Faculty of Power and Aeronautical Engineering Warsaw University of Technology - Mechanics Division

Project No. 2
Aerodynamic Characteristics of the Wing

The project is devoted to estimation of two basic wing aerodynamic characteristics

CL (α) – lift coefficient,
CD (α) – drag coefficient,
as functions of wing angle of attack.

1. Geometry of the wing

From the airplane's technical data set and from three-view drawing take following basic
dimensions and other geometric parameters of the airplane wing (fig. 2.1):
• wing span b,
• root chord cr,
• tip chord ct,
• wing leading edge sweep angle νx 0 and ¼ local chord line νx 0.25 ,
• wing area S.

xN ¼ c(y)
ct
x(y) y
ca
N
cr /2
c(y) ct cr
ct/2

cr yN

x
b
Fig. 2.1 Basic geometric parameters of the wing

Calculate:
2
b
• wing aspect ratio Λ = , (2.1)
S
c
• wing taper ratio λ = t , 2.(2)
cr
• mean aerodynamic chord (MAC) ca ,
• coordinates of the tip N of mean aerodynamic chord xN and yN :

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 Faculty of Power and Aeronautical Engineering Warsaw University of Technology - Mechanics Division

b b b
2 2 2

∫ ( c ( y ) ) 2⋅dy ∫ c ( y )⋅x ( y )⋅dy ∫ c ( y )⋅y⋅dy

b b b
− − −
2 2 2
ca = b
, xN = b
, yN = b
. (2.3)
2 2 2

∫ c ( y )⋅dy ∫ c ( y )⋅dy ∫ c ( y )⋅dy

b b b
− − −
2 2 2

Remarks:
1. For straight, moderate sweep tapered wings (as on Fig. 2.1) following formulas can
be used:
2 1+λ+ λ 2 1 1+ 2⋅λ 2 b
ca = ⋅c r⋅ , xN = ⋅b⋅tg ν x 0⋅ , y N = ⋅π . (2.4)
3 1+ λ 6 1+ λ 3
The angle νx 0 is the wing leading edge sweep angle.
2. For elliptic wings (ie. Supermarine Spitfire WWII combat plane) tip chord ct as well as
wing taper ratio λ are equal to 0. Mean aerodynamic chord, and its position along x and
y axis should calculated using formulas:
8 c c 8 2 b
c a= ⋅ πr ,
3
x N = r⋅ 1−
2 3⋅π (
, ) y N = ⋅π .
3
(2.5)

2. Aerodynamic characteristics of the airfoil and the wing

Aerodynamic airfoil data
Let assume that the wing of the airplane was designed using one of NACA wing sections
published in NACA Technical Report 824 “Summary of Airfoil Data” ( http://ntrs.nasa.gov/, also
available on Mechanics Division home page http://www.meil.pw.edu.pl/zm ). If the type of airfoil
is not specified in the airplane data set, then ask the teacher for it.
From the technical description of the airplane take the minimum speed of the aircraft V S 1 (stall
speed for clean configuration). If this speed is not in the data set then calculate it using formula:

where:
V S 1=
 2⋅m⋅g
⋅S⋅C Lmax
(2.6)

m – total take-off mass of the airplane,

g – normal Earth acceleration,
 – normal air density for altitude = 0 m STD,
S – wing area,
CL max – maximum of lift coefficient for given airfoil type and for lowest Reynolds
number of the airfoil data (see NACA TR 824).
Using VS1 calculate Reynolds number Re1 for the wing
V ⋅ca
Re1= S1 ν0 , (2.7)

−5 m2
where  0 =1.453⋅10 is the kinematic viscosity coefficient of the air for flight altitude
s
0 m STD.
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Take from the NACA TR 824 aerodynamic characteristics C Dꝏ , CLꝏ of chosen airfoil as
a function of the airfoil angle of attack ∞ . Use data for the Reynolds number closest to
calculated Re1 (ie. if you obtain Re1=5.28*106 then use values of CDꝏ and CLꝏ for Re=6*106).
Take values of aerodynamic center position x a.c. and z a.c. , the value of pitching moment
coefficient (referenced to aerodynamic center) C m , and calculate very important a.c.

aerodynamic coefficient - the airfoil lift slope a∞ - defined as

d CL ∞
a∞ = . (2.8)
d α∞

It can be easy done using standard linear approximation (or linear regression) function of a hand-
held scientific calculator or a PC spreadsheet (ie. the function REGLINP in LibreOffice Calc).
Please exclude from this calculation the non-linear part of the function C L ∞  ∞  close to
CL min and CL max (see fig. 2.2). All collected data should be stored in a calculation table (see
Table 2.1, page 4).

Remark
Due to convenience of future calculations the airfoil data should be collected as a function of lift
coefficient CLꝏ rather than angle of attack αꝏ , see table 2.1 bellow.

Aproksymacji charakterystyki Cz(alfa) płata nośnego

Determination of the lift slope parameter (linear approximation method)
1,5
1,0
CL
Cz
CL 0,5
Cz [-]

Cz_aproks
CL aproxim.
0,0
-0,5
-10,0 -5,0 0,0 5,0 10,0 15,0
α [stopnie]
alfa [degree]

Fig. 2.2 An example of linear approximation of the discrete function

Airfoil drag coefficient corrections

Browsing rich aerodynamic airfoil data it can be proof that for Re<10*10 6 the drag coefficient
slightly depend on the Reynolds number (decrease with increasing of Re). The effect is visible for
small angles of attack (for example for cruise flight conditions) when Re > Re1 and vanish for
Re > 10*106.
The correction of the airfoil drag coefficient  C D∞ due to changes of Reynolds number for high
speed regimes of the flight can be done using formulas:
0.11
Re1
C D ∞ =C D∞ ⋅
min 2 min1 ( 10⋅10
6 ) , (2.9)

Δ C D ∞ (C L ∞) =(C D ∞ − C D∞ )⋅ 1−
min 2 min 1
( ∣ ∣) CL ∞
CL ∞ max
. (2.10)

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Table 2.1
Aerodynamic characteristics of airfoil, wing and plane

Airfoil Wing Plane

I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII XIII XIV XV XVI XVII
No, CL∞ α∞ CD∞ CD'∞ αi αw CDi C'Dw CLH CDH C'D_paras. CD ∆CL H C'L K= C'L/CD E=C'L3/CD2
−
1 C
L max
2
3 ...
-0.20
-0.10
-0.05
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
...
n-1
n C+L max

Additional information on the airfoil used for calculation of wing characteristics:

1. Type of the airfoil: NACA 23015 .
2. Data source: NACA Technical Report No. 824 „Summary of Airfoil Data”, page 405 .
3. Airfoil data for Reynolds number: 2.6*106 .
4. Value of lift slope a∞=(dCz/dα)∞= 6.18 1/rad (0.1079 1/deg.), constant for angle of attack range - 8.4 <α <+15.3 .
5. Value of pitching moment coefficient Cm_a.c.. = -0.065 constant for lift coefficient range -1.1 < CL <+1.6 .
6. The airfoil aerodynamic center position (for the Reynolds number given in item 3 above): ̄x a.c. = 0.246 , ̄z a.c. = −0.070 .

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Final values of the wing section drag coefficient gives the formula:
'
CD ∞2 =C D ∞1 + Δ C D∞ ( C L ∞ ) . (2.11)

Assume that for this calculations as well as in future computations of wing and airplane
characteristics, the independent variable is CL , not the angle of attack α∞ (see remark on previous
page). Please note that for the negative region of C L (ie. from 0.0 up to -1.1) use in above
expression CL min instead of CL max (i.e. - 1.1). Please note that values of  C D ∞ are negative
and are equal to zero for CL min and C L max .

Aerodynamic wing characteristics

It can be proof that two basic aerodynamic characteristics for the wing C L =f 1 w  , C D=f
: 2 C L 
are given using following formulas:
w =∞ i , (2.12)

C D' =C D' ∞ + Δ C D + C D
w 2 tech i
, (2.13)

where:
CL
α i = π⋅Λ ⋅( 1+τ ) - the induced angle of attack, (2.14)

C L2 (2.15)
CDi = π⋅Λ⋅(1+ δ ) - the induced drag coefficient

Δ CD tech
- the drag increment due to manufacturing (technological) effects
on a real wing of an airplane; it can be estimated as:
• 0.15⋅(C D )min for all-metal or fiberglass composite
∞2

wings, (2.16)
• 0.50⋅(C D )min for wings of old-style airplanes made
∞2

of wood and fabric (World War I and 1920-1930

period).
Two Glauert's correctional factors τ and δ used in expressions (2.14) and (2.15) should be
calculated applying approximations as follows:
τ ⋅τ
τ = 1 2 (2.17)
0.17
where:
3 2
Λ Λ Λ
τ 1 = 0.023   − 0.103   + 0.25   (2.18)
 a∞   a∞   a∞ 
τ 2 = −0.18 ⋅ λ5 + 1.52 ⋅ λ4 − 3.51 ⋅ λ3 + 3.5 ⋅ λ2 − 1.33 ⋅ λ + 0.17 (2.19)
and:
δ1 ⋅ δ 2 ⋅ δ 3
δ= (2.20)
0.048
where:

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 Faculty of Power and Aeronautical Engineering Warsaw University of Technology - Mechanics Division

Λ
δ 1 = 0.0537 − 0.005 (2.21)
a∞

δ 2 = −0.43 ⋅ λ5 + 1.83 ⋅ λ4 − 3.06 ⋅ λ3 + 2.56 ⋅ λ2 − λ + 0.148 (2.22)

{
o
1.0 if ν x ⩽10 0.25
δ3 = 2.45 (2.23)
1.0+ ( 1.0+4.3⋅( 1−e−0.5⋅( Λ−1.1) ) )⋅( 180
π ⋅ ν −10
( x ))
0.25
if ν x > 10 o .
0.25

The symbol νx 0.25

in (2.23) denotes the wing quarter-chord line sweep angle, in degrees
(see fig. 2.1).
Please note that:
• equation (2.23) is valid for the wing aspect ratio Λ ≥ 3.0;
• in above expressions lift slope a∞ units should be 1/radian, not 1/degree!
• for typical rectangular or straight tapered wings 0.0≤ τ≤0.25 and 0.0≤δ≤0.2 ,
• for elliptic wing (ie. Supermarine Spitfire) τ=δ=0.0 .

Results of calculations have to be shown on graphs consists of C L and CD both for airfoil (with
Reynolds number effect) and for the wing.

CL CL
+
C L max ∞
C+L max Λ

cr
α, CD
cr∞

cr∞ cr

C-L max Λ

C-L max ∞

Fig. 2.3: Lift and drag characteristics of the wing

Notes for the figure 2.3:

Lower values of CL min and CL max for the wing you can see on the graph 2.3 were obtained from more sophisticated
method taking into account effects of variable distribution of angle of attack and lift force along wing span. Simple
method described in this paper does not "see" all these effects and because of this for our characteristics always
CL min ꝏ = CL min wing as well as CL max ꝏ = CL max wing .

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Wing lift slope

The induced flow over the wing changes the aerodynamic characteristic CL(α) and – obviously –
d CL
the lift slope a= . This parameter should be calculate using same method as for wing
dα
section slope a∞ (see page 3) taking into account linear part of wing's CL(α) characteristic.
The value of a should be compared with a value obtained from the formula:
a∞
a= .
a∞ (2.24)
1+ ⋅( 1+τ )
π⋅Λ
The difference between results should not be greater than 10%.

[$]

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