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ABSTRACT peak load will also be reduced and it will be possible to transfer
some of the load to outside the period of occupancy. Because
Due to the high energy consumption and first cost, several
these systems for cooling operate at water temperatures close
European countries debate if air conditioning of buildings is
to room temperature, they increase the efficiency of heat
to be recommended or prohibited by law. Air conditioning will
pumps, ground heat exchangers and other systems using
give better control of the indoor temperature and improve
renewable energy sources.
comfort and productivity. There exist, however, many examples
of discomfort in air-conditioned buildings due to draft, noise, These types of systems are mainly used in multistory
and sick building syndrome. office buildings with a low heating load in winter (10 to 30 W/
Alternatively, sensible heating and cooling loads may be m2) and a moderate cooling load in summer (30 to 60 W/m2).
satisfied by hydronic radiant heating and cooling systems, As office buildings often have a raised floor for cabling, most
where pipes are embedded in the concrete slabs between each of the heat transfer between the heated or cooled slabs and the
story. These systems are often combined with a ventilation space will take place through the ceiling surface. Suspended
system, where the outside air volume is based on the require- ceilings are not installed with these kinds of systems.
ments for acceptable air quality. Because these types of When using surface systems for cooling, it is important to
systems use the building mass for heating and cooling, it is control surface temperatures or water temperatures to avoid
often questioned what kind of control concept should be used. condensation. One possibility is to set a lower limit for the
The present paper presents a parametric study of different supply water temperature (Olesen 1997; Simmonds 1994)
control concepts, based on dynamic computer simulations. equal to the dew-point temperature, i.e., absolute humidity in
The results show that a combination of time control and water the space.
temperature control according to outside temperature condi- In many applications, surface heating and cooling
tions will provide acceptable indoor conditions and low energy systems are combined with a ventilation system. In this case,
consumption. the supply air is preconditioned to obtain a supply air temper-
ature lower than the space temperature and remove latent loads
INTRODUCTION by dehumidification. In this way, the humidity (i.e., the dew
A new trend, which started in the early nineties in Swit- point) will be controlled and the performance of the radiant
zerland (Meierhans 1993, 1996), is to use the thermal storage cooling systems is then increased.
capacity of the concrete slabs between each story in multistory Using pipes embedded in the concrete slabs will result in
buildings to heat or cool buildings. Pipes carrying water for a system with a very high thermal mass. In this case, individual
heating and cooling are embedded in the center of the concrete room control is not applicable. In most cases, a zone control
slab. (south-north) is used, where the supply water temperature, the
By activating the building mass, there will not only be a average water temperature, or the flow rate may differ from
direct heating/cooling effect, but due to the thermal mass, the zone to zone.
Bjarne W. Olesen is the head of research and development at Wirsbo-Velts Gmbh, Norderstedt, Germany. Klaus Sommer is a professor at
the University of Applied Sciences, Köln, Germany. Björn Düchting is with VDI-TGA, Düsseldorf, Germany.
Figure 3a Hourly external temperature used in the computer Figure 3b Daily average external temperature used in the
simulation for the time period of May 1-September computer simulation for the time period of May 1-
30. September 30.
TABLE 2
Operative Temperatures, Temperature Drift, Pump Running Time, and Energy Transfer for Different Operation Times
May to September
Operation 24 hours
Pump operation Continuous 1 hour on – ½ hour on- ¼ hour on –
1001 1 hour off, ½ hour off, ¾ hour off,
0102a 0102 0102b
°C % % % %
Operative temperature interval <20 0 0 0 0
20-22 12 8 8 6
22-25 88 89 89 87
25-26 0.4 3 3 5
26-27 0 0 0 1
>27 0 0 0 1
Figure 7 shows the calculated temperature for the week of for cooling (639 kWh) and for heating (1031 kWh) is signif-
September 2 to 8. In this case, the system was operating for 24 icant higher than for 24-hour operation. Even if the time of
hours and supply temperature was controlled according to dew operation is shorter (12 hours), the pump running time (1377
point. The results are very similar to the results in Figure 5, hours) is longer.
where the supply water is controlled as a function of outside This can be explained by the low water temperature used
temperature. The reason is the limitation by the room dew- during nighttime operation (18:00-06:00) when controlling
point temperature. During this week, the limit for the water water supply temperature equal to dew point. During this
temperature is the dew point even if controlled according to period, the space is not occupied and there is no latent load
outside temperature. (humidity from people). Therefore, when the system starts
cooling after 18:00, it will be with a relatively low water
Study of Water Temperature Control temperature.
This results in overcooling, which often will be compen-
The results of the simulation are listed in Table 4.
sated by heating when the space temperature drops below
This part of the simulation study investigated the perfor-
22°C. Due to the heating, the operative temperatures will not
mance of different water temperature control strategies.
drop and will stay above 20°C, but a lot of energy is consumed
Controlling the supply water equal to the dew point will for heating and cooling.
provide maximum cooling. The performance of the system Outdoor air temperature dependent supply water control
when controlling supply water equal to dew point and 12-hour is more efficient— there are no operative temperatures above
operation (Table 4, code 0202) is not as optimal as for 24-hour 27°C but a 10% exceedance above 25°C than when controlling
operation (Table 3, code 1001). The distribution of operative according to dew-point temperature. On the other hand, there
temperatures is almost the same, but the energy consumption will be almost no time when the temperatures are in the cool
May to September
Time of operation 18:00-06:00
Control water Supply = Supply = °F Average = °F Average = Supply = Supply = Supply =
temperature dew point, (outside), (outside), 22°C, 22°C, 20°C, 18°C,
0202 0801 0901 1201 1101 1105 1109
°C % % % % % % %
Operative <20 0 0 0 0 0 0 2
temperature interval 20-22 14 1 4 1 1 10 22
22-25 84 88 88 68 62 69 66
25-26 2 9 6 16 19 12 7
26-27 0 2 2 10 12 6 2
>27 0 0 0 5 6 3 1
Pump running hours 1377 1215 515 1989 1989 1989 1894
% of time 38 33 14 54 54 54 52
are obtained by controlling supply water temperature as by Another way of representing the calculated operative
temperatures is shown in Figure 11 together with the recom-
controlling average water temperature. During the time of
mended comfort range by ASHRAE 55 and ISO 7730. The
operation (18:00-06:00), the pump is in both cases running all examples are for supply temperature controlled according to
the time. A little more cooling is provided (952 kWh) when outside temperature and time operation 18:00-06:00 or 22:00-
controlling the average water temperature. It also resulted in 06:00.