Machine Elements Design Guide for Mechanical Engineers

Maharaja Education Trust (R), Mysuru
Maharaja Institute of Technology Mysore

Belawadi, Srirangapatna Taluk, Mandya – 571 477
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi,
Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi & Recognized by Government of Karnataka
Lecture Notes on
Design of Machine Elements-2 (18ME62)
Prepared by
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Maharaja Education Trust (R), Mysuru
Maharaja Institute of Technology Mysore
Belawadi, Srirangapatna Taluk, Mandya – 571 477
Vision/ ಆಶಯ
“To be recognized as a premier technical and management institution promoting extensive education
fostering research, innovation and entrepreneurial attitude"
Mission/
⮚ To empower students with indispensable knowledge through dedicated teaching and collaborative
learning.
.
⮚ To advance extensive research in science, engineering and management disciplines.
.
⮚ To facilitate entrepreneurial skills through effective institute - industry collaboration and interaction with
alumni.
.
⮚ To instill the need to uphold ethics in every aspect.
⮚ To mould holistic individuals capable of contributing to the advancement of the society.
Maharaja Institute of Technology

Mysore Department of Mechanical
Engineering
Vision / ಆಶಯ
“To excel in technical education by producing Mechanical Engineers who are competitive,
contributing and sustainable in the global socio technological front.”
“ ,
ಮೂಲಕ
1. To enrich teaching-learning experience through distinguished practices and ever

Mission /
improving infrastructure
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2. To enhance student performance through consistent guidance, motivation and

mentoring
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3. To develop distinct skills, leadership qualities and creative thinking among the
learners through sensible endeavors
ಗಳ ಮೂಲಕ ,

Engineering
Program Outcomes
1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering fundamentals,

and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering problems.
2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex engineering
problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of mathematics, natural sciences,
and engineering sciences.
3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems and design
system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate consideration for the
public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental considerations.
4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and research
methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of the
information to provide valid conclusions.
5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern
engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex engineering activities with an
understanding of the limitations.
6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess
societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to the
professional engineering practice.
7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering solutions
in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need for sustainable
development.
8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and norms of
the engineering practice.
9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader in
diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the
engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write
effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive clear
instructions.
11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the engineering
and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and leader in a team, to
manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments. 12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need
for, and have the preparation and ability to engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest
context of technological change.

Engineering
Course Overview
Subject: Design of Machine Elements-2 Subject Code: 18ME62 The course covers the
fundamental concepts, description, terminology, force analysis and methods of analysis and design of
various machine elements like Curved Beams, springs, Spur, Helical, Bevel and Worm Gears, Clutches,
Brakes, Belts, Ropes, Chains, Ball Bearings and Journal Bearings. The emphasis in treating the machine
elements is on the methods and procedures that give the student enough competence in applying these
methods and procedures to mechanical components in general. This course offers the students to learn to
use the best available design knowledge together with empirical information, logical judgment, and often a
degree of ingenuity in mechanical engineering design.
Following are the salient features of the courses:
⮚ Compatible with the Machine Design Data Books (of various publishers)
⮚ Step by step procedure for design of machine elements large solution techniques are spelled out in
detail
⮚ Thorough and in depth treatment of design of the requisite machine elements ⮚ Balance between
analysis and design Emphasis on the materials, properties and analysis of the machine elements
⮚ Selection of Material and factor of safety are given for each machine element.
Course Objectives
The objectives of this course is to make students to learn
1. To understand various elements involved in a mechanical system.
2. To analyze various forces acting on the elements of a mechanical system and design them using
appropriate techniques, codes, and standards.
3. To select transmission elements like gears, belts, pulleys, bearings from the manufacturers’
catalogue.
4. To design completely a mechanical system integrating machine elements.
5. To produce assembly and working drawings of various mechanical systems involving machine
elements like belts, pulleys, gears, springs, bearings, clutches and brakes.
COs Description
C312.1 Understand various machine

C312.2 Apply engineering design to
C312.3 Asses various parameters of transm
themanufacturer’s catalogue.
C312.4 Design the machine elements. Dev
amechanical system using CAD
throughlearning the art of working
work.
Prof. Santhosh K G Prof. Abhila
Faculty
Facilitator
Module 5: Lubrication and Bearings: Lubricants
andproperties; mechanisms of lubrication, hydrodynam
oilfilm, bearing modulus, coefficient of friction, minimu
heatdissipated. Numerical examples on hydrodynam
Anti-friction
Richard G. Budynas, and J. Keith Nisbett, "
Maharaja Institute bearings: Types of rolling contact bea
dynamic loadcarrying capacities, equiv
of Technology selection of deep grove ballbearings from
Mysore Department of bearings subjected to cyclic loads andspeeds; proba
of Mechanical [2] Juvinall R.C, and Marshek K.M, "Fundamentals of Machine
Edition,[3] V. B. Bhandari, "Design of Machine Elements", 4th
Engineering Textbooks:
[1] Robert L. Norton "Machine Design- an integrated approac
[1] Mechanical Engineering Design", McGraw-Hill [2] Spotts M
Elements", Pearson Education, 8th edition, 2006.
Education, 10th Edition, 2015.
[3] Orthwein W, "Machine Component Design", Jaico Publishi
Syllabus [4] Hall, Holowenko, Laughlin (Schaum's Outline Series), "Mac
Subject: Design of Machine Elements-2 Subject Wiley student edition, 2007.
Code: 18ME62 [5] G. M. Maithra and L.V.Prasad, "Hand book of Mechanical D
Module 1: Curved Beams: Stresses in curved References:
cranehook, punching presses & clamps, closed ri [1] Design Data Hand Book, K.Lingaiah, McGraw Hill, 2nd edi
Review ofLame's equations; compound cylinder [2] Design Data Hand Book, K.Mahadevan and Balaveera Redd
cylinders; cylinderheads and flats. [3] Design Data Hand Book, H.G.Patil, I.K.International Publish
[4] PSG Design Data Hand Book, PSG College of technology, C
MODULE 2: Belts: Materials of construction of f Publishing Company Ltd., Special Indian Edition, 2008.
ofslip and creep, initial tension, effect of cen
Selection offlat and V belts- length & cross section Design Data Hand Book:
andapplication of timing belts. Wire ropes: Cons
andselection of wire ropes. (Only theoretical treatm
Chain drive: Types of power transmission chains,
ofchains. (Only theoretical treatment)
Springs: Types of springs, spring materials, str
non-circular cross sections. Tension and compr
underfluctuating loads. Leaf Springs: Stresses in l
leafsprings. Introduction to torsion and Belleville sp
Module 3: Gear drives: Classification of gear
geartooth, gear tooth failure modes and lubricatio
geartooth: Lewis equation and form factor, design
Gears:Definitions, transverse and normal module
strength,dynamic load and wear. Bevel Gears: D
based onstrength, dynamic load and wear.
Module 4: Worm Gears: Definitions, types of wor
andworm wheel. Design based on strength, dynam
drives.Design of Clutches: Types of clutches and
clutches.(Numerical examples only on single and m
of Brakes,Block and Band brakes, self- locking of b
Maharaja Institute
of Technology
Mysore Department
of Mechanical 2 MODULE 2: Belts, Chain Driv
Engineering 3 Module 3: Gear drives: Spur Ge
Gears
4 Module 4: Worm Gears, Br
Index 5 Module 5: Lubrication & B
Subject: Design of Machine Elements-2 Subject
Code: 18ME62
SL. No. Contents
Module 1:
1 Module 1: Curved Beams, C
Curved Beams,
Cylinders & Cylinder
Heads
Maharaja Institute of Technology Mysore Department of Mechanical Engineering
Curved Beams
1.1 Introduction
A beam is a structural member whose length is large (longer than the width and
the thickness) compared to its cross-sectional area which is loaded and supported
in the direction transverse to its axis.
Curved beams in the form of C-clamps, press frames, chain links and brackets are
used as machine elements. As the name indicates the beam is initially curved
before the bending moment is applied. When such members are subjected to
bending moment, the stress distribution is not linear since the stress increases
more rapidly on the inner side.
1.2 Difference between a straight beam and a curved beam
Straight Beam:
⮚ A beam is a structural member subjected to a system of external forces
acting at right angles to its axis.
⮚ In a straight beam, there are infinite number of layers of equal length and
parallel to each other.
⮚ The neutral axis coincides with the centroidal axis.
⮚ The stress distribution is linear.
Fig. 1.1: Straight Beam
The expression for straight beam is
Where,
- is the bending stress
M = applied bending moment
I - moment of inertia
y-distance of layer from neutral axis
Curved Beam:
⮚ Here the beam is initially curved before the bending moment is applied.
⮚ The neutral axis does not coincide with the centroidal axis but is shifted
towards the center of curvature of the beam.
⮚ Stress distribution is not linear but is hyperbolic since neutral axis is
initially curved.
⮚ Fibres on one side of the neutral axis are in tension while on the other side
the layers are in compression.
Design of Machine Elements-II, Module 1: Curved Beams, Cylinders & Cylinder Heads 1
Fig. 1.2: Curved Beam

Where,
= bending stress
ci = distance from centroidal axis to the inner fiber
c0 = distance from centroidal axis to the outer fiber
e = distance from centroidal axis to neutral axis
y = distance of layer from neutral axis
R{ = radius of curvature of inner fiber
R0 - radius of curvature of outer fiber
1.3 STRESSES IN CURVED BEAMS
Assumptions:
⮚ The material of the beam is perfectly homogeneous and isotropic.
⮚ The material of the beam obeys Hooke's law.
⮚ Young's modulus is same in tension and compression.
⮚ Each layer of the beam is free to expand -or- contract independent of the
layer above -or- below it.
⮚ The transverse sections of the beam which are plane before bending
remain plane even after bending.
⮚ Stresses induced are within the elastic limit.
Fig. 1.3: Stress analysis in curved beam (Fig. 10.2/pg 137 DHB) Let,
F = applied load
A = cross-sectional area
e - distance from centroidal axis to neutral axis
R = radius of curvature of centroidal axis
Rn = radius of curvature of neutral axis

Ri — radius of curvature of inside fiber
R0 - radius of curvature of outside fiber
ci — distance from neutral axis to inner fiber (c1 - e)
c0 = distance from neutral axis to outer fiber (c1 + e) or (h - ci)
c1 = distance from centroidal axis to inner fiber
c2 — distance from centroidal axis to outer fiber
h = depth of cross-section (c1+ c2) or (ci + c0)
y = distance from neutral axis to fiber under consideration
Consider a segment abed subtending an angle θ at the center of curvature. When
the beam is subjected to a bending moment as shown in Fig. 1.3, the side bc
undergoes rotation through an angle dø about neutral axis and takes a new
position c'b'. Due to rotation, the outer fibers are stretched while the inner fibers
are compressed.
Consider a strip of thickness dy at a distance y from neutral axis and having an
area dA.
The original length of strip = (Rn+y)dθ (Eq. 1.1) And the elongation
experienced by the strip = y dø (Eq. 1.2) Therefore the strain
experienced by the strip,
(Eq. 1.3)()
According to Hooke’s Law,
() * +
() (Eq. 1.4)
Now Force Responsible for strain in the strip, dF =σdA
* + () (Eq. 1.5)
For the Beam to be in equilibrium, ∑
∫
∫[ ]
()
[ ]∫
()
But, * +
Therefore, ∫ ( ) (Eq. 1.6) Taking moments about the neutral axis (NA) for
the strip,
dM = dFy
* +∫
() (Eq. 1.7)
Thus the total bending moment is ∫ ∫ * +
()
[ ]∫[
( )]
[]∫[(
( ))]
[ ] {∫ ∫ (
( )) }
Since, ∫ ( )
* +*∫ +
But ∫ is the moment of inertia, which may be replaced with Ae, i.e. the product of
total area and distance e from centroidal axis to neutral axis. Therefore,
[]
*+ (Eq. 1.8)
Substituting Eq. (1.8) in Eq. (1.4) we get,
(( )) (Eq. 1.9)
Equation (1.9) gives the stress induced in any fibre at a distance y from the neutral
axis.
y is negative, when measured towards center of curvature (-ci) y
is positive, when measured away from center of curvature (c0) at
inner fiber, y = -ci
Eq. (1.9) becomes,
(
( ))
(Eq. 1.10)
Where, ( )
At Outer fiber, y=+c0
(
( ))
Eq. (1.9) Becomes,
(Eq. 1.11)
Where, ( )
Based on the applied bending moment, outer fibers are subjected to compression
(negative) and inner fibers are subjected to tension (positive). Eq. (1.9) becomes
(Eq. 1.12)
Eq. (1.11) becomes
(Eq. 1.13)
Direct stress (tensile/compressive),
This couple C = Fx produces bending stress in the cross-section and hence is a
bending moment with respect to centroidal axis.
STEPS TO SOLVE CURVED BEAM PROBLEMS
1. Locate the position of Cg of cross-section with respect to the innermost fiber. ̅
∑
or ̅ ∑
∑
∑
2. Replace the eccentric load by an equal and parallel force through Cg of the
cross-section together with a couple in opposite direction.
3. Evaluate the direct stresses (σ) produced.
4. Evaluate the extreme fiber ending stress due to couple.
5. Evaluate the resultant stresses in the extreme fibers as
Resultant stress in the inner most fiber, ( )
Resultant stress in the outer most fiber, ( )
Problems:
1. Determine the maximum stress induced in a punch press as shown in Figure
Solution: F = 120 kN, σi, σ0=?
To find x:
a1 = 30 x 10 = 300 mm2, a2 = 8 x 20 = 160 mm2, a3 = 16x4 = 64 mm2,
x1 = 10/2 = 5 mm, x2 = (20/2)2 +10 = 20 mm, x3 = (4/2) + 30 = 32 mm,
A = ∑ = a1 +a2 +a3 = 524 mm
∑
̅
∑ Bending Stress:
Direct Stress: ()()()()
Bending Moment, M=F * Perpendicular Distance

M=Fx
Note: x is the perpendicular distance from the line of action of force to the
centroidal axis of the6 cross section
M= ( ), M=133.5x10 N-mm
From Fig.10, Table 10.1, Page No. 136 in DHB for I-Section
e=R-Rn
( )( )(
)
Here, B = 30 mm, b1 =16 mm, d = 10 mm, d1 = 4 mm, d2 = S mm,
H= 10+ 20+ 4 = 34 mm,
Also Ri = 200mm, Ro = Ri + H= 200 + 34 = 234mm,c1 = ̅= 12.87mm, R
= c1+Ri = 12.87 + 200 = 212.87 mm, C2 = H-c1=34-12.87 = 21.13 mm
e=0.496mm ( )( )( )
Now, ci=c1-e=12.87-0.496=12.37mm
c0=c2+e=21.13+0.496=21.63m
m
Bending stress at inner fiber, ( )
Bending stress at outer fiber,

()
Resultant Stresses
Inner most fiber, ( )
Outer most fiber, ( )
2. A crane hook has a trapezoidal cross-section as: Inside width=87.5mm, Outside
width=25mm, Depth=112.5mm.The line of action of load passes through the
center of curvature. The radius of curvature of inner side = 62.5 mm. Calculate
the maximum stresses developed under a load of 90 kN.
Solution: F = 120kN, σi, σ0=?

To find x:
From Table 1.3, Page No. 9, DHB for trapezoidal section b=25mm,
b1=87.5mm, h=112.5mm, therefore, b0=b1-b=87.5-25=62.5mm ( )
()
()
()
̅
Direct Stress:
Area of trapezoidal section is given by
() ()
Bending Stress:
Bending Moment, M=F * Perpendicular Distance
M=Fx = F( ̅)
Note: x is the perpendicular distance from the line of action of force to the
centroidal axis of the cross section
M = ( ), 6
M=9.75x10 N-mm
From Fig.10, Table 10.1, Page No. 135 in DHB for Trapezoidal-Section
e=R-Rn Here,
) ( ) ( )+
*( ( ) ( )
b1 = 87.5 mm, b - 25 mm, h = 112.5 mm, Ri = 62.5 mm, c1 = ̅= 45.83 mm R =

Ri + c1 = 62.5 + 45.83 = 108.33 mm, R0 = Ri + h = 62.5 + 112.5 = 175 mm, c2 =
h – c1 = 112.5 - 45.83 = 66.67 mm
*( ( ) ( )
e=8.43mm
) ( ) ( )+
Now, c0 = c2 + e = 66.67 + 8.43 = 75.1 mm, ci=c1 - e = 45.83 - 8.43 = 37.4 mm

Bending stress at inner fiber,
()
Bending stress at outer fiber,

()
Resultant Stresses
Inner most fiber, ( )
Outer most fiber, ( )
Thus the inner most fiber is subjected to a maximum bending stress of 123.6 N/mm2
3. Determine: (i) location of neutral axis, (ii) maximum and minimum stress, and
(iii) ratio of maximum and minimum stress, when a curved beam of rectangular
cross-section of width 20 mm and of depth 40 mm is subjected to pure bending
of moment + 600 Nm. The beam is curved in a plane parallel to depth. The
mean radius of curvature is 50 mm. Also plot the variation of the stresses
across the section
4. Determine: (i) position of neutral axis, and (ii) maximum and minimum stresses
when a curved beam of circular section of diameter 100 mm is subjected to
pure bending moment of + 11.5 kN m. The radius of curvature is 100 mm
5. A hook carries a load of 7.5 kN and the load line is at a distance of 20 mm from
the inner edge of the section which is trapezoidal. The load line also passes
through the centre of curvature of the hook. The dimensions of the central
horizontal trapezoidal section are: inner width =30 mm ; outer width = 15 mm ;
depth =30 mm. Calculate the maximum and minimum stresses. Also plot the
variation of stress across the section
Design of
Machine Elements-II, Module 1: Curved Beams, Cylinders & Cylinder Heads 12
Thick and Thin Cylinders

When a cylinder is subjected to pressure, three mutually perpendicular
principal stresses will be set up within the walls of the cylinder: ⮚ Hoop or
circumferential stress
⮚ Longitudinal or axial stress
⮚ Radial stress
Thin cylinders subjected to internal pressure
A cylinder is considered to be ‘thin’ if the ratio of the inner diameter to the
thickness of the walls is > 20: This being the case, we can assume for the
following analysis (with a reasonable level of accuracy) that both the hoop and
longitudinal stresses are constant across the wall thickness and that the
radial stress is so small in magnitude compared to the hoop and longitudinal
stresses that it can be neglected in our analysis. This is clearly an
approximation and in practice the radial stress will vary between the pressures
at the inner and outer diameters. i.e. for internal pressure only, the radial
stress will vary from zero at the outside surface to a value equal to the internal
pressure at the inside surface.
Hoop Stress
This describes the stress which is set up to resist the force, due to the applied
pressure, tending to separate the top and bottom halves of the cylinder
Stresses in thin cylinders

If the wall thickness is less than about 7% of the inner diameter then the
cylinder may be treated as a thin one. Thin walled cylinders are used as boiler
shells, pressure tanks, pipes and in other low pressure processing
equipment’s.
A thin cylinder is also

defined as one in which the thickness of the metal is less than 1/20 of the
diameter of the cylinder. In thin cylinders, it can be assumed that the variation
of stress within the metal is negligible, and that the mean diameter, dm is
approximately equal to the internal diameter, d. In general three types of
stresses are developed in pressure cylinders viz. circumferential or hoop
stress, longitudinal stress in closed end cylinders and radial stresses. These
stresses are demonstrated in figure 2.1.
Radial
stress in thin cylindrical shells can be neglected as the radial pressure is
not generally high and that the radial pressure acts on a larger area. The internal
pressure, p tends to increase the diameter of the cylinder and this produces a
hoop or circumferential stress (tensile). If the stress becomes excessive, failure in
the form of a longitudinal burst would occur. Consider the half cylinder shown.
Force due to internal pressure, p is balanced by the force due to hoop stress, s
i.e. hoop stress x area = pressure x projected area
Longitudinal stress in a cylinder

The internal pressure p also produces a tensile stress in the longitudinal direction
as shown in figure 1.2.
Since hoop stress is twice longitudinal stress, the cylinder would fail by tearing
along a line parallel to the axis, rather than on a section perpendicular to the axis.
The equation for hoop stress is therefore used to determine the cylinder
thickness.
Autofrettage
Pressure vessels are now widely used in nuclear power plants for steam and
power generation. Other pressure vessel applications may involve pressures as
high as 1380 MPa and temperatures of up to 300 °C, resulting in the pressure
vessel material holding immense potential energy exerted by the working fluid.
The process fluid may also be a source of hydrogen embrittlement and/or stress
corrosion cracking. Such high-pressure vessels require proper understanding of
the stress levels and their distributions in order to have fail-safe designs or even
to minimize the probability of disruptive failures. Past pressure vessel catastrophic
failures, arising from lack of understanding of stress levels, material properties
and fluid/structure environmental interactions, particularly early in the last
century, were very expensive in terms of losses in materials and human life, and
they were the main impetus for the early studies of stresses in cylinders of various
materials. High-pressure vessels are now of great importance in many industries
and their economic use often depends upon the occurrence of small,
controlled, permanent
deformations. Before commissioning, pressure vessels are normally pressure

tested at an overstrain pressure of 1.25–1.5 times the design pressure in order to
test for leakages. This process results in yielding of the bore and may also
advantageously lead to catastrophic failure for poorly designed or
fabricated vessels. Vessels with brittle characteristics may also fail at this stage.
After overstraining, residual stresses are left in the cylinder and the nature of
these residual stresses is now widely known. However, the residual stress levels
are not documented for use in service or during de-rating after periodic
inspections. In service, the vessels are able to carry a much higher load before
re-yielding than would be the case without the leak test.
Overstraining beyond the leak test pressure is usually carried out during
manufacture and this technique is called Autofrettage or self-hooping. Problems:
1. A thin cylinder 60mm internal diameter, 225mm long with walls 2.7mm thick is
subjected to an internal pressure of 6MN/m2. You may assume that E=200GPA
and ƞ=0.3 . Calculate:
i. The hoop stress
ii. The longitudinal stress
iii. The change in length
iv. The change in diameter
2. A 1m long thin cylinder has an internal diameter of 200mm with a wall
thickness of 3mm. If it found to undergo a change to its internal volume of
when subject to an internal pressure. You may assume that E=200GPA and
ƞ=0.3.. Calculate the hoop and longitudinal stresses.
3. A tube has 100mm
inner diameter and the walls are 20mm thick. It is subjected to an internal
pressure of 20MPa. Calculate the maximum error in hoop stress at the surface if a
thin tube criterion based on the inner diameter is used.
4. A thick steel
pressure vessel, 200mm inside diameter and 300mm outside diameter, is

subjected to an internal pressure of 30MPa and an external pressure of 10MPa.
Calculate the maximum hoop stress and the longitudinal stress in the material.
Assume E=200GPA and ƞ=0.3
MODULE 2:
Belts, Chain Drives,

Rope Drives and
Springs
Design of springs
A spring is defined as an elastic body, whose function is to distort when loaded
and to recover its original shape when the load is removed. A spring is a
mechanical device which is used for efficient storage and release of energy.
Application of springs
⮚ To absorb or control energy due to either shock or vibration as in
automotive, railways, aircrafts, landing gears and vibration dampers etc. ⮚ To
apply forces, as in brakes, clutches and spring loaded valves , spring watches.
⮚ It is used to return the mechanical part to its orginal position , when it has
temporarily displaced like springs used in valves, clutches and linkages. ⮚ To
control motion by maintaining control between two elements as in CAMS &
followers.
⮚ To measure forces as in spring balances and engine indicators.
⮚ To store energy as in watches, toys movie cameras.
TYPES OF SPRINGS
1. Tension/extension spring – the spring is designed to operate with a tension
load, so the spring stretches as the load is applied to it.
2. Compression spring – is designed to operate with a compression load, so
the spring gets shorter as the load is applied to it.
3. Torsion spring – unlike the above types in which the load is an axial force,
the load applied to a torsion spring is a torque or twisting force, and the
end of the spring rotates through an angle as the load is applied.
4. Constant spring – supported load remains the same throughout deflection
cycle
5. Variable spring – resistance of the coil to load varies during compression 6.
Variable stiffness spring – resistance of the coil to load can be dynamically
varied for example by the control system, some types of these springs also
vary their length thereby providing actuation capability as well
They can also be classified based on their shape:

⮚ Flat spring – this type is made of a flat spring steel.
Design of Machine Elements-II, MODULE 2: Belts, Chain Drives, Rope Drives and Springs 19
⮚ Machined spring – this type of spring is manufactured by machining bar
stock with a lathe and/or milling operation rather than a coiling operation.
Since it is machined, the spring may incorporate features in addition to the
elastic element. Machined springs can be made in the typical load cases of
compression/extension, torsion, etc.
⮚ Serpentine spring – a zig-zag of thick wire – often used in modern
upholstery/furniture.
⮚ Garter spring – A coiled steel spring that is connected at each end to create
a circular shape
⮚ Volute spring – a compression coil spring in the form of a cone so that under
compression the coils are not forced against each other, thus permitting
longer travel.
⮚ Hairspring or balance spring – a delicate spiral spring used in watches,
galvanometers, and places where electricity must be carried to partially
rotating devices such as steering wheels without hindering the rotation.
⮚ Leaf spring – a flat spring used in vehicle suspensions, electrical switches,
and bows.
⮚ V-spring – used in antique firearm mechanisms such as the wheel lock,
flintlock and percussion cap locks. Also door-lock spring, as used in
antique door latch mechanisms
⮚ Belleville washer or Belleville spring – a disc shaped spring commonly used
to apply tension to a bolt (and also in the initiation mechanism of
pressure-activated landmines)
⮚ Constant-force spring — a tightly rolled ribbon that exerts a nearly constant
force as it is unrolled
⮚ Gas spring – a volume of compressed gas
⮚ Ideal Spring – a notional spring used in physics—it has no weight, mass, or
damping losses. The force exerted by the spring is proportional to the
distance the spring is stretched or compressed from its relaxed position.
⮚ Mainspring – a spiral ribbon shaped spring used as a power store of
clockwork mechanisms: watches, clocks, music boxes, windup toys, and
mechanically powered flashlights
⮚ Negator spring – a thin metal band slightly concave in cross-section. When
coiled it adopts a flat cross-section but when unrolled it returns to its former
curve, thus producing a constant force throughout the displacement
and negating any
tendency to re-wind. The most common application is the retracting steel tape
rule
⮚ Progressive rate coil springs – A coil spring with a variable rate, usually
achieved by having unequal pitch so that as the spring is compressed one or
more coils rests against its neighbor.
⮚ Rubber band – a tension spring where energy is stored by stretching the
material.
⮚ Spring washer – used to apply a constant tensile force along the axis of a
fastener.
⮚ Torsion spring – any spring designed to be twisted rather than compressed or
extended.
Design of Belts, Ropes and Chains
INTRODUCTION
Power is transmitted from the prime mover to a machine by means of
intermediate mechanism called drives. This intermediate mechanism known as
drives may be belt or chain or gears. Belt is used to transmit motion from one
shaft to another shaft with the help of pulleys, preferably if the centre distance is
long. It is not positive drive since there is slip in belt drive. Three types of belt
drives are commonly used. They are:
• Flat belt drive
• V-belt drive
• Rope or circular belt drive
FLAT BELT DRIVE
When the distance between two pulleys is around 10 meters and moderate
power is required then flat belt drive is preferred. This may be arranged in two
ways
• Open belt drive
• Cross belt drive
When the direction of rotation of both the pulleys are required in the same
direction, then we can use open belt drive; if direction of rotation of pulleys are
required in opposite direction then cross belt is used. The pulleys which drives
the belt is known as driver and the pulley which follows driver is
known as driven or follower.
MERITS AND DEMERITS OF FLAT BELT
DRIVE Merits:
• Simplicity, low cost, smoothness of operation, ability to absorb shocks,
flexibility and efficiency at high speeds.
• Protect the driven mechanism against breakage in case of sudden overloads
owing to belt slipping.
• Simplicity of care, low maintenance and service.
• Possibility to transmit power over a moderately long distance
Demerits:
• It is not a positive drive.
• Comparatively large size.
• Not suitable for short centre distance.
• Belt joints reduce the life of the belt.
• High bearing loads and belt stresses.
• Less efficiency due to slip and creep.
Creep in Belts
Consider an open belt drive rotating in clockwise direction as shown in figure.
The portion of the belt leaving the driven and entering the driver is known as
tight side and portion of belt leaving the driver and entering the driven is
known as slack side.
During rotation there is an expansion of belt on tight side and contraction of
belt on the slack side. Due to this uneven expansion and contraction of the belt
over the pulleys, there will be a relative movement of the belt over the pulleys,
this phenomenon is known as creep in belts.
Velocity Ratio
The ratio of angular velocity of the driver pulley to the angular velocity of the
driven pulley is known as velocity ratio or speed ratio or transmission ratio.
Let
d1 = Speed of driver
pulley d2 = Speed of
driver pulley n1 =
Speed of driver
pulley n2 = Speed of
driver pulley
Neglecting slip and thickness of belt,
Linear speed of belt on driver = Linear speed of
belt on driven i.e., pd1 n1 = pd2 n2
Slip in Belts
Consider an open belt drive rotating in clockwise direction, this rotation of belt
over the pulleys is assumed to be due to firm frictional grip between the belt
and pulleys. When this frictional grip becomes in sufficient, there is a
possibility of forward motion of driver without carrying belt with it and there is
also possibility of belt rotating without carrying the driver pulley with it, this is
known as slip in belt. Therefore slip may be defined as the relative motion
between the pulley and the belt in it. This reduces velocity ratio and usually
expressed as a percentage.
Effect of Slip on Velocity Ratio
Let
s1 = Percentage of slip between driver pulley rim and the belt.
s2 = Percentage of slip between the belt and the
driven pulley rim. Linear speed of driver = pd1 n1
Material Used for Belt
Belts used for power transmission must be strong, flexible, and durable
and must have a coefficient of friction. The most common belt materials are
leather, fabric, rubber, balata, Camel’s hair and woven cotton. Length of
Open Belt
Consider an open belt drive as shown
in Figure. Let, D = diameter of larger
pulley
d = diameter of smaller pulley
C = distance between centers of pulley
L = length of belt
Where _L and _s are in radians.
For equal diameter pulleys _L = _s = _ radians.
For unequal diameters pulleys, since slip will occur first on the smaller
diameter pulley, it is necessary to consider _s while designing the belt.
Length of Cross Belt
Consider a cross-belt drive as shown in Figure
Let, D = diameter of larger
pulley d = diameter of
smaller pulley
L = Length of belt
Ratio of Belt Tensions
Consider a driven pulley rotating in clockwise direction as
shown in Figure. Let, T1 = Tension on tight side
T2 = Tension on slack side
θ = Angle of lap
RN = Normal Reaction
F = Frictional force = _ RN
Now consider a small elemental portion of the belt PQ subtending an angle at the
centre. The portion of the belt PQ is in equilibrium under the action of the
following forces, (i) Tension T at P (ii) Tension T + _T at Q (iii) Normal reaction RN
(iv) Frictional force F =RN
Initial Tension
The motion of the belt with the pulleys is assumed to be due to firm frictional grip
between the belt and pulleys surface. To increase this grip the belt is mounted on
the pulleys with some tension when the pulleys are stationary. The tension
provided in the belt while mounting on the pulley is ―Initial tension’’ and is
represented by T0. Since in actual practice the belt is not perfectly elastic,
C.G.Barth has given the relation as
Design Procedure for Flat Belt Drive
Problem
1. A belt is required to transmit 18.5 kW from a pulley of 1.2 m diameter running

at 250 rpm to another pulley which runs at 500 rpm. The distance between the
centers of pulleys is 2.7 m. The following data refer to an open belt drive, _ = 0.25.
Safe working stress for leather is 1.75 N/mm2. Thickness of belt = 10mm.
Determine the width and length of belt taking centrifugal tension into account.
Also find the initial tension in the belt and absolute power that can be transmitted
by this belt and the speed at which this can be transmitted.
V- BELT DRIVE
When the distance between the shafts is less, then V-belts are preferred. These
are endless and of trapezoidal cross section as shown in Figure. It consists of
central layer of fabric and moulded in rubber or rubber like compound. This
assembly is enclosed in an elastic wearing cover. The belt will have contact at
the two sides of the groove in the pulley. The wedging action between the belt
and groove will increase the coefficient of friction making the drive a positive
one
ROPE DRIVES
When power is to be transmitted over long distances then belts cannot be used
due to the heavy losses in power. In such cases ropes can be used. Ropes are
used in elevators, mine hoists, cranes, oil well drilling, aerial conveyors,
tramways, haulage devices, lifts and suspension bridges etc. two types of ropes
are commonly used. They are fiber ropes and metallic ropes. Fiber ropes are
made of Manila, hemp, cotton, jute, nylon, coir etc., and are normally used for
transmitting power. Metallic ropes are made of steel, aluminium. alloys, copper,
bronze or stainless steel and are mainly used in elevator, mine hoists, cranes, oil
well drilling, aerial conveyors, haulage devices and suspension bridges.
Hoisting tackle (Block and Tackle Mechanism)
It consists of two pulley blocks one above the other. Each block has a series of
sheaves mounted side by side on the same axle. The ropes used in hoisting tackle
are
• Cotton ropes
• Hemp ropes and
• Manila ropes.
Pulley system
A pulley system is a combination of several movable and fixed pulleys or sheaves.
The system can be used for a gain in force or for a gain in speed. Hoisting devices
employ pulleys for a gain in force predominantly. Pulley systems for a gain in
forces are designed with the rope running off a fixed pulley and with the rope
running off a movable pulley. Consider a hoisting tackle (block and tackle
mechanism) as shown in fig.
STEEL WIRE ROPES

A wire rope is made up of stands and a strand is made up of one or more
layers of wires as shown in fig. the number of strands in a rope denotes the
number of groups of wires that are laid over the central core. For example a
6× 19 construction means that the rope has 6 strands and each strand is
composed of 19(12/6/1) wires. The central part of the wire rope is called
the core and may be of fiber, wire, plastic, paper or asbestos. The fiber
core is very flexible and very suitable for all conditions.
The points to be considered while selecting a wire rope are
• Strength
• Abrasion resistance
• Flexibility
• Resistance of crushing
• Fatigue strength
• Corrosion resistance.
Ropes having wire core are stronger than those having fiber core. Flexibility in
rope is more desirable when the number of bends in the rope is too many.
DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR WIRE ROPE

Let d=Diameter of rope
D=Diameter of sheave
H= Depth of mine or height of building
W= total load
WR= Weight of rope dw= Diameter of wire A= Area of c/s of rope
Pb= Bending load in the rope
Fa= allowable pull in the rope
Fu= Ultimate of
breaking load of rope

n= Factor of safety
Ws= Starting load
Module 3:
Gear drives: Spur
Gears, Helical Gears &
Bevel GearsGear Drives
A gear or cogwheel is a rotating machine part having cut teeth or, in the case of a
cogwheel, inserted teeth (called cogs), which mesh with another toothed part to
transmit torque. Geared devices can change the speed, torque, and direction of a
power source. Gears almost always produce a change in torque, creating a
mechanical advantage, through their gear ratio, and thus may be considered a
simple machine. The teeth on the two meshing gears all have the same shape.
Two or more meshing gears, working in a sequence, are called a gear train or a
transmission. A gear can mesh with a linear toothed part, called a rack,
producing translation instead of rotation.
Gears are mounted on rotatable shafts and the teeth are made to mesh (engage)
with a gear on another shaft. Gears deliver force (torque) and motion (rpm) from
one part of a machine to another. Two gears with the driven gear having twice the
number of teeth of the driving gear will rotate at one-half the speed of the driving
gear and deliver twice the torque. Being able to control speed and torque by
varying the number of teeth in one gear with respect to another makes gears a
valuable design tool. An automobile transmission is an excellent example of how
this principle is put to use to control vehicle motion.
CLASSIFICATION OF GEARS
Gears are classified according to the shape of the tooth pair and disposition into
1. Spur Gears
2. Internal Spur Gears
3. Helical Gears
4. Rack Gears
5. Bevel Gears
6. Worm Wheel Gears
7. Worm Gears
8. Ratchet & Pawl Gears
9. A Herringbone Gear
SPUR GEARS
Fig. 1.1: Spur Gear

Spur Gear Defined: a gear having straight teeth cut on the rim, parallel to the axis
of rotation.
⮚ Designed to transmit motion & power between parallel shafts, which rotates
in the opposite direction.
⮚ Plastic, brass, steel, & aluminum are the materials generally used for
manufacturing electric screwdrivers, oscillating sprinklers, windup alarm
clocks, washing machines, clothe dryers & conveyors are just a few
everyday machines where spur gears are used.
⮚ Spur gears are also used in construction equipment, machine tools, marine
hoists, turbine drives, multi-spindle drives, indexing equipment& roller
feeds.
INTERNAL SPUR GEARS
Fig. 1.2: Internal Spur Gears

Internal Spur Gears Defined: a gear having straight teeth cut on the inner rim,
parallel to the axis of rotation
⮚ Spur gear turned “inside out”, teeth are cut into the inside diameter ⮚
Designed to transmit motion & power between parallel shafts, which rotates in
the same direction
⮚ Plastic, brass, steel, & aluminium are the materials generally used for
manufacturing
⮚ Internal gears are also used in positioning equipment, roller tools, indexing
equipment & timing systems
HELICAL GEARS
Fig. 1.3: Helical Gears

Helical Gears Defined: a bar or rectangular gear (flat, no curvature) having
straight teeth cut on the face, perpendicular to the axis of motion
⮚ Spur gear teeth “curved”, teeth are cut at an angle
⮚ Designed to transmit motion & power between either parallel or right angle
shafts (90°, non-intersecting), which rotates in the opposite direction
machines where helical gears are used
⮚ Helical gears are also used in machine tools, turbine drives, feed drives,
sand millers, rolling mills & marine applications
RACK GEARS
Fig. 1.4: Rack Gears

Rack Gears Defined: a bar or rectangular gear (flat, no curvature) having straight
teeth cut on the face, perpendicular to the axis of motion
⮚ Spur gear “opened” & “laid flat” on bore, teeth are cut on the face ⮚
Designed to translate rotational into linear motion or vice versa ⮚ Automobiles,
scales, lift mechanisms, shakers & guide mechanisms are just a few everyday
machines where rack gears are used
BEVEL GEARS
Fig. 1.5: Bevel Gears

Bevel & Miter Gears Defined: a gear having teeth cut on the body, perpendicular
to the axis of rotation
⮚ Designed to transmit motion & power between right angle shafts (90°,
intersecting), which rotates in the opposite direction
⮚ Bevel gears are also used in machine tools, material handlers, conveyors,
cooling towers, power plants, rotorcrafts & marine applications WORM WHEEL
GEARS
Fig. 1.6: Worm Wheel Gears

Worm Wheel Gears Defined: a shaft having helical cuts (threads) on the surface,
perpendicular to the axis of rotation
⮚ Designed to transmit motion & power between right angle shafts (90°, non
⮚ Worm wheels are also used in machine tools, torsen differentials, indexing
equipment, packaging & food processing machinery
WORM GEARS
Fig. 1.7: Worm gears
Definition: a gear whose teeth are cut at a slant on the rim, parallel to the axis of
rotation
⮚ Designed to transmit motion & power between right angle shafts (90°, non
⮚Musical instruments, mechanical gates & conveyors are just a few everyday
machines where worms are used
⮚ Worms are also used in machine tools, torsen differentials, indexing
equipment, packaging & food processing machinery
RATCHET & PAWL GEARS
Fig. 1.8: Ratchet & pawl

⮚ Ratchet is a spur gear with slanted teeth; pawl, its counterpart, is a claw like
structure which locks the ratchet in position.
⮚ Designed to prevent reverse rotation (single-direction device) Clocks, cable
ties, jacks, screwdrivers, wrench & turnstiles are just a few everyday
machines where ratchets are used
A HERRINGBONE GEAR
Fig. 1.9: Herringbone gear
A herringbone gear, a specific type of double helical gear, is a special type
of gear that is a side to side (not face to face) combination of two helical gears of
opposite hands. From the top, each helical groove of this gear looks like the letter
V, and many together form herringbone pattern (resembling the bones
of a fish such as a herring). Unlike helical gears, herringbone gears do not
produce an additional axial load.
Like helical gears, they have the advantage of transferring power smoothly
because more than two teeth will be in mesh at any moment in time. Their
advantage over the helical gears is that the side-thrust of one half is balanced by
that of the other half. This means that herringbone gears can be used in torque
gearboxes without requiring a substantial thrust bearing. Because of this
herringbone gears were an important step in the introduction of the steam turbine
to marine propulsion.
TERMINOLOGY OF SPUR GEAR
Fig. 1.10: Gear Terminology
Pitch surface: the surface of the imaginary rolling cylinder that replaces the
toothed gear.
Pitch circle: a normal section of the pitch surface.
Addendum circle: a circle bounding the ends of the teeth, in a normal section of
the gear.
Dedendum circle or root circle: the circle bounding the spaces between the
teeth, in a normal section of the gear. Addendum: the radial distance between the
pitch circle and the addendum circle.
Dedendum: the radial distance between the pitch circle and the root circle.
Clearance: the difference between the Dedendum of one gear and the
addendum of the mating gear.
Face of a tooth: that part of the tooth surface lying outside the pitch surface.
Flank of a tooth: the part of the tooth surface lying inside the pitch surface.
Top land: the top surface of a gear tooth.
Bottom land: the bottom surface of the tooth space.
Circular thickness (tooth thickness): the thickness of the tooth measured on the
pitch circle. It is the length of an arc and not the length of a straight line. Tooth
space: the space between successive teeth.
Width of space: the distance between adjacent teeth measured on the pitch
circle.
Backlash: the difference between the tooth thickness of one gear and the tooth
space of the mating gear.
Material
Gears are made from steel, iron, bronze, and plastic. Steel is the most widely used
gear material. Iron is good because of its castability and wear characteristics.
Bronze is good for gears where friction is a concern. Plastic gears have good
moldability properties but have limited load carrying capability.
Many different kinds of steel can be used for gears. They range from low carbon,
low alloy to high carbon, high alloy. The type used depends on load, size, and cost
considerations. Low carbon, low alloy steels are used when low cost is of prime
importance. High carbon, high alloy steels are used when high load and small
size are the major design objectives.
Steel gears can be heat treated to improve performance by increasing strength
and wear properties. Some alloys are through-hardened to the Rockwell C42
level. Others are carburized and hardened to the Rockwell C60 level on the outer
shell leaving the inner core softer. This hardening technique imparts good
strength and wear properties to the outer layer while the inner core gives good
shock absorbing characteristics.
Gear steel comes in grades 1, 2, and 3. Higher grade numbers represent higher
quality steels for higher performing gears. Some of the items controlled are
material composition, residual stress, and microstructure. American Gear
Manufacturers Association (AGMA) standard ANSI/AGMA 2001-D04 defines the
grades of steel for gears.

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Machine Elements Design Guide for Mechanical Engineers

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Maharaja Education Trust (R), Mysuru

Maharaja Institute of Technology Mysore

Department of Mechanical Engineering

⮚ To mould holistic individuals capable of contributing to the advancement of the society.

Maharaja Institute of Technology

1. To enrich teaching-learning experience through distinguished practices and ever

2. To enhance student performance through consistent guidance, motivation and

Maharaja Institute of Technology

1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering fundamentals,

Maharaja Institute of Technology

C312.1 Understand various machine

Prof. Santhosh K G Prof. Abhila

Fig. 1.2: Curved Beam

Rn = radius of curvature of neutral axis

Bending Moment, M=F * Perpendicular Distance

Bending stress at outer fiber,

Solution: F = 120kN, σi, σ0=?

b1 = 87.5 mm, b - 25 mm, h = 112.5 mm, Ri = 62.5 mm, c1 = ̅= 45.83 mm R =

Now, c0 = c2 + e = 66.67 + 8.43 = 75.1 mm, ci=c1 - e = 45.83 - 8.43 = 37.4 mm

Bending stress at outer fiber,

Thick and Thin Cylinders

Stresses in thin cylinders

A thin cylinder is also

Longitudinal stress in a cylinder

deformations. Before commissioning, pressure vessels are normally pressure

pressure vessel, 200mm inside diameter and 300mm outside diameter, is

Belts, Chain Drives,

They can also be classified based on their shape:

Design Procedure for Flat Belt Drive

1. A belt is required to transmit 18.5 kW from a pulley of 1.2 m diameter running

STEEL WIRE ROPES

DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR WIRE ROPE

breaking load of rope

Fig. 1.1: Spur Gear

Fig. 1.2: Internal Spur Gears

Fig. 1.3: Helical Gears

Fig. 1.4: Rack Gears

Fig. 1.5: Bevel Gears

Fig. 1.6: Worm Wheel Gears

Fig. 1.8: Ratchet & pawl

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