethylene), widely known as Teflon is
chemically stable and tough. Because of its very low coefficient of friction (0.04), it is
ideal in pneumatic cylinders, and can perform well without lubrication also.
2. Piston Cups:
 In some constructions, the piston is provided with piston cup seals.
 Compared to piston with rings, cup seals are much simpler in design and easy to
assemble.
 They have an L-section, held on either side of a backing plate.
 For a single acting cylinder one cup is used on the pressure side, while for a
double acting cylinder two cups, one on either side are used.
 The cups are held between the backing plate and retainer clamp. Leather or some
synthetic materials are used for sealing cups.
3. Rod Seals:
 Rods are provided with three varieties of seals:
 (i)Dynamic seal (synthetic material) to prevent leakage of air;
 (ii) Rod bearing (Teflon) to support the rod in the end cap: and
 (iii) Rod wiper (synthetic) to prevent entry of atmospheric contaminants.
 In very dusty environments, rubber bellows are also used to protect the
cylinder from the dust and other external particles.
4. End Cap Seal
 Depending upon the design, either O-rings or die-cut gaskets are used to seal
the end cap and the barrel.
 Synthetic rubbers and leather are commonly used for this purpose.

Mounting Arrangements:
Cylinder mounting is determined by the application, two basic types are shown in first figure.
Flange Mounting
 Flange mounting is the most rigid and strongest method of mounting, since mounting
bolts are subjected to only tensile stress.
 Here during operation no misalignment of rod is present or possible.
Trunion Mounting
 Trunion mounting, absorbs force on cylinder centerline and Swivel flange mounting bolts
are under the influence of compound stresses (tension & shear).
 Swivel flange mounting may be centre or blind end position.
Foot Mounting
 Foot mounting is used where cylinder is to be mounted on to the surface parallel to the
axis of the cylinder.
 These types of mountings are rigid, but mounting bolts are subjected to compound
stresses. This method offers the most convenient method of mounting.
Clevis Mounting
 This is similar to Trunion (Pivot) mounting but allows for some misalignment of the rod
while absorbing force on cylinder centre line.
 Clevis mounting may be piston mounting or blind end Mounting.
Applications of Linear Cylinders

 Pneumatic suction machine
 Pneumatic conveyor system
 Pneumatic adjustable table
 Pneumatic jack
 Pneumatic brake
 Pneumatic clamp
 Pneumatic part detection, press fitting , fixturing of parts
 Pins are to be fed to the next processing station using double acting cylinder.
 Pushing of workpiece to next working stations
 Small riveting machine with lever
 An application using a toggle.

Rotary actuators
Rotary actuators are those where in the reciprocating motion of the cylinder is converted
into rotary motion of limited rotation.
They are 2 forms of pneumatic rotary actuators
1. The torque cylinder or semi-motor
2. Single or paired diaphragm cylinders
Torque cylinders
 It consists of two back to back cylinder with a common piston rod.
 Piston rod is provided with a rack engaging with a pinion mounted traversely in the centre
as shown in the figure.
 Linear movement of the piston is translated into limited rotary motion and rotary
movement is usually limited to maximum of 3000 or even less.
 Advantage of torque cylinder is that for constant applied pressure the torque output also
constant over the whole range of rack travel.
Paired Diaphragm cylinder actuators

 It is a combination of 2 conventional diaphragm cylinders mounted on a common
centre piece (Rack) carrying a toothed wheel (Pinion).
 Each piston rod containing a rachet engaging the toothed wheel as shown in the
figure.
 In operation selected diaphragm cylinder is operated in an oscillating mode, driving
the toothed wheel and causes rotary movements similarly other cylinder reverses the
direction of motion.
 Diaphragm cylinders are essentially high-thrust, high output torque devices and this
type of rotary actuators capable of continuous rotation in either direction.

Vane actuators
 This is a positive displacement actuators which develops an output torque at its shaft
by allowing high pressure air through the ports provided in the casing.
 It consists of a single vane mounted on a rotor connected to a shaft.
 The vane rotates due to imbalance or differential pressure caused on it.
 The torque developed depends on the projected area of the vane and the differential
pressure.
 If pressure P1 through port A greater than P2 through port B, then vane rotates in
clockwise direction and vice versa.
Rotary cylinders – have their cylinders rotating along with the piston as the piston
reciprocates.
a) True rotating cylinders
 True cylinder is one where cylinder and piston are locked in such a manner that no
relative motion can occur between them.
 Complete cylinder is mounted on a distribution gland which allows the cylinder to
rotate relative to the workpiece.

b) Rotary cylinders
 Rotating cylinders is one where the design provides piston to rotate freely relative
to the cylinder with no loss of working characteristics.
 i.e. piston seal must be capable of accommodating rotary as well as sliding
motions.
Air motors – are mechanical devices where energy contained in the compressed air or
pressurized gas is converted into mechanical energy in the form of rotary motion.
Advantages of air motor

 low initial cost and low running cost
 high power to weight ratio
 can be operated continuously for longer period.
 Safety, particularly for operation hazardous areas

 Inherent overload protection

 Low inertia and ease of control
 high reliability with minimal maintenance requirements.
Types of Air motors

a. Piston motor
b. Vane motor
c. Diaphragm motor
d. Turbine motors
e. Linear motor.
Piston motor
 Piston motor are the most common type of air motors employed for industrial drives,
they are available in 2 design
a. Inline design type
b. Radial design type
 In radial design has all connecting rods mounted on a common crankshaft as shown in
the figure.
 Power and exhaust stroke are controlled by suitable distribution valve and 2 stages of
exhaust is often adopted.
 Piston motor develop high strains and initial torque and falling with increasing speed.
 Both torque and power developed depends on the supply of air pressure . starting,
optimum running and small torques are also dependent on the suplly pressure.
 Piston motors with variations in design include swash plate motors, face cam motors.

Application of piston motors

Fractional power motors – portable and bench tools, light lifting and hoisting and
mechanical handling.
High capacity motors – general drives, with heavy and fluctuating loads, requiring better
low speed torque characteristics.
Vane motors (Sliding vane type)

Vane motors are generally lighter, more compact and cheaper than piston motor.
Available in power range from fractional capacity to 20KW power.
Construction
It consists of radial slotted rotor mounted on a shaft eccentric to the power chambers.
The vane slide radially and seal against power chamber wall or cam ring.
The vanes are usually sprung out either mechanically using spring or pneumatically
using compressed air against the camring to provide a sealing force in the initial
starting condition.
 As the speed of the motor increases the vanes are swung out by centrifugal action.
Working
 Air is supplied to the pressure chamber either through port A or B.
 If the air is supplied through port A the motor rotate in clockwise direction and if
supplied through B, it rotates in the counter clockwise direction.
 By varying the axis of rotation of the rotor with reference to the axis of the pressure
chamber, speed of the motor can be varied.
 The distance between the axes being called eccentricity such motor is called variable
speed vane motor.
Diaphragm motor – is basically a reciprocating device with small stroke.

 The reciprocating motion is converted into rotary motion using pawl and rachet
mechanism.
 The speed of working is low but torque produced is very high.
 Its suitable for high torque and low speed applications – example vane actuator.

Linear motor
 Air cylinder are essentially a linear actuators and its adopted for continuous self-
reciprocation they are known as linear motors.
 This form of motion can be provided by using a conventional double acting cylinder
with trip valves or similar devices which switch to control automatically at the end of
each strokes and maintain continuous reciprocation.
 The control may be initiated by mechanical triggering a pneumatic or electronic
triggering for continuous reciprocating motion
 The reciprocating output of the cylinder may be used directly or to drive a crank for
rotary output.

Pneumatic Control Valves

Valve is a mechanical device used to regulate or control the fluid energy and its
physical parameters in fluid power system. If the fluid used is air then such valves are called
pneumatic valves.
Pneumatic valves are generally divided into 3 main categories.
1. Directional Control valve.
2. Flow Control Valve
3. Pressure Control Valve
4. Non-return Valve
a) Check Valve
b) Shuttle Valve
c) Quick Exhaust Valve
Direction Control Valve

Direction control valves as the name itself indicates that valves used to control the
direction or path flow of air.
Based on the number of ports & switching position
(a) 2-Way valve – the simplest type of valve is the 2-way valve i.e. Pressure in at ‘P’ and
connecting port for outlet ‘A’.
 Such valves either normally closed or normally open i.e. it has two positions
and it also referred to as Straightway valve.
(b) Three way two position (3/2) valves – it’s a logic choice for single acting cylinder or
for any other simple circuit where downstream air has to be exhausted.
 In normally open mode exhaust port is closed, in this position the supply of air
through port P to A, cylinder extends.
 In normally closed mode the supply of air is stopped but the outlet is
connected through port R to allow the downstream air to exhaust through the
valve.

(c) Four ways two position (4/2) Valves - it’s used to operate double acting cylinders.
 In one position P is connected to A and B to exhaust E and in other position P
is connected to B and A to E exhaust.
(d) Five way, two position valve (5/2) – it’s similar to a 4/2 valve except for an
additional exhaust port. This has specific advantage in particular application.
 For a double acting cylinder the power and exhaust paths are switched
simultaneously.
(e) Four way, three position valve (4/3) – it’s similar to a 4/2 valve except for an
additional position with all the ports blocked, i.e. no flow is possible through the
valve in either direction.
 Typical application is the hold facility of a double acting cylinder either in
extended or retracted position.
 That is pressurized air will act on both sides of the piston it’s also referred to
as centre-off position.
 Here 4/3 direction control valve is connected to the pressure line (P), return
line (T) and cylinder lines A and B.
 In its neutral position, the valve closes all of the four lines and the cylinder is
stopped.
 By switching the valve to any of the other positions, the cylinders move in the
corresponding direction.

Based on the form or shape of construction

1. Poppet valve
2. Spool valve
3. Sliding Valve
4. Shuttle valve
5. Suspended seat type slide valve
Poppet valve
In a poppet valve, simple disc, cones or balls are used in conjunction with simple
valve seats to control the flow.
 Fig a shows the construction and symbol of simple 2/2 normally- closed valve.
 If the push button is pressed, ball lift off its seat and allows the air to flow from port P to
Port A.
 When the push button is released, spring force & air pressure keeps the ball back & closes
air flow from port P to Port A.
Advantages
 Suited for very high pressure applications
 Very minor leakage.
Disadvantages
 Not suitable for large valve size.
 Complicated construction & cost is high.
Similarly figure b shows the construction and symbol of a Disc seal 3/2 poppet valve.
 It consists of valve stem which is connected to a manually operated push button & its
connected with the disc shape of poppet arrangement which is compressed between
valve stem spring & disc return spring.

 If the push button is pressed, port 3 is blocked by the moving valve stem & valve disc
is pushed downwards & admitting the air through port 1 to 2.
 When the push button is released, spring & air pressure keeps the disc backwards &
closes the air flow from port1 but the port 2 is connected port 3 allow the air to flow
through it.
Spool valve – are preferred more because they offer extreme flexibility in interconnection
through simple sliding mechanism.
Advantages
 Simple in construction
 Cost is low.
 This valve is permanently balance.
Disadvantages
 Adequate sealing has to be obtained by fine surface finish on both spool & cylinder
boring.
 Close tolerance to ensure minimum clearance to prevent internal leakage.
Sliding Spool valve
In this valve there is a small piston inside a valve casing which slide inside the casing
there by opening/Closing the ports in the valve body.
 Two basic elements of spool valve are cylindrical bore in a housing and plunger.
 Plunger provides a sliding seal/land with its axial movement it covers & uncovers the
port. i.e. connecting & disconnecting interconnection of ports.
 Therefore it makes easier to provide multi-way & multi-position switching.
 If the push button is pressed, port 3 is blocked by the lands of the plunger & admitting
the air through port 1 to 2.
 When the push button is released, spring & air pressure pushes the plunger backwards
& closes the air flow from port1 but the port 2 is connected port 3 allow the air to
flow through it.

Suspended Disc directional control valve

 This valve quite similar to 4/2 way spool valve.
 It has a suspended disc seat which performs the port opening and closing operation.
 The suspended disc can be moved by pilot pressure/solenoid/ mechanical means.
 Main advantage of the suspended seal valve is that seal can be performed with
relatively small switching movement.
 In this design main disc seat connects port P to either Port A/Port B & secondary disc
seal the exhaust port B whenever in not functional.
 Such valves are generally provided with manual over ride button at each end of the
spool to manually move the spool.
PNEUMATIC CONTROL VALVE

Pneumatic control involves the controlling of directional and speed of the pneumatic
actuator using control valves and pressurized air.
1. Direct Control valve – here valve controlling the actuator by direct actuation.
2. Indirect control valve – here valve controlling the actuator by controlling another
valve called Pilot valve.
I.e. valve which is controlled by pilot valve is called pilot operated check valve.
PRESSURE CONTROL VALVE

 Compared with hydraulic systems, few pressure control valves are brought into use in
pneumatics. Pressure control valves control the pressure of the air flowing through the
valve or in the confined system it’s controlled by the valve.
There are three types of pressure control valves
1. Pressure limiting valve - Prevents the pressure in a system from rising above a
maximum permissible pressure.
 Construction feature of pressure limiting valve is shown in figure.
 These valves perform a safety relief function by opening to the atmosphere if a
predetermined pressure is exceeded in the system, thus releasing the excess pressure.
 As soon as the pressure is thus relieved to the desired pressure, the valve closed again
by spring force.

2. Pressure sequence valve - It is however used for a different purpose.

 Outlet of the pressure sequence valve remains closed until upstream pressure
builds up to a predetermined value.
 Only then the valve opens to permit the air from inlet to outlet.
 Sequence valve must be incorporated into a pneumatic control where a certain
minimum pressure must be available for a given function and operation is not be
initiated at any pressure lower than that.
3. Pressure regulator or pressure reducing valve - maintain constant output pressure
in compressed-air systems regardless of variations in input pressure or output flow.
 Regulators can use either a piston or diaphragm to sense downstream pressure.
 Diaphragms are generally more sensitive to pressure changes and react more
quickly. They should be used where sensitive pressure settings are required (less
than 0.0025 bar).
 Pistons, on the other hand, are generally more rugged and provide a larger
effective sensing area in a given size regulator.
Direct Pressure Relief Valve

 For controlling the pressure in a system, say, for keeping it below a safe pressure and
its arrangement is shown in Figure.
 Where the poppet valve is kept under variable spring pressure to put a stop to the
flow.
 When the pressure exceeds the spring pressure the poppet gets lifted and pressure is
relieved (controlled).

Pilot operated pressure relief valve

In some cases the control valve requires large force to actuate the valving element,
application of such a large force will be difficult even in manual actuated in such cases
another valve exclusively used for actuating the control valve and such a valve is called pilot
valve.
 The pilot operated pressure relief valve has a pressure port that is connected to the
pump line and the tank port is connected to tank.
 The main relief valve consists of a piston and stem.
 The pilot relief valve is a poppet type; pilot relief piston has a orifice drilled through
it.
 The piston has equal areas exposed to pressure on top and bottom and is in balanced
condition due to equal force acting on the both sides. The piston has a light bias
spring to ensure that it will stay closed.
 When the pressure is less than that of relief valve setting, the pump flow goes to the
system.
 If the pressure in the system becomes high enough, fluid will not flow from bottom
portion of the piston to tank because stem blocking the way, now fluid will start
flowing through the small orifice and fills the top portion of the piston.
 When top portion of the piston filled, fluid will entering the main relief valve through
pilot line and lift the poppet from its seat and now fluid will start flow into the tank
port.
 During this process pressure at top side of the piston reduced due to restriction of
piston orifice and pressure at bottom side of the piston increased this causes the piston
and stem to lift off its seat and the flow goes directly from the pressure port to tank.

Flow control Valves - are essentially throttling devices.

 Flow control valves are used to regulate the speed of hydraulic cylinders and motors
by controlling the flow rate to these actuators.
 They may be as simple as a fixed orifice (constant flow) or an adjustable Needle valve
(Variable flow) capable of providing progressive throttling.
Note: Needle valves are designed to give fine control of flow in small diameter
piping.
 Flow control valves is used to control the rate of flow fluid, there by control the speed
of the actuator.
 If flow rate of fluid is more, then cylinder will be filled quickly and hence the piston
will move faster.
 If flow rate of fluid is less, then cylinder will be filled slowly and hance the piston
moves slowly.
 Speed of the actuator is proportional to the rate of flow, hence controlling the flow
controls the speed of actuator.
Classification of Flow control valves
1. Fixed restriction FCV
2. Variable restriction FCV
3. FCV with Reverse free flow
4. Pressure compensated FCV
5. Temperature compensated FCV
6. Cam operated FCV
Variable restriction FCV

 This valve has a hand wheel, by turning which, we can change the area of flow, and
thus we can change the rate of flow of fluid. Ordinary water tap is better example of
for understanding the functioning.
 There are many types and many designs, examples are needle valve, gate valve, ball
valve, butterfly valve, diaphragm valve and poppet valve etc,
 Figure shows a needle valve, which is most commonly used in pneumatic system.
 It has a needle, which is moved up & down by turning the screw. This alters the
passage for fluid to flow, which intern alters the rate of flow.

FCV with Reverse free flow

 this valve is used to control the rate flow in one direction only, in other direction, the
flow is not controlled i.e. it is free flow.
 By this arrangement we can have controlled speed of actuator in one direction and
uncontrolled speed in the reverse direction. i.e. slow forward quick return of cylinder.
 Such quick return motion is required in machines like shapers, planers, slotting
machines etc.
 From Port-IN to Port-OUT, the flow is through the passage created by the needle, this
is controlled flow.
 From Port OUT to Port IN, it is free flow through the check valve; there is no control
over the flow.
Shuttle Valve - is also known as double check valve, its primarily a pneumatic device and
rarely found in hydraulic circuit.
 Shuttle valve is an automatic type of DCV with 3 ways and 2 position characterstics.
 I.e. this is based on 3 port body with a moving valve element in the form of spool or
shuttle or a ball.
 A shuttle valve allows either of two pressurized inlets which ever is greater from two
sources, higher pressure inlet moves the shuttle to a position where it blocks the other
inlet, therefore it’s a special type of valve rather than DCV and it’s basically used for
OR logic switching.
 Construction is very simple and cosists of a spool inside a cylinder as shown in
figure a and graphical symbol figure b.

 If the pressure of air at A is higher than the pressure at B, then the ball is blown
towards B and port B is blocked connecting the ports A and C.
 Similarly the pressure at B is higher than at A the ball is blown towards A and
port A is blocked connecting the ports B and C.
 Figure c shows typical application, where a single acting spring pneumatic return
is extended from either of two manual stations provided by the shuttle valve.
Memory valve
 Memory is the ability of a control system to retain a component at a certain state
permanently until there is a change of signals.
 A MEMORY element is a normally closed 3-way valve with an integral
shuttle valve.
 Figure shows a memory function circuit, when control valve (1) is operated
momentarily the output signal of the 5/2 DCV (3) will be set ON.
 The signal will stay that way until control valve (2) is operated momentarily and
generates another signal to replace it, causing it to stay permanently at OFF.
 Similarly when control valve (2) is operated momentarily the output signal of the 5/2
DCV (3) will be set OFF, signal will stay that way until control valve (1) is operated
momentarily and generates another signal to replace it, causing it to stay permanently
at ON.
.
Quick Exhaust Valve – it’s a typical shuttle valve.
 The quick exhaust valve is used to exhaust the cylinder air quickly to atmosphere,
schematic diagram of quick exhaust valve is shown in figure.
 In many applications especially with single acting cylinders, it is a common practice
to increase the piston speed during retraction of the cylinder to save the cycle time.
 The higher speed of the piston is possible by reducing the resistance to flow of the
exhausting air during the motion of cylinder.
 The resistance can be reduced by expelling the exhausting air to the atmosphere
quickly by using Quick exhaust valve.


 It consists of a movable valving element (Flexible ring) in the form of cock shuttling
between the inlet and outlet ports, i.e. connecting the inlet port to the system port and
system port to the exhaust port.
 It consists of three ports P, A and R in a body and valving element shuttles between p
and R by connecting the ports P and A and A and R.
Forward Motion – when P is connected to high pressure the shuttle blocks the port R,
connecting P and A, high pressure air extends the cylinder.
Reverse Motion – when the DCV is deactivated the port P is blocked by the shuttle valve
and exhaust air flows to port R through port A.
Twin Pressure Valve – is also called AND gate. Here an output is produced if both the
input signals are fed.
 This valve has three ports A, B and C two ports A and B for input signals and the
port C for the outlet port.
 When the signal is fed through the port A the spool moves to the right and blocks
the passage from A to C.
 Similarly when signal is fed through B, spool moves to the left and blocks the
passage from B to C.
 If the signal is fed simultaneously through A and B, the spool remains in the
neutral position and air will pass through C from both A and B.

Time dependent control valve

 Pneumatic timers are used to create time delay of signals in pilot operated circuits,
available as normally closed and normally open timers.
 time delay valve is a combination of pneumatically actuated 3/2 DCV, an air reservoir
and a throttle relief valve.
 Time delay valve function is obtained by controlling the air flow rate to or from the
reservoir by using the throttle valve. Adjustment of throttle valve permits fine control
of time delay between minimum and maximum timers.
 In pneumatic time delay valve, typical time delay in the range 5-30 seconds are
possible. Here time delay can be extended by additional external reservoir.
Pneumatic timer can be classified as
1) On – delay timer – here 3/2 DCV is actuated after a delay with reference to the
application of pilot signal and reset immediately on the application of pilot signal.
2) Off-delay timer - here 3/2 DCV is actuated immediately on the application of pilot
signal and is reset only after a delay with reference to the release of the pilot signal.
Time delay valve circuit – TDV is used have time delay between the 2 operations.
 It’s a combination of check valve, flow control valve, reservoir/chamber and pilot
operated spring return 3/2 valve to operate single acting cylinder.
 Consider port A of 3/2 valve is connected to a single acting cylinder.
 When push button is pressed compressed air is supplied to inlet port, it flows through
the check valve and fills the chamber, compressed air exerts pressure on the spool

and its shifted towards right side, now connection is made from port P to A in pilot
operated 3/2 valve compressed air flows to blank end of the cylinder and extends.
 When push button is released inlet port is released to atmosphere, compressed air
flows out through the FCV, pressure in the chamber reduces slowly.
 Once the pressure falls below the spring tension, spring will push the spool of the
time delay valve back to its original position to make the connection port A to E in
pilot operated 3/2 valve, now air will be exhausted through port E and cylinder will
retract.
Note- for retraction of the cylinder there is a time delay of preset value, amount of delay can
be adjusted by adjusting the flow control valve opening.

Module 5
Pneumatic Control circuits
Simple Pneumatic control
Pneumatic control involves the controlling of direction and speed of the pneumatic
actuator using control valves and pressurized air.
Control of actuators are broadly classified into two groups
a) Direct Control
b) Indirect Control
Direct Control valve – here valve controlling the actuator by direct actuation.
 Direct check valve is also known as normal check valve has only two ports, namely
inlet port ‘A’ and outlet port ‘B’.
 I.e. it opens in the forward direction and closes in the reverse direction.
A – B working fluid can flow

B – A Working fluid cannot flow
Example
Direct Pressure Relief Valve - For controlling the pressure in a system, below the safe
pressure and its arrangement is shown in Figure.
 Where the poppet valve is kept under variable spring pressure to put a stop to the
flow.
 When the pressure exceeds the spring pressure the poppet gets lifted and pressure is
relieved (controlled).
Indirect control valve – here valve controlling the actuator by controlling another valve
called Pilot valve. I.e. valve which is controlled by pilot valve is called pilot operated check
valve.
 Pilot operated check valve has an additional port called pilot port ‘P’, by the
application of pilot pressure through the pilot port ‘P’ the check valve which was
closed is made to open or check valve which was open is made to close.
 Accordingly there are two types of pilot operated check valve
1. Pilot to open check valve
2. Pilot to close check valve
Module5: Pneumatic control circuits Page 125

Pilot to open check valve
 If fluid supply is given to port A then spool/ conical poppet will lift off from its seat
and it allows the air to port B.
 Similarly if supply is given to port B then valve closes and restricts the flow But if
pilot pressure is given to port P then small piston pushes the conical poppet and
passages is made open then fluid can flow from port B to Port A.
Pilot to closed check valve
 If fluid supply is given to port B then valve closes and restricts the flow.
 Similarly if supply is given to port A then spool/ conical poppet will lift off from its
seat and it allows the air to port B. But if pilot pressure is given to port P then small
piston pushes the conical poppet and conical poppet closes the valve then fluid cannot
flow from port A to Port B.
Speed control of cylinders

The speed of motion of an air cylinder can be controlled by throttling the flow of
compressed air either at inlet or outlet or both.
I.e. in operations, it is necessary to control the speed of the actuator so as to control the force,
power, timing and other factors of the operation.

 The different methods commonly employed for controlling the speed of pneumatic
cylinders are
 Metering-inlet (Supply air-throttling)
 Metering-outlet (Exhaust air-throttling)
 Modified metered outlet
 Using hydraulic cylinders
1. Metering-inlet (Supply air-throttling) - rate of flow of compressed air is controlled
at the inlet of the actuator. i.e. air which is going in to actuator is metered.
 In this case a variable flow control valve is
fixed between the inlet part of the cylinder and
compressor.
 Here air pressure will built-up in the cylinder
and the piston starts moving only when the
force exerted by the air greater than static
friction (blank end of the piston) and resistive
load (external load).
 The piston continues to extend at a uniform
speed with the speed governed by air
admission.
 Any increase or decrease of resistive load will
increase or decrease speed of the piston
respectively.
 Figure shows construction and working of meter-in circuit for extension and un
controlled for retraction.
 It consists of reservoir, compressor, pressure relief valve, 4/2 DCV, flow control
valve, check valve and Double acting cylinder. Here Flow control valve allows air to
flow during extension stroke and check valve allows air to flow during retraction
stroke.
 Here port A is the inlet port at the blank end of the cylinder and Port B is the outlet
port at the Rod end of the cylinder is connected to the return line which allows air to
flows into the tank.
 In operation when lever of the DCV is activated P-A & B-T connection is made
compressed air flows into cylinder through the flow control valve and extension will
occur therefore flow is regulated.
 When lever of the DCV is deactivated P-B & A-T connection is made retraction
stroke air flows out of the cylinder through the check valve i.e. forward controlled
flow and reverse free flow is achieved.

Advantage of meter in circuit

 Finer speed control is possible
 Suitable for high pressure applications i.e.
no problem of pressure intensification.
 Closing the FCV does not affect the force
developed.
Disadvantage of meter in circuit
 Return line is a free path back to the
reservoir hence it cannot resist over running
load
 Cavitations and uneven motion.
 It can be used for opposing loads only.
2. Metering-outlet (Exhaust air-throttling) -- rate of flow of compressed air is

controlled at the outlet of the actuator. i.e. air which is going out to actuator is
metered
 In this case a variable flow control valve is placed at the outlet port of the cylinder.
 Initially there will be rapid or sudden movement of the piston followed by slowing
down as air gets compressed on the piston rod side.
 Figure shows construction and working of meter-out circuit for extension and
uncontrolled for retraction.
 It consists of reservoir, compressor, pressure relief valve, 4/2 DCV, flow control
valve, check valve and Double acting cylinder. Here Flow control valve allows air to
flow during extension stroke and check valve allows air to flow during retraction
stroke.
 Here port A is the inlet port at the blank end of the cylinder and Port B is the outlet
port at the Rod end of the cylinder is connected to the return line which allows air to
flows into the tank.
 In operation when lever of the DCV is activated P-A & B-T connection is made
compressed air flows out from rod end of the cylinder through the flow control valve
and extension will occur therefore flow is regulated.
 When lever of the DCV is deactivated P-B & A-T connection is made air flows into
the rod end of the cylinder through the check valve and retraction stroke will occur
i.e. forward controlled flow and reverse free flow is achieved.

Advantages
 Return line has FCV hence it can resist
over-running load
 It can be used for opposing loads as well
as over running loads
 Pressure drop in FCV will not affect force
developed.
Disadvantages
 Pressure intensification occurs at rod end
if FCV is closed because it increases the
back pressure due to this net force
developed will reduce.
 If the flow control is installed after the
DCV, leakage in DCV will affect the
accuracy.
3. Modified metering outlet

 Much better control can be achieved if the metering outlet circuit is modified.
 In this case piston is held in the retracted position under pressure as shown in the
figure a.
 When the DCV is operated as shown in figure b, the piston will start moving
before the air in the rod end side moving out through outlet port.
 This avoid initial jerk and smooth movement throughout the extension.
4. Using an Hydraulic cylinder

 Metering inlet, outlet and modified outlet methods control the speed of cylinder load
& line pressure remains constant.
 More precise speed control can be achieved particularly for fluctuation in load or line
pressure using surge damping system.
 I.e. for greater accuracy of speed control, a hydraulic check unit may be employed.
 It consists of a hydraulic cylinder mechanically connected to a pneumatic cylinder, so
that flow-in & flow-out of hydraulic cylinder is a function of the air cylinder
movement.
 Oil is forced from one side of the hydraulic piston to other side through an adjustable
flow control valve.
 Speed as low as few millimetre a minute can be accurately controlled.
Signal Processing Elements: OR and AND Gates in Pneumatic application

The important control elements in the Pneumatic circuit used for logic control are:
a) Shuttle Valve for OR Function
b) AND Function using Twin/Two Pressure Valve

OR Function using Shuttle valve

 A shuttle valve consists of a valve body and synthetic valving element such as a ball
moving inside the bore of the valve housing as shown in fig a and B.
 There are 3 opening, A, B and C,
 if an air signal is fed to port A, the ball moves and closes the port B, thus allowing the
air to move to port C.
 Similarly if an air signal is fed to port B, the ball moves the port A, thus allowing the
ait to move port C.
 If air is fed from both A and B simultaneously, then also air move to port C.
 Therefore shuttle valve is frequently termed “pneumatic OR-logic gate” because it has
basic logic function of “OR”.
Truth Table
a b c
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
 If the value 1 s true for one or the other inlets then is also true for outlet C
 Equation C = a v b(read: c = a OR b)
 The truth table for the OR function is shown in the above figure
Application of Shuttle valve

 It consists of 2 power button operated spring return type normally closed 3/2 DCV
which are connected to shuttle valve and it’s connected to the single acting cylinder.
 In normal position connection is made from A to T and B to T, A & B are called
outlet ports and T is called tank port.
 If the push button is pressed for valve 1, connection is made from pump port P to
outlet port A and path opens for that position through the shuttle valve and Cylinder
extends.
 if push button is pressed for valve 2, connection is made from pump port P to outlet
port B and path opens for that position through the shuttle valve and cylinder will
extend.
 Similarly if both valves A and B are pressed together then also air will flows through
the shuttle valve and cylinder will extends.

 If none of these valves are pressed then cylinder will retract with the help of spring
pressure.
Examples
Technical realisation of OR Function
OR Function using three 2/2 pilot line spring return type DCV
 OR Function can be generated by 2 or more 2 way 2 position pilot-line, spring return
DCV are connected in parallel as shown in the figure.
 Here A, B and C acts as pilot operated input ports and D acts as output.
 Initially all the 2/2 DCV are normally in the closed position hence no output is
generated at port D.
 If push button is operated for DCV 1, pilot line A shift the DCV to normally open
position hence output produce at port D.
 Similarly if the push button is operated for either DCV 2 or 3pilot line B or C shifts
DCV to normally open position hence output produce at port D.
 Also if the push button is operated for all the DCV 1, 2 and 3 together the pilot line A,
B and C shifts the DCV to normally open position hence output will produce at port
D.

Note: - if any of the three DCV pick-up an air pilot signal will produce an output D.
OR function using 1 DCV and 2 Shuttle Valve

 OR position can be generated using one 2/2 pilot line spring return DCV in
conjunction with two shuttle valve.
 Here A, B and C acts as inlet ports of shuttle valve.
 Let P & S be the inlet and outlet ports of the 2/2 DCV respectively.
 Initially DCV are in normally in closed position and connection made from output
port S to tank port T.
 If the compressed air supplied to shuttle valve 1 through inlet port A ball shifted
towards B and flow of air then enters to shuttle valve 2 hence ball shifted towards
C hence compressed air actuates the 2/2 DCV to normally open position through
the pilot line therefore connection is made from port P to S hence flow obtained at
output port S.
 Similarly if the compressed air is supplied at port B or Port C DCV shifted
normally open position hence flow obtained at port S.
Note: in this case if signal is applied to either A/B/C it will produce an output from port
P to S.
AND Function using Twin/Two Pressure Valve

 The twin pressure valve is also called pneumatic AND GATE. Here an output is
produced if both the input signal are fed as shown in the figure
 This valve has 3 ports A, B and C, two ports A and B for input signals and C is the
outlet port.
 When signal is fed through port ‘A’ the spool moves to the right and blocks the
passage from A to C.
 Similarly when signal is fed through port B, the spool moves to the left and blocks the
passage from B to C.

 If signal is fed simultaneously through A and B, the spool remains in the neutral
position and air will pass through C from both A and B.
Truth Table
a b c
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
Application of Twin pressure valve
 It consists of 2 power button operated spring return type normally closed 3/2 DCV
which are connected to twin pressure valve and it’s connected to the single acting
cylinder.
 In normal condition if both the push buttons are not pressed, there is a connection
from cylinder port to tank port and cylinder will retract.
 If the push button is pressed for valve 1, then pressurized air flow from port A of the
twin pressure valve, in turn spool shift towards right side, it will close the port c so
that cylinder will not extends.
 If the push button is pressed for valve 2, then pressurized air flow from port B of the
twin pressure valve, in turn spool shift towards left side, it will close the port c so that
cylinder will not extends.
 If both valves A and B are pressed together then air will flows through the both the
ports A and B of twin pressure valve, then spool will stay at the middle then air flows
through the port C and cylinder will extends.
Technical Realisation of AND Function
AND Function through tandem connection of three 2/2 DCV

 It consists of 2 or more 2/2 pilot line, spring return DCV which are connected in
series as shown in the figure.
 Here A, B & C acts as pilot operated inlet ports & D is an Outlet port.
 Initially all the 2/2 DCV are normally closed position hence no output is generated at
outlet port.

 If push button is operated for 1st DCV, it shifted to normally open position through
the pilot line A and actuates it but no output is generated at outlet port because DCV 2
and 3 is not actuated since it’s connected in series with DCV 1.
 Therefore if push button is operated for all the 3 DCV and they shifted to normally
open position hence output is generated at the outlet port.
Note: If the pilot line exist in all 3 valves A, B and C then output will generated at
output Port D and if the signal in any one is removed then output will disappear.
AND Function using three 3/2 DCV

 It consists of three DCV V1, V2 and V3, here DCV V1 & V2 are connected in a
manner such that output at V3 depends upon V1 & V2 together.
 Initially all the 3 valves V1, V2 & V3 are normally open position i.e. connection is
made from outlet port A to tank port R & inlet port is closed.
 When valve V1 is actuated by pressing the knob the position changes from P to A
here signal will from valve V1 to V3 but there is no output valve V3 because valve
V2 is not actuated.
 Similarly if V2 is actuated by pressing the knob position changes from normal to
actuated position i.e. connection is made from Port P to B & port is closed. Here
signal will flow from valve V2 to V3 but there is no output at V3 because valve V1 is
not actuated.
 When both V1 & V2 is actuated together by pressing the push button signal will flow
from both V1 & V2 it actuates valve V3 hence there will be output at V3.

AND Function using two 3/2 DCV & twin pressure valve
 It consists of 2 power button operated & spring return DCV which are connected to
twin pressure valve.
 Initially both the push button are not actuated and there will be connection from outlet
port A & B to tank port R.
 If the push button is pressed for V1, then connection is made from P to A, air will
flow from port A to twin pressure valve hence spool shifted towards right & closes
the port C hence there is no output.
 Similarly if push button is pressed for V2, then connection is made from P to B, air
will flow from port B to twin pressure valve hence spool shifted towards left & blocks
the port C hence there is no output.
 If push button pressed together, then air will flow through both the valves V1 & V2,
now spool will stay at middle then air will flow through port C hence there will be
output at port C.
AND Function using only twin pressure valves
 If there are n signals and all the signals are high then only output will occur.
 This can be achieved by (n-1) number of twin pressure valves.
 An operation is initiated only if all the signals e1.....e5 are present.
 If any one of the signal are absent there will be no output.

Use of Logic Gates in Pneumatic Application
a. Control of extension of Double acting cylinder

Circuit uses an OR gate, AND gate, Memory device for control of extension of double
acting cylinder.
Construction
 It consists of 2 push button operated spring return 3/2 DCV to operate shuttle valve,
another push button operated spring return 3/2 DCV as AND gate, 4/2 DCV has input
memory device, double acting cylinder and lever operated spring return 3/2DCV has
Inhibit valve.
 Here signal is fed to the OR gate either through V1 or V2 by pressing the button A or
B.
 Output of the OR gate is fed into AND gate by depressing the button C.
 Output of the AND gate is fed into memory device which remember to keep pressure
on the blank end of the cylinder during extension.
Working
 If any one of the valve V1 or V2 is actuated by depressing the push button A or B and
signal is sent to V3 to actuate the shuttle valve.
 Shuttle valve V3 sends signal to V4 to actuate the AND gate by pressing the push
button of 3/2 DCV.
 AND gate V4 fed signal to V5 to actuate memory device is 4/2 DCV which extends
the cylinder & also remember to keep the pressure on the blank end of the cylinder
during extension.
 At the end of extension, piston rod of the extending cylinder actuate the inhibit valve
3/2 DCV by operating the lever.
 Actuator of inhibit valve retracts the cylinder.

Sequential Control of Two Double acting cylinder using pneumatic valves

 It consists of two double acting cylinder, 2 pilot operated 4/2 DCV, 1 push button
operated spring return 3/2 DCV & 3 lever operated spring return 3/2DCV & FRL unit
to conditioned the compressed air.
 Initially both the cylinder C1 & C2 are in the retracted position.
 When push button of V1 is depressed it actuates the valve V1 this allows air to flow
from port 1 to 2 & this allows pilot signal to strike the valve V2.
 Pilot signal actuates the valve V2, which directs the compressed air from port P to A
to the cylinder C1 & extends it.
 At the end of extension of cylinder C1, the lever L2 of V4 is operated by the piston
rod which actuates the valve V4, this allows pilot signal to strike V5.
 Pilot signal actuates the valve V5 & allows compressed air to flow through 1 to 2 of
V5 & cylinder C2 extends.
 At the end of extension of cylinder C2, piston rod of C2 operates L3 of valve V which
in turn actuates V6.
 Upon actuation of V6 this allows pilot signal to strike valve V2, now compressed air
flow from P to B retracts the cylinder C1.
 At the end of retraction of cylinder C1, the piston rod of C1 operates the lever L1 &
actuates valve V3 which in turn actuates the valve V5 this allows compressed air to
flow through port 1 to 4 & retracts cylinder C2.
 Thus completes the one cycle of extension & retraction of two double acting cylinder
in sequence.

Multi cylinder Application
In the previous chapter, we have learnt about the various ways to control a single
actuator circuits, both for single acting and double acting cylinders. Implementation of logic gates
along with use of pressure sequence valve and time delay was systematically presented.
Most of the practical pneumatic circuits use multi cylinders. They are operated in
specific sequence to carry out the desired task.
For example:
 To drill a wooden component first we need to clamp and then drill.
 We can only unclamp the cylinder, only if the drill is withdrawn away from the workpice.
 Here sequencing of movement of clamp cylinders and cylinder which carries the drill is
important.
 This sequencing is carried out by actuation of appropriate final control valves like
directional control valves.
 The position of the cylinders is sensed by the sensors like limit switches, roller or cam
operated valves.
 Any multi cylinder application requires proper co-ordination and sequencing between
events and between the actuators.
 Co-ordination is prevention of overlapping or under delay between motions of
actuators.
 Sequencing is carrying out the events in the required or predetermined order
so that the job is carried out successfully at the shortest possible time.
 In any fluid application, circuit diagrams are drawn using different hydraulic or
pneumatic elements, they are then tested with simulation tool to check whether each

element and the system as a whole is functioning satisfactorily as per the design and
requirement.
 But in multi cylinder application, the circuit alone may not be sufficient to adequately
represent the functional sequence of each of the cylinder or inter relation between the
cylinders and it can be done with the help of a functional diagram.
Functional diagrams – are the graphical representation of the functional sequences of
different controls such as mechanical, electrical, pneumatic and hydraulic as well as
combinations of these control such as electro-pneumatic, electro-hydraulic, electro-
mechanical etc.
The main objective of a functional diagram is to project a clear and distinct sequence
of operations of all the pneumatic elements used in the pneumatic circuits.
Functional diagram are basically of two types
1. Motion or movement diagram.
2. Control diagram.
Motion Diagram – is the graphical representation of conditions relating to working elements
or components.
 Motion diagrams are drawn for two variables of the working element such as step and
time.
 Correspondingly the diagrams are called
a. Motion-step or displacement-step diagram
b. Motion-time or displacement-time diagram
 A step is a change in condition or position of a component here cylinder is a
component or working element.
 For example extension of a cylinder is a step, retraction of cylinder is a step and also
if a cylinder remains in extended position is also a step
 Generally x-axis will be step and time and y-spring return. will be motion, speed and
position.

Displacement-step diagram - represents the operating sequence of a working elements such

as cylinder, motors etc.
 The motion or displacement is recorded in relation to various steps that would occur
during a particular operation or process.
 If control system has several working elements, then separate displacement –step
diagrams are drawn for each element one below the other.
 In displacement or position – step diagram, the process of operation is divided into
number of steps which are expressed in numbers 0, 1,2 etc. Positions are indicated as 1,2
etc
 For example extending and retraction of a cylinder, retraction and extension are steps
and retracted or extended positions are positions
Steps:
 Two steps are involved. Number of steps is those starting from the initial position,
different sequences or steps till the element is brought to its initial position
 0 Step: No motion, Step 0-1: Extension, Step 1-2: Retraction
 The line joining the step position in proper sequence is called functional lines. These
are drawn in dark thick lines and they determine the status or position of the
controlled element during the sequence of operation of the whole process.
Displacement- time diagram – this is representing the displacement of a component with

respect to the time.
Here time axis t is drawn horizontally to a scale and thus relationship between the individual
components is established.

Problem 1: Function diagram for double acting, two cylinders for a sheet metal bending
application. The cylinders are actuated by a 5/2 spring return valves.
The sequences are as follows
a. Cylinder 1A is used to clamp the work-piece.
 Proximity switch 1 B2 for extended position and 1B1 for retracted position in
conjunction with 1M1 5/2 solenoid actuated spring return valve assigned to
this cylinder.
b. Cylinder 2A is used to bend the work-piece.
 Proximity switch 2 B2 for extended position and 2 B1 for retracted position in
conjunction with 2M1 5/2 solenoid actuated spring return valve assigned to
this cylinder.
Steps for operation

a. To clamp the work-piece by extending the cylinder 1A.
b. To bend the work-piece by extending the cylinder 2A.
c. Withdrawing the bending tool by retracting the cylinder 2A.
d. Release the work-piece by retracting the cylinder 1A.

Problem 2: Function diagram for two cylinders are used to transfer components from a
container to a chute. The positional sketch of the unit is as shown in figure. The unit has
two, double acting cylinder driven by 5/2 valves.
Sequences are as follows
a. Cylinder 1A pushes the component from the container and positions it in front of the
second cylinder 2A during extension.
b. Cylinder 2A during extension pushes the component in front of it into the chute.
Steps for operation

a. Positioning the component in front of cylinder 2A by pushing the same from
container during extension of cylinder 1A.
b. Pushing the component in front of cylinder 2A into chute by extension of cylinder 2A.
c. Retraction of cylinder 1A.
d. Retraction of cylinder 2A.

Control Diagrams:
 Control diagrams are those which represents the condition of control elements in relation
to the steps or times.
 Steps are entered horizontally (x-axis) and Controlling component condition entered
(Open/Closed) along vertical axis (y-axis).
 Figure show the control diagram for a 3/2 roller actuated spring return valve
 It can be observed from the control diagram that the valve opens at step 1 and remains
open still step 4.
 Functional lines suddenly rising and dropping indicating that the opening and closing of
valves are instantaneous and not gradual.
Signal overlap
A memory device or a valve may receive signals from both ends from pilot valves and
there may be a situation where signals are fed to both ends of the valve at a time.
Or
A signal already exist on one end and another signal is applied at the other end
without removing the signal already applied at the other end such situations are known as
signal overlapping.
Illustration of signal overlapping

 In co-ordinated motion control, 5/2 way memory valve can switch positions only
when a single pilot signal is present.
 If two signals are operated simultaneously i.e. both pilot signals 14 & 12 on the 5/2
way valve are active, a signal overlap problem occur.

 At the start, both signals A0 and B0 appear at the same time. This will not result in
any change.
Analysis with pneumatic circuit
 When the start button is pressed, the signal appears at port 14 of valve 1.1 through
limit switch signal a0.
 Check for the presence of the signal at the other end (12) of valve 1.1. Notice that the
signal is also present at port 12 of valve 1.1. (Because bo is also pressed). This results
in signal conflict and valve 1.1 is unable to move.
 Let us assume for time being, bo is somehow disengaged so that valve 1.1 can switch
over and consequently cylinder A can extend. When the start button is pressed.

 When cylinder A fully extends, it generates a limit switch signal a1, which is applied
to port 14 of the valve 2.1
 Check for the presence of the signal at the other end (12) of valve 2.1. Signal is not
present at port 12 of valve 2.1 and hence there is no signal conflict.
 Signal applied to port 14 of the valve 2.1 causes the shifting of DCV 2.1 and cylinder
B extends.
 When cylinder B fully extends, it generates a limit switch signal b1, which is applied
to port 12 of valve 2.1.
 Check for the presence of the signal at the other end of 14 of valve 2.1. It can be seen
that signal is also present at the port 14 of valve 2.1(because a1 is also pressed). This
results in signal conflict and valve 2.1 is unable to move.
 Let us assume for time being, b1 is somehow disengaged so that valve 2.1 can
switch over and consequently cylinder B can retract.
 When the cylinder B is fully retracted, it generates a limit switch signal b0,
which is applied to port 12 of the valve 1.1.
 Check for the signal at the other end 14 of the valve 1.1 Notice that signal is
not present at port 14 of the valve 1.1 and hence there is no signal conflict. So
valve 1.1 can switch over and Cylinder A can retract.

Solution to signal overlapping – in pneumatics there are various possibilities for eliminating
the undesired or unwanted signals.
 The signal which is still applied is over ridden by a stronger signal called signal
suppression.
 The permanent signal is cancelled by the control technique or circuitry.
Signal Suppression – in this case signal which is already applied is overridden by a stronger
signal.
 Figure shows circuit diagram for signal suppression, which contains a direction
control valve with a differential pressure operation or by means of a bi-stable valve
with regulator on one of the control sides.
 Here signal 12 is overridden by signal 14.
 In terms of function both methods are equally good.

 To ensure reliability of the operation, it’s necessary to keep both signals 12 & 14 have
same pressure level in differential pressure operation.
 In case of Bi-stable valve with regulator chosen the pressure difference between the
signals 12 & 14 and pressure difference must be a sufficient magnitude.
Signal Elimination technique – in this technique it’s possible to eliminate the signals either
by mechanically or by means of suitable circuitry.
a. Mechanical method – in this technique signal elimination by means of
 Short impulse transmitter
 Idle return roller

Short impulse transmitter – method is composed of directional control valve with over
centre function and respective type of control.
 Here valve is actuated in the middle part of the stroke and not at the end of the stroke.
 i.e. actuator must be operated as far from the stop, otherwise continuous signal will
exist.
 Operating reliability depends to a greater extent on the speed of actuation (max 0.1 to
0.15 m/sec)
Use of idler return roller limit switch
 Roller lever type limit switch gives the mechanical signal which can be sensed in both
directional movement of piston rod.
 Idler return roller limit switch gives mechanical signal due to actuation of roller only
in one direction.
An idle-return roller valve consists of a 3/2 DCV fitted with an idle return roller mechanism.
Two design of the idle return roller as shown in the figure.
 The action of the idle return roller valve can be understood using the Figure B.
 The idle return roller may be positioned in the control system so that when the
cylinder extends, the piston passes over the idle – roller mechanism of the valve, thus
activating the valve. (Figure a), but also permitting the valve to be deactivated
immediately when the piston moves to the extreme end position (Figure b).
 As a result, the valve generates a short output pulse during the forward motion
of the cylinder.
 The idle return mechanism also allows the cylinder to retract without reactivating the
valve (Figure c and d).
 Hence, in the end position or during the return motion of the piston, the valve does not
gets actuated, and no output signal is produced.

 For the generation of short output pulse by the idle-return roller valve during the
return motion of the cylinder, this valve may be positioned in the opposite direction as
compared to the case during the forward motion of the cylinder.
Note: To eliminate the problem of signal overlapping the roller valve to be replaced by
idle return rollers.
Drawbacks of idle –return rollers
1. This method is not reliable
2. End position cannot be sensed accurately
3. Fast control system cannot be set up.
Analysis with Pneumatic circuit

Develop Pneumatic circuit for A+ B+ B- A- sequence. Avoid signal conflict using idle –
return roller.
 Figure shows the circuit for getting the control sequence A+ B+ B- A- using the idle –
return rollers at the position bo and a1.
 The roller valves at position a0 and b1 need be replaced with the idle return rollers as
these valves do not cause signal conflicts for the given sequence circuit.

Cascading method [Principle]
A Bi-stable memory valve or reversing valve can be used to eliminate signal conflicts.
Signal conflict is avoided by allowing the signal to be effective only at times when they are
needed.
Two of the possible designs are possible.
i. Cascade method
ii. Shift register method
Signal elimination by reversing valves using cascading method
Reversing valves (Double piloted 5/2 or 4/2 way) these are the signal processing
valve which are used to change over from one signal to next signal.
Depending on the presence of set or reset signal at the reversing valve, output change over
takes place from port 4 to port 2 of the valve.
Principle of reversing valve
 When input limit switch signal S1 is generated, it is used to activate a final control
valve.
 These results in activation of a corresponding cylinder which is followed by activation
of limit switch S2.
 This limit switch signal cancels the first input signal S1 using a reversing valve and
same process continues.
Demonstration of Cascade method
Write the statement of the problem

First cylinder A extends and brings under stamping station where cylinder B is
located. Cylinder B then extends and stamps the job. Cylinder A can return back only
cylinder B has retracted fully.
Sequential operations of two cylinders A and B

 Cylinder A extends
 Cylinder B extends
 Cylinder B retracts
 Cylinder A retracts

Develop the circuit using pilot operated 4/2 DCV and roller operated limit switches.
Answer
 It consist of 2 cylinders A and B and its symbolic representation as shown in the
figure
 Type of sequence A+ B+ B- A-.

Procedure for cascade
1. Draw positional sketch
 A+ represents blank end of the cylinder A - supply of air to blank end of the cylinder
causes extension of cylinder A .
 A- represents rod end of the cylinder A - supply of air to rod end of the cylinder
causes retraction of cylinder A .
 B+ represents blank end of the cylinder B - supply of air to blank end of the cylinder
causes extension of cylinder B .
 B- represents rod end of the cylinder B - supply of air to blank end of the cylinder
causes retraction of cylinder B.
 A0 – represents cylinder A in the retracted position
 A1 – represents cylinder A in the Extended position
 B0 – represents cylinder B in the retracted position
 B1 – represents cylinder B in the Extended position
 4 roller operated spring return 3/2 DCV are used i.e. during extension and retraction
of Cylinder A and B it presses and actuates the respective valves.
2. Locate and name the valve
Name the valve as per the end position
i.e. V2 at A1, V3 at B1, V4 at B0 and V1 at A0. 3.
3. Locate and name the cylinder ports

name the cylinder ports as per their stroke

1 at A+, 2 at B+, 3 at B- and 4 at A-
4. Make the following table as per the given sequence
5. Make the circuit connection

For the sequence of A+ B+ B- and A- 4/2 double pilot DCV connected to the
Cylinder A and B. i.e. each valve is connected to the corresponding cylinder port .
i.e. 1 to V1, 2 to V2, 3 to V3 and 4 to V4.
 1st connection is directly goes to the V1

 2nd connection is directly goes to the V2.

 3rd connection goes to the pilot P2 4/2 DCV due to which valve shifted to 2nd position
inorder to avoid signal conflict i.e. P to B and A to T.
 Then 4th connection directly goes to the V4.
6. Analysis of pneumatic circuit
 When the valve v1 is pressed due to retraction stroke of cylinder A of previous cycle,
the pressurized air start flowing to the V1 which actuates Pilot valve P1 and its shifted
to the normally open position hence P to A & B to T connection is made and air will
flows to the port 1 of cylinder A & cylinder extends.
 After the extension of cylinder A cam operates the valve V2 hence air will flow to the
port 2 of the cylinder B & cylinder B will extends.
 At the end of extension of cylinder B cam operates the valve V3 hence oil under
pressure flows to the pilot P2 due to which spool of the valve shifts to the 2nd position
now connection is made from P to B & A to T hence air will flows to port 3 of the
cylinder hence cylinder B starts retracting .
 At the end of retraction stroke cam will press the valve V4 oil will start flow from V4
to the port 4 of the cylinder A so that cylinder A starts retracting.
 Once the retraction is complete V1 is pressed again and cycle repeats.
Electro-Pneumatic control
Electro-pneumatic is a combination of electric and pneumatic control method. Here

electrical energy has certain advantages overall other forms of control energy. For example
the flow of current can be easily controlled.
 A pneumatic control system with solenoid operated valves may be called electro-
pneumatic system.
 An electro-pneumatic system may consists of a pneumatic driving element and an
electro-mechanical control part.
 Different methods of actuation of control valves are;

 The electromechanical part generally consists of a solenoid controlled by five basic

types of electrical switches.
1. Push-button switches
2. Limit switches
3. Pressure switches
4. Temperature switches
5. Electrical relays & contactors.
Solenoid is the most common element used in electro-pneumatics for actuation.
 Solenoid is a electromagnetic device, which converts electrical energy into linear
mechanical motion. This mechanical motion is used to actuate the valves in fluid
power system.
 When an electrical current is passed through a ferro-magnetic core, the core becomes
magnet developing attractive or magnetic force get energised and gets demagnetized
as soon as current flow is stopped.
Construction
OR
 It consists of a electrical coil, an armature usually a T-shaped plunger and a

cylinder in which the coil is housed and normally the armature is kept in the
extended mode under the spring pressure.

 In operation, when an electrical current passes through the coil, a magnetic field is
set up and pulls the plunger towards it and when the coil is de-energised the
plunger moves back to its original position due to spring or due to solenoid on the
other side.
 In fluid power solenoids are most often used to actuate DCV and are typically
on/off devices.
 The plunger which is connected to a DCV in turn operates the valve, thus
controlling the flow path of the air.
Push button switches – are the control members used to make or break electrical circuits of
solenoid operated valves.
Push button switches should have following essential qualities.
 Should be good conductor and made out of brass or copper.
 Should have insulated casing, including handle or the button used to operate.
In pneumatic system push button type switches used when electrical signals are input for
manual operations of the switch.
There are 4 types of push button switches
a. Single pole, single throw – normally open (SPST-NO)
b. Single pole, single throw – normally closed (SPST-NC)
c. Double pole, single throw – normally opened/ normally closed (DPST –NO/NC)
d. Double pole, double throw – normally opened/ normally closed (DPDT –NO/NC)
These switches are mostly of single, double, triple and quadrant poles these switches
are also referred as “momentry” switches because they make or break contact only when they
are held pressed.
Limit Switches – which limits the motion of an object by breaking the contact and hence
they circuit are called “limit switches”.
 Limit switches also perform the same function as that of push button type except they
are mechanically operated instead of manual.
 For example, actuation of a limit switch by the piston rod at the end of the stroke i.e.
use of idle return roller limit switch for elimination of signal conflict.
 Variety of operators such as cams, levers, rollers, plungers etc are available for limit
switches.

Pressure switches – these switches are also make or break operation type but they are
operated by the system pressure.
 They sense system pressure and open/close depending upon the setting.
 Usually these switches have high-pressure and low-pressure setting.
1. Pressure switch normally open (PS-NO)
2. Pressure switch normally closed (PS-NC)
Temperature Switch – these switches are designed to open/close the contact by sensing the
temperature; they also have a high and low end setting.
 Normally, these are used to protect the fluid power system from damages that would
occur by the malfunction of pump, filter or heat exchanger.
 For example, if the pump is over loaded/damaged the temperature of the pump
material would rise due to high friction, this temperature rise is sensed by the
temperature switch which opens the contactors, there by cutting the power supply to
the pump.
Relay – is an electromechanical switch used to make or break mechanical contact between

the electrical leads.
 This offers a simple on-off switching action in response to control signal.
 A small input voltage to the solenoid controls a potentially large current through the
relay contact.
Construction
 It consists of a coil of wire wound around a ferromagnetic core, a movable arm called
armature connected to a spring.
 A wiper connected to the armature which makes and breaks contact with electrical
leads of the external circuit.

Fig a Fig b
Working
 When current is passed through the coil (this current is input signal for the device to
be controlled), the ferromagnetic core is magnetized.
 This attracts the armature which move towards the core against the spring force along
with wiper.
 Now the wiper makes contact with the lead B and the external circuit is closed and the
current passes through the external circuit.
 When current to the coil is withdrawn or removed, the core is demagnetized and
armature is pulled back by the spring which in turn the wiper, breaks the contact with
terminal A and hence electrical supply is cut-off to the circuit.
 Relay is a normally open switch, these relays are sometimes called contactors.
 Contactors are available to switch on current from milliamps to several hundred
amps to the external circuit.
 Figure b illustrates the working and application of relay.
Disadvantages
 One of the major disadvantage of such electromechanical relays are, generation of
spark at the wiper end and the terminal B and A. This in turn increases resistance and
ultimately melt due to heat.
 When this is used to switch on and off high Ac voltage causes large electrical noise
and these noise is picked up by microcontroller if any used in the system and
ultimately the relay fails.
Pilot Assisted solenoid control of DC valves

For large capacity pneumatic and hydraulic valves the operating force to actuate the
spool of the valve will be quite large. The actuating force excited either manually or by
solenoid for direct operation of the valve may not be sufficient. In such cases a two stage
process called pilot operation used.
 Figure a shows principle of pilot operation of a 4/2 DCV, here main valve is used to
operate a ram using a cylinder.
 Actuation of 4/2 DCV requires a large force for direct operation hence another small
valve called pilot valve is used which is also a spring return and solenoid actuated
valve.

 This valve is actuated by energizing the solenoid and high pressure air enters at the
pilot port of the main valve and actuates the main valve thus connecting port P to B &
A to R and extends the cylinder.
 When solenoid is de-energized the pilot valve returns to its normal position due to
spring, the main valve return to its normal position i.e. connecting the ports P to A
and B to T due to spring.
 Now high pressure air flow through P to A on to the rod end of the cylinder and
retracts the cylinder, at the same time air on the cap side is sent to atmosphere through
the port R via B of the main valve.
Fig a. Pilot operation of 4/2 DCV

Instead of making use of two separate valves for pilot operation, a pilot/main valve
assembly as a single unit are made as shown in figure b, i.e. when the solenoid S is energized
it operates a pilot valve
 When solenoid S is energized it operates a pilot valve, line pressure air acts on the
surface of the control valve and depresses it there by blocking the port R and at the
same time port A is connected to port P.
 When the solenoid is de-energized the pilot valve blocks the passage and control
valve opens the port R and closes the port P thus port A and R connected for exhaust
the air.
Fig.b. graphical symbol

Operation of a solenoid controlled spool type DCV is illustrated in the figure c. In the
normal position the ports 1 and 2 are open, when solenoid is energized by passing a
current through it which magnetises and pulls the iron core towards it, this in turn
moves the spool valve to the right.
 This movement now opens the port 3 and cuts-off the port 1 from 2, causing the flow
to start from port 2 to 3 i.e. blank end of the cylinder connected to port 3 received
pressurized air and cylinder extends.
 When solenoid is deactivated by stopping the current supply to the solenoid, which in
turn gets demagnetised, then the spool is pushed back to its original position by he
spring pressure.

Fluid Power Circuit Using Electric Controls

a. Control circuit for single acting cylinder
 Figure shows the simple electro-pneumatic circuit to control the actuation of single
acting cylinder.
 Here 3/2 solenoid actuated spring return 3/2 DCV is used to actuate the single acting
cylinder.
 When solenoid S is energised by a manual switch D, due to which DCV Switching to
normally open position and connection is made from port P to A this causes the
cylinder to extend.
 When switch is released, the spring of the valve returns the valve to its original
position which in turn retracts the cylinder.
b. Control circuit for Double acting cylinder

 Figure b shows the circuit diagram for electro pneumatic control of a double
acting cylinder using a 4/2 solenoid actuated spring return cylinder.
 Here also the solenoid is energised using a manual switch S, which actuates the
4/2DCV and hence extends the cylinder.
 As the switch is released the solenoid is de-energised, the DCV returns to its
original position there by retracting the cylinder.
 Generally the main source of supply will be alternating current, whose voltage is
reduced, rectified into DC supply which is then input to solenoid.

18me55 Fpe

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Maharaja Education Trust (R), Mysuru

Maharaja Institute of Technology Mysore

Approved by AICTE, New Delhi,

FLUID POWER ENGINEERING – 18ME55

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

“To be recognized as a premier technical and management institution promoting extensive

 To empower students with indispensable knowledge through dedicated teaching and

 To advance extensive research in science, engineering and management disciplines.

 To facilitate entrepreneurial skills through effective institute - industry collaboration and

 To instill the need to uphold ethics in every aspect.

 To mould holistic individuals capable of contributing to the advancement of the society.

“To excel in technical education by producing Mechanical

1. To enrich teaching learning experience through distinguished

Program Educational Objectives (PEO):

Mechanical Engineering Graduates will be able to;

1. Pursue their professional career in core and allied domains.

Program Specific Outcome (PSO)

1. Apply the acquired knowledge of mechanical engineering to

1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering

Subject: FLUID POWER ENGINEERING Subject Code: 18ME55

Prof. Ramanandan H S Prof. Krishna Prasad Prof. Sachin B

Prof. RAVIKUMAR K S Dr Y D CHETHAN Dr MOHAMED KHAISAR

Subject: FLUID POWER ENGINEERING Subject Code: 18ME55

COURSE CODE CREDITS L-T-P ASSESSMENT DURATION

Module 1: Introduction to fluid power systems (10hrs)

Fluid power system: components, advantages and applications. Transmission of power at

Module 2: Pumps and actuators (10hrs)

Pumps: Classification of pumps, Pumping theory of positive displacement pumps,

Module 3: Components and hydraulic circuit design Components (10hrs)

Classification of control valves, Directional Control Valves-symbolic representation,

Module4: Pneumatic power systems (10hrs)

Introduction to Pneumatic systems: Pneumatic power system, advantages, limitations,

1. Anthony Esposito, “Fluid Power with applications”, Pearson edition,2000 .

Subject: FLUID POWER ENGINEERING Subject Code: 18ME53

SL. No. Contents Page No.

Generally there are 2 different types of fluid systems

Components of Fluid Power System

Module1: Introduction to fluid power system Page 1

Construction and working

 Hydraulic system generally requires a fluid to operate and consequently the

Advantages of Fluid Power System

Module1: Introduction to fluid power system Page 2

Disadvantages of Fluid Power System

Applications of Hydraulic System

Transmission of power at static and dynamic states

Module1: Introduction to fluid power system Page 3

(b) Transmission of power at dynamic state is nothing but hydrodynamic condition

Difference between Transmission of power at Static and dynamic state

Transmission of power at Static state Transmission of power at dynamic state

Module1: Introduction to fluid power system Page 4

Application of Pascal’s Law – Analysis of Simple Hydraulic Jack

Application of hydraulic jack we can see in car service station

Consider a simple hydraulic jack as show in the figure.

Fluids for Hydraulic System

Module1: Introduction to fluid power system Page 5

Properties of Fluids used in hydraulic system

1. Viscosity: Viscosity is the measure of the fluid resistance to flow at a definite

Desired Qualities of Hydraulic Systems

Module1: Introduction to fluid power system Page 6

Selection of Hydraulic fluid

Module1: Introduction to fluid power system Page 7

Effect of Temperature and pressure on Hydraulic fluid