MASINDE MULIRO UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND

TECHNOLOGY

CIT 714: EDUCATION MEDIA AND RESOURCES

SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

DEPARTMENT OF CURRICULUM INSTRUCTION TEC

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COURSEOUTLINE

1. THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

Objectives

 Define the terms ‘communication and communication process’

 Identify the components of the communication process

 Describe the steps in the communication process

 Discuss the three types of communication process-Verbal, Non-verbal communication and Visual
communication

2. INTRODUCTION TO THE RANGE OF MEDIA RESOURCES FOR TEACHING

Objectives

 Identify the different categories of media for teaching and learning.

 Give advantages and disadvantages of media under each of the categories identified above

3. VARIETY OF COMMUNITY LEARNING RESOURCES

Objectives

 IdentifythedifferenttypesofCommunityLearningResources

 Describethemethodsofutilizingcommunityresourcesforinstruction.

 Giveadvantagesanddisadvantagesofusingcommunitylearningresourcesin

instruction.

4.EDUCATIONALBROADCASTINGINKENYA.

Objectives

 Tracethehistoricaldevelopmentofradiobroadcasting

 Identifythedifficultiesfacedineducationalradiobroadcasting

 Suggestsolutionstothedifficultiesfacedineducationalradiobroadcasting

5.PRODUCTIONTECHNIQUESFORVISUALMEDIA

Objectives

 Stateanddescribethephysicalcharacteristicsofvisualmedia.

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 Explaintheprinciplesgoverningthepreparationofvisualsusedforteachingandlearning

 Challengesofthesefuturedevelopments

 Managementoftheemergingdevelopmentsineducationaltechnologyand

media

6.IDENTIFICATION,SELECTIONANDUSEOFMEDIARESOURCES

Objectives

 Statetheconsiderationsinconductingtheidentificationprocess

 Identifytheapproachesinconductingidentificationprocess:

7.SELECTIONOFMEDIARESOURCES

Objectives

 Identifyapproachesinselectingmediaresources

8.SELECTIONOFMEDIARESOURCES

Objectives

 Describetheapproachesinselectingmediaresources

 Giveadvantagesanddisadvantagesofeachapproach

9. USEOFMEDIARESOURCESININSTRUCTION

Objectives

 Identifytheconsiderationsinmediause

 Discusstheproblemsassociatedwiththeuseofmediaresources

10.SELECTIONOFPRINTEDMEDIARESOURCES

Objectives

 Identifythefactorstoconsiderwhenselectingprintmediaresources:

 Giveadvantagesanddisadvantagesofusingprintmediainteaching

 Explaintheproblemsassociatedwithselectingtheprintedmaterials

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10.SELECTIONOFELECTRONICMEDIA

Objectives

 Identifytheguidelinesintheselectionprocess

 Explaintheproblemsassociatedwiththeselectionofelectronicmedia.

13.MANAGEMENTOFASCHOOLMULTI–MEDIACENTRE(MMC)

Objectives

 ExplainthepurposeofestablishingaMMC

 ExplainthevaluesofaschoolMMC(Advantages)

 Givethefunctionsoftheschoolmulti–mediacentre

 DescribethemanagementofaSMMC

11.FUTUREDEVELOPMENTSINEDUCATIONALTECHNOLOGY

Objectives

 Statetheunderlyingcausesoftheanticipateddevelopments

 IdentifytherequirementsforfuturedevelopmentsineducationalTechnology

 Explaintheimplicationsofthedevelopmentsineducationaltechnology

 Describemanagementoftheemergingdevelopmentsineducationaltechnology

andmedia

COURSELECTURER

CHRISTOPHERRONO.-0721895266

CIM211:EDUCATIONALMEDIAANDRESOURCES.

COMMUNICATIONPROCESS

Theconceptofcommunicationprocess

Communicationingeneralisprocessofsendingandreceivingmessagesthatenables

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humanstoshareknowledge,attitudes,andskills.Communicationprocessreferstothe

interactionbetweenandamongpeoplei.e.thewaypeoplerelatetoeachother.The

communicationprocessconsistsofamessagebeingsentandreceived.Themessage

maybeverbalandnonverbal.Intheclassroom,theteacherinteractswiththestudents

andthestudentsinteractamongstthemselvesandallinteractswiththeenvironment.

Theprocessofcommunicationisverycomplexinthesensethatitinvolvesalotof

operators,alotofdecisionsmakingetc.Assuchitrequiresalotofplanning.The

processinvolvesthefollowing:

i. Sender

ii. Message

iii. Channel

iv. Environment

v. Thereceiver

vi. Feedback

A.Sender

Thisisthecommunicatororthepersonsendingthemessage.He/shetheperson

encodingthemessage(encodingistheprocessofexpressingone’sideasinform of

words,symbols,etc.toconveyamessagei.e.content)

Therearetwofactorsthatdeterminehoweffectivethecommunicatorwillbe:

i. Thecommunicatorsattitude–thismustbepositive

ii. Thecommunicator’sselectionofmeaningfulsymbolsorselectingtheright

symbolsdependingontheaudienceandtherightenvironment.

B.Message

Thisiswhatisbeingtransmittedi.e.thecontent.Asmuchaspossiblethemessage

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shouldbeinterestingsuitableandrelevanttotheaudience.

C.Channel

Thisisthemedium usedindeliveringthemessagetotheaudience/class.Thechannel

willbespokenwordmedium,visuale.g.filmsandpictures,theaudioe.g.radio,real

things,modulesanddisplayswhichcanbetouched,smelledortasted.Itisalwaysgood

tochoosethechannelwhichthestudentsarefamiliarwithandatthesametime

appropriate.

D.Environment

Thisreferstotheatmospherethatsurroundsthesender&thereceiverofthemessage

sent.Examplesincludetheattitude,room size,room/wallcolor,temperatures,sitting

arrangementetc.theenvironmentalwaysaffectthewaymessageisreceived.

E.Thereceiver

Thisisalsocalleddecoderofthemessageordestinationofthemessage(decoding

involvestranslationoftheencodedmessagetoderivethemeaningfrom thereceived

messagei.e.theprocessofinterpretingthemessage).Forthereceiver/studenttoget

themessageappropriatelyhe/shemust:

 Beexpectingthemessage

 Bereadytobetaught

 Behavingapositiveattitudetowardsthesenderofthemessage

F.Feedback

Thismaytakeseveralformsandprovideessentialinformationaboutthesuccessinthe

communicationprocess.Itindicateswhetherornotthemessagehasbeenreceivedand

understood.Feedbackfrom thereceiveralsoindicatestothesourceonwhetherornot

he/shelikesthemessage.Thiscouldbegaugedthroughstudents’non-verbalbehaviors

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e.g.facialexpression,bodymovements.It’sthefeedbackthatallowsthecommunicator

toadjustthemessageandbemoreeffective.

Source SMS Channel Environment

Receiver

Feedback

Forcommunicationtobeeffective,onehastoensurethathe/shespeakswell,listens

wellandunderstandwhatothersaresayingandfinallybeingabletoobservetheverbal

andnon-verbalcluesinhis/heraudience.

Thefivestepsinthecommunicationprocess

Understandingthestepsofthecommunicationprocessisessentialtobecominga

bettercommunicator.Whiletherearedifferingopinionsastohowmanystepsthereare

inthecommunicationprocess,abasicfive-stepcommunicationprocessisthemost

usefulandeasiesttounderstand.

TheIdeaformation

o Theveryfirststepinthecreationprocessisthecreationofthemessage

orideathatyouwanttoconveytoyouraudience.Communicationcan

occuronanumberofdifferentlevelsandinavarietyofdifferentformats.

Therefore,itisnecessarytochoosehowtheideayouaregoingtoconvey

willneedtobecommunicatedandtowhom itwillbecommunicatedas

well.Theideaormessagemustbeappropriateforthetypeofaudience

andthesizeoftheaudience.

ConveyingtheMessage

o Oncetheideahasbeencreatedandtheaudiencehasbeenselected,then

themessagemustbeconveyed.Themessagecanbeconveyedina

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numberofdifferentways:verbally,inwrittenform orinanyotherway

deemedappropriate.Itisessentialtochoosethepropermedium through

whichtotransmitthemessage.Selectingtherightmedium canaffecthow

themessageisreceived.

MessageReception

o Oncethemessagehasbeentransmittedtothechosenrecipientandvia

thechosenmedium,therecipientthenreceivesthemessage.The

receptionofthemessageisimportantinthecommunicationprocess

becausetherecipientultimatelydeterminesifpartortheentiremessage

isreceived.Somepeoplehaveselectivehearingandmayonlyhearpartof

whatissaid.Othersmayhearorreadandremembereveryword.The

extenttowhichthemessageisreceivedplaysanimportantroleinthe

nextpartofthecommunicationprocess.

Interpretation/decoding

o Theinterpretationofthemessagefollowsitsreception.Oncethe

messageisreceived,therecipientthendetermineswhatitmeanstohim.

Ifhehasonlyheardpartofthemessageorhasalimitedcapacityfor

understandingthemessage,he/shemayinterpretitdifferentlythanitwas

intended.Evenifthemessageisheardinitsentirety,itcanbe

misconstrued.

ResponseandFeedback

o Therecipientoftheoriginalmessageinterpretstheinformationandthen

formulatesanappropriateresponsetotheoriginalmessage.The

responsedependslargelyupontheextenttowhichtheoriginalmessage

washeardorseenandwhetherornotitwasproperlyinterpreted.Thetype

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ofresponseultimatelydependsuponhowtherecipientinterpretsthe

originalinformationandthetypeofresponseorinformationthatthe

originalpersonrequests.Thisiswherefeedbackisalsoimportant.Ifthe

messageisnotheardorinterpretedcorrectly,itisnecessaryforthe

originalsenderofthemessagetoprovideadditionalfeedbacktothe

personreceivingthemessage.Thiscanonlybedoneoncetheoriginal

messagehasbeeninterpreted.Theoriginalsenderofthemessagemust

determinewhethertherecipientproperlyinterpretedthemessageand

provideadditionalfeedbacktoensureproperinterpretation.

TYPESOFCOMMUNICATIONPROCESS

Verbal,Non-verbalcommunicationandVisualcommunication

Verbalcommunication

Thiscanbedefinedastheprocessofsharinginformationwhichusesspokenlanguage.

Itisthetypeofcommunicationwhichwordsareusedtomakemeaning

Itiscommonlyusedbyteachersinclassroom.Forittobeeffectiveintheclassroom,

thefollowingaspectsneedtobeconsidered:

a)Useoremploymentofappropriatevoicevolumesuchthatitcanbeheardclearly

acrosstheroom.

b)Thevoiceshouldcarryanappropriatepitch.Thepitchofasoundhastodowith

howhighorlowthesoundis.Pitchcanbevariedwheretheteacherwantsto

emphasizeapoint.

c)Clarityofvoice–thishastodowithhowwordsarepronounced.

d)Theteachershouldspeakwhilefacingtheaudienceformostofthetime.He/she

shouldspeakclearlyandloudenoughwhilefacingthelearners.

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e)Thelanguageusedshouldbesimpleandsuitableforthegroupoflearnersas

hand.

UsesofVerbalCommunicationto:

Theteacher

i. Tomonitorandthecontrolinformationorsubjectmatterintheclassroom.

Thiscanbedonebyaskingquestionsonwhathasbeentaught.

ii. ThroughVerbalCommunicationtheteacherisabletodefineandexplain

therelevance,theimportance,thedepth&thewholeessenceofhis/her

subject.

Thestudent

i. Itisthelearners’toolorchannelforlearning.Itenableshim toacquire

knowledge,developconceptsandmakeconceptsofhisenvironment.

ii. Itenablesthelearnertolistenpositively,understandtheteacherandto

learnbyverbalizinge.g.talking,discussing,arguing,askingquestions.

iii. VerbalCommunicationlinkstheteachertothelearnertherebyallowing

facetofacecommunicationwhichhelpstoeradicatemisunderstanding

andwhichalsohelptodealwithissuesimmediately.

iv. VerbalCommunicationservesaslearners’meansofexpressinghis

experiencesandfeelings.Throughverbalcommunicationhe/shecan

articulateresponsesonwhathe/sheknowsanddoesn’tknow,what

he/shelikesordislikesetc.

v. Soundverbalarticulationleadstosoundintellectualdevelopment.

Problemsassociatedwiththeusesofverbalcommunication

i. Thereisatendencyforteacherstousecomplexlanguagewhichmaybe

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beyondthelearner’sexperiences

ii. Inmostcasesretentionofinformationisverylow.

iii. Aflattoneismostlikelytoleadtoboredom

iv. Contentofthemessagemaynotbeinterestingmakingthelearnershavelittle

interestinpayingattentiontoit.Thismightaffectthelearner’sattitude

towardsit.

v. Influenceofethnicityonpronunciation

Expectationsoftheteachertodotoimproveverbalcommunication

 Everyteachershouldpayspecialattentiontohis/herstudents.Verbal

communicationinhis/hersubject.Theteacherhastheresponsibilityof

developingthevocabularyofthelearner’s.Themoreconceptsachildknowsina

particularsubjectthemoredevelopedintellectuallyhe/shebecomes.

 Theteachershouldmakesurethathisownlanguagecommunicatestothe

learner.Assuchhe/sheshouldavoid:

 Usingtechnicalterminologiestofrighten/impressstudents

 Difficultlanguageandgiveexamplesthatarewithinthelearner’s

experience

 Languagemixingasthisconfusesthelearner’s

 GivestudentsopportunitiesinyoursubjectwheretheycanpracticeVerbal

Communicatione.g.opportunitytoargueourpointsverbally

 Makeeyecontact.Itissoimportant.Butifyouarefacingacrowdyoushouldnot

lookatoneformorethan5seconds.

 Speakwithconfidence.Confidenceisaself-assurancearisingfrom an

appreciationofone’strueabilities.Speakingwithconfidenceincludesthewords

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youchoose,thetoneofyourvoice,youreyecontact,andbodylanguage.

 Focusonyourbodylanguage.Whenyouareengagedinface-to-faceverbal

communication,yourbodylanguagecanplayassignificantofaroleinthe

messageyoucommunicateasthewordsyouspeak.

 Beconcise.Thishastodowithusingfewwordstocommunicateclearlywhile

stillbeingcourteousandrespectful.

Theteachershouldalsopayattentiontotheattentiontothefollowingareasthat

causedifficultyinclass.

a.Audibility

Thisistheconditionofbeingheardanditincludespunctuationandvoicespeech.

b.Clarity

Maketheconceptsveryclearforstudentstoget.

c.Pronunciationandspelling

Pronunciationisaseriousproblem facingnonnativespeakersoflanguage.The

teacherisexpectedtobeawareofthegeographicaldifferenceswhichbringabout

pronunciationproblemsandassiststudents.Spellingerrorsshouldalwaysbe

corrected.

Non-verbalcommunication

Nonverbalcommunicationmayaccountforover90percentoftheinformation

transmittedtothereceiverofaninterpersonalmessage.

Non-verbalcommunicationistheprocessofcommunicationorstudyinwhichpeople

concernedusebodyposture,facialexpression,eyecontact,andothergesturestosend

andreceivemessage.Italsoincludeexternalstimulisuchasbodymotion,

characteristicsofappearancesuchasclothing(Althoughmostpeopleareonly

superficiallyawareofthewearofothers,clothingdoescommunicate.Oftendictatedby

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societalnorms,clothingindicatesagreatamountofinformationaboutself.

Itidentifiessex,age,socioeconomicclass,status,role,groupmembership,personality

ormood,physicalclimate,andtimeinhistory.

Clothingalsoaffectsself-confidence.Inoneearlyinvestigation(Hurlock,1929)allof

themenstudiedbelievedthattheirestimateofapersonwasaffectedbyhisclothing,

and97%ofallsubjectsreportedfeelingsofincreasedself-confidencewhentheywere

welldressed.

Inordertoestablishcredibility,theteachershouldstrivetoappearcomfortableandat

easeintherole,thusremovingsomeofthetypicalteacher/studentbarriers.Although

outwardappearancedoesnot,ofcourse,indicateaperson’sknowledge,values,or

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philosophy,dresscancommunicate;but,inmostcases,itisonlyaoutwardshow.),

bodyperfume,make-up,ornament(suchasnecklaces,earrings),hairstyles,

characteristicsofvoiceandtheuseofspace.Itdoesnotinvolvetheuseofspoken

word,useofeyecontact,gesturesandfacialexpressionsaresomeofthecommonly

usednon-verbalcommunicationmodesinaclassroom.Theycanbeusedfor

reinforcementorasashowofdisapproval.Commonly,nonverbalcommunicationis

learnedshortlyafterbirthandpracticedandrefinedthroughoutaperson’slifetime.

Childrenfirstlearnnonverbalexpressionsbywatchingandimitating,muchastheylearn

verbalskills.Humansusenonverbalcommunicationbecause:

1.Wordshavelimitations:Therearenumerousareaswherenonverbal

communicationismoreeffectivethanverbal(whenexplainingtheshape,

directions,personalitiesareexpressednonverbally)

2.Nonverbalsignalarepowerful:Nonverbalcuesprimaryexpressinnerfeelings

(verbalmessagesdealbasicallywithoutsideworld).

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3.Nonverbalmessagearelikelytobemoregenuine:becausenonverbalbehaviors

cannotbecontrolledaseasilyasspokenwords.

4.Nonverbalsignalscanexpressfeelingsinappropriatetostate:Socialetiquette

limitswhatcanbesaid,butnonverbalcuescancommunicatethoughts.

5.Aseparatecommunicationchannelisnecessarytohelpsendcomplex

messages:Aspeakercanaddenormouslytothecomplexityoftheverbal

messagethroughsimplenonverbalsignals.

 Thecolourofwhatwewearalsocommunicatesalotofinformationof:

White–peace

Black–mourning

Red–danger

ToAfricansthesecoloursmaynotmakealotofsense.Howeverthewaywedress

sendsimportantmessagetothelearnersthatweteach.

SourcesofNon-verbalCommunication

Therearetwomajorsourcesofnon-verbalcommunication:

i. Inherited

ii. Environment

Inheritedsources

Thisreferstothenon-verbalsignswhichwearebornwithashumansandthey

includesuchactivitiesasblinkingoftheeyeswheneyessensedanger,tighteningof

musclesorsweatingofhandsorraisingofhairwhenthereisafeelingofinsecurity

etc.Inheritedsourcesaredifficulttocontrol.

Environmentsources

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Thesereferstoalltheexperiencethatareacquiredorthatarecommontoagiven

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culture,socialclassorfamily.Theteachershouldnotethateveryculturehasitsown

non-verbalsigns.Foreverycommunitytheteacherhastounderstandthenormsof

thedifferentsocieties.Itisgoodtotakecautionabouttheculturaldifferencesinnonverbalcues.

Theyareculturallycontrolledandhaveameaning.Avoidsignalsthatcan

bemisinterpretedbythestudentsthuscausedoubtonyourintegrityandseriousness.

RelationshipbetweenVerbalandNon-verbalCommunication

Therearevariousdimensions:

1)Substitutionalrelationship

 Thisiswheretherecipientofaverbalmessagerespondswithanon-verbal

answer.Forexample,ateachermayaskastudentaquestionandinsteadof

givinganoral/verbalanswerhe/shenodes;incase,thestudenthassubstituted

anon-verbalforaverbalcommunication

2)Complimentingrelationship

Thisiswherenon-verbalbehaviorsmodifies/elaboratesorreinforcestheverbal

message.Forexamplewhenastudentissayingnoandalsoshakeshis/herhead

from righttoleft.Theshakingoftheheadreinforcesorcomplimentsthenegative

verbalization.Insomecases,reinforcementcomeslaterandthereforerepeatswhat

issaidverbally.Thisisakindofrelationshipthatmostteachersuseinclass.

3)Theconflicting/contradictingrelationship

Sometimesonesphysicalmovementcanconflictwiththeverbalmessagee.g.a

studentmayaskateacheraquestionalsoattheendofthelesson.Theteacher

mayanswerpositivelybutatthesametimelookingathis/herwatch.Thereisa

conflictbetweenapositiveanswerandlookingatthewatch.Whenthereisa

conflict,peopletendtobelievemoreonnon-verbalmessage.Thereasonsbeing

thattheeyesperceivefasterthantheears.Inmostcases,theconflictmay

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producedisappointment.

4)Accentingrelationship

Itismorerelatedtocomplimentingbutitreferstosituationswherenon-verbal

behavior/activitiesareusedtostressverbalmessagesjustasunderlinedor

italicizedwordsareusedtoemphasizecertainareas.Itnormallyrefersto

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movementsandactionsoftheheadandthehand.Forinsurance,ateachermight

wanttoquestionastudentwhoisnotattentive.Hemightdothisverballyandthen

pushesthestudentforemphasizes.

5)Regulatingrelationship

Verbalinteractionsareco-ordinatethroughregulationsandsuchregulationsare

accomplishedprimarilybynon-verbalmessages.Theregulatorsincludegestures

andmovementswhichmaintainandmaintainthebackandforthinteractions

betweenspeakersandthelistenersduringthecourseofspokendialogue.Turntakingistheprimaryfunctionofre
gulators’andhelpthespeakerandlistenerto

exchangeroleduringaconversation.

FormsofNon-verbalCommunication

Therearevariouswaysofnon-verbalcommunicationthroughwhichmessagesare

eithersentorreceived.Theyinclude;

a)Proxemics

b)Kinesics

c)Eyecontact

d)Haptics

e)Chronemics

f) Paralanguage

a)Proxemics

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Originallyfrom French,InEnglishitisaderivationfrom proximitywhichisthestudy

andprocessofhowpeopleuseandperceivesocialandpersonaldistanceto

communicate.Itcanalsobedefinedasthestudyofspacewhichpeopleset

betweenthemselvesandothersinsocialandculturalsettings;itisthestudyand

processofusingdistanceandspacetosendmessages.Everyhumanbeing

behavesasifthereareboundarylinesbetweenhim/herandothers,andbehavesas

ifhe/sheissurroundedbyaspacewhichbelongstohim andwhichcanexpandor

contractdependingontheindividual’sspacerequirements,motionandactivitiesin

whichtheindividualengagesin.

Whatmessagedoesproxemicstransfer?

 Proximiclanguagetransmitsmessagesindicatingstagesofintimacy.It

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thereforetransmitsoneveryimportantmessagei.e.intimacyorlackof

information

 Proxemiccodesintheclassroom transmitmessagesofdisciplineandpower

e.g.thearrangementofdesksinaclassroomsisanexampleofproxemic

code.Thisarrangementistheschoolsmessageoftypicalrelationshipina

classroom situation.Thissittingarrangementisexpectedtocontrolthelevel

ofintimacy-thestudentsshouldfacetheteacherandnoteachother.

 Otherproxemicmanagesindicatingindividuallineofpowerincludesthe

headmaster’soffice,whichishiddenfrom others.Otherarrangementsinclude

genderarrangementsfordorms/hostelsandtoilets,differentworkingareas

forboysandgirlsinthefamily,otherconcernconversationwithstrangersand

shakingofhands.Normallywhenpeopletalktostrangers,theyusedistance

toshowunfamiliarity.Ithashappenbetweensuperiorsandjuniors.

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Hall(1959)cameupwithfourdistancesnamely;

a.Intimatedistance(0–18inches)

b.Personaldistance(18inches–4feet)

c.Socialdistance(4feet–12feet)

d.Publicdistance(12feet–withnolimit)

Intimatedistance

AccordingtoHall,thisisthedistancethatisreservedforfamilymembersandthe

lovedonesinprivate.Itrangesfrom 0–18inchesi.e.touchingto18inches.This

include;caressing,kissingandimpressing.Itisthekindofdistancenotusedby

manyculturesinpublicandisnotrecommendedinclassroom situationbecauseit

candisruptlearningcausingembarrassmentandanger..Atthisdistancethe

physicalpresenceofanotherisoverwhelming.Teacherswhoviolatestudents’

intimatespacearelikelytobeperceivedasintruders.

Personaldistance

Thisrangesfrom 18inches–4feet.Itisusedandkeptbyclosefriendsorcolleques

whohaveacommonintereste.g.workintheclassroom,thisisthekindthatisused

indeskarrangement.Thisisthedistanceofinteractionofgoodfriends.Thiswould

alsoseem tobemostappropriatedistanceforteacherandstudenttodiscuss

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personalaffairssuchasgrades,conduct,privateproblems,etc.

Howcloselytheysitorstandmaydependontheirownpersonalspace

requirements,howmuchtheylikeeachotherandinwhateveractivitytheyare

engagedin.However,theyarenotsupposedtobetoocloseSocialdistance

Thisdistanceindicatesclassrelationshiporlevelsofhumanstanding.Itisthekind

thatiskeptbetweenstudentsandtheteacher.Anotherexampleisthehightable

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philosophy.

Publicdistance

Thiskindofdistancecannotbeusedintheclassroom.Itisnormallyusedby

importantpeopletoestablishpublicbarriersbetweenthem andtheiraudiencese.g.

whenaheadteacherisaddressingthewholeschool,whenapoliticianis

addressingarallyetc.publicdistancesisused–securitypurposes.

b)Kinesics

Kinesicscomesfrom thewordkinematicswhichreferstobodiesinmotion.Itisan

areaofnon-verbalcommunicationwhichcanbedefinedasthestudyofbody

movement,posture,facialandeyebehavior.Kinesicsincludesthestudyof

gestureswhicharenon-verbalbehaviorsthatinvolvesthemovementofhandsand

thebodytosendandreceivemessages.

Inteaching,theuseofgestureshasbeenassociatedwiththeteacher

effectiveness.Birdwhistellcameupwithfivecategoriesofgestures;

i. Emblems

Thesearesignalswhichmaybedirectlytranslatedintoawordorwordswithina

particularculture.

Theyaregesturesornon-verbalactsofthehandandtherestofthebodywhich

haveadirectverbaltranslation.Inmostcasesintheclassrooms,theyareusedto

representknownacts.Examplesinclude;

 Thumbsupsigntomeaneverythingisokay

NOTE: Donotusesymbolsthatareoffensive

Donotusesymbolsthatstudentsdonotunderstand

ii. Illustrators

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Thesearegestureswhicharelinkedtospeechandcanbeusedtoemphasizea

wordorphrase,indicaterelationship,drawapictureintheair,paceaneventand

imposearhythm onspokenword.Itisthemostcommoncategoryusedby

teachersintheclassroom withthehandbeingthemostcreatorofthemovement.

iii. Regulators

Theseareturn-takingsignalswhichalsohaveanimportantroletoplayinstarting

orendinganexchange/communication.Otherwordsareusedtoregulatetheback

andforthnatureofspeakingandlisteningbetweentwogroupsofcommunicators.

Examplesinclude:

 Thesignalswhichcanbeusedtospeedaspeakeruporslowhim/herdown

 Headnodsandtheuseofgazewhererapidnodsconveythemessageto

hurryupandfinishspeakingwhileslower,moredeliberatenodsrequestthe

speakertocontinueandindicatesthatthelistenerfindswhatisbeingsent

interesting

 Bodyshiftthatareusedtoshowapprovalordisapproval

iv. Affectdisplays

Thisreferstotheuseoffacialexpressionwhichrevealstheemotionalstrength,

attachmentandfeelingsinacommunicationsituation.Affectdisplaysareusedto

revealtheattitudeofthespeakerstohismessageandtohisaudience.

Intheclassroom,theycanbeusedtoshowapprovalordisapprovalofstudents

behaviore.g.disgust,feelingsofunhappiness,sadness,frowning,blinking,smiling,

wrinklingofnoseandloweringandraisingofeyebrows.

Theyalsoincludemouthmovementsofmovementsofthelipstoshowhappiness,

disgustorsadness.

v. Adaptors

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Thesearerestlessmovementsofthehands,feet,tongue,kickingmotionsofones

legsandfingerstapings,clicking,droppingofobjects,checkingofthewatch,

lookingoutsidethroughthewindow,constantlygivingoneanswerandeven

yawning.Thesemovementsnormallyaccompanyboredom orshowdisapproval

otherthanrevealingtheinternalfeelingsofanindividual.Theyalsohelpregulatea

communicationprocess.Theyareusedtomanageourfeelingsorcontrolour

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responses.Theyoccurinstressfulsituationsandreflectmorechildishcoping

methods.

N/Bthesefivearenottheonlytypesofgestures.Allmovementsofthebodythat

revealanattitudeareclassifiedasgestures.

c)Eyecontact

AccordingtoBirdwhistell,thefaceandespeciallytheeyeiscapableof¼ofamillion

differentexpressionsanditisnormallyresponsibleformostofthemeaningsofnon

-verbalmessages.Theeyeisveryeffectiveincommunicatingandsometimes

intimidating.Thereforeteachersshouldlearntouseeyegasesandfacial

expressionsappropriatelyinclass.

Eyecontactcanbeusedintheclassroom todothefollowing:

i) Tocontroltheflowofinformation.Achangeineyebehaviormayrequire

eitheracommunicationtostoporcontinue.Atthesametimeitcanbeused

byateachertopickoutstudenttoanswerquestions.Itcanalsobeusedby

thestudentstoindicateboredom byavoidingtolookattheteacherand

instead,lookingoutsidethroughthewindow.

ii) Eyecontactcanalsobeusedtoshowinterestandattentivenessina

communicationsituation.Lackofeyecontactcanbeinterpretedas

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disinterestordisrespect.

iii) Prolongedeyecontactcanbeusedtorebukestudents’wrongdoers.Be

carefulaboutprolongedeyecontactintheclassroom becauseitcan

embarrassorintimidateastudent.

iv) Eyecontactcanbeusedtoholdtheattentionofstudent’sintheclassroom

andencouragethem tolisten

d)Haptics/Tactilecommunication

Thisisthestudyandtheprocessoftouchingbehaviorandhowitisusedtosend

andreceivemessages.Touchingfulfilstheneedforclosenessbuthastobeused

verycarefullyintheclassroom becauseittransmitsthemostpotent(live)message.

Responsestotoucharedependentonfactorslikeourculturalexperiences,our

perceivedrelationshipwiththeotherpersonandthestateofthesenderandthe

receiverimmediatelypriortotheexperiences.

18

e)Chronemics

ThisisthestudyoftheuseoftimeNVC.Thewayweperceivetime,structureour

timeandreacttothetimeisapowerfulcommunicationtoolandhelpssetthestage

forcommunication.Theperceptionincludespunctualityandwillingnesstowait,the

speedofspeechandlongaudiencearewillingtolisten.

f) Paralanguage

Sometimescalledvocalicsinthestudyofnon-verbalcuesofthevoice.Various

acousticpropertiesofspeechsuchastone,pitchandaccentcollectivelyknownas

prosody,canallgiveoffnon-verbalcues.Paralanguagemaychangethemeaningof

words.

ValueofNon-verbalCommunicationinclassroom

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I. Assiststudentsinacquiringinterpretativeskillswhichcouldbeusefullaterin

life.

II. Ittendstodevelopcriticalthinkinginthestudents

III. Itisanimportantmeansofexpressingorcommunicatingemotion.Thisis

usefulforboththeteacherandthelearnerduringinteraction.

IV. Attitudesaboutoneselfareoftenexpressedthroughbehavior.Positive

attitudeisimportantifcommunicationhastobeeffectiveinclassroom.

V. NVCcanprovideinformationaboutthequalityofanongoingcommunication

relationshipinclassandisoftentheprimarymeansofsignalingchangesin

theinteractionbetweentheteacherandhis/herstudents.

Problemsassociatedwiththeuseofnon-verbalcommunication

Whataretheproblemsassociatedwiththeuseofnon-verbalcommunication?

ImprovingNon-verbalCommunication

i. Keepyourmessagesconsistent;matchyourverbal,vocalandnon-verbal

messages

ii.Decodeverbalmessagesmoreaccurately:watchfornon-verbalcluesthat

accompanythemessage

iii. Besensitivetothenon-verbalmessagesofothers:rememberthatpeopledon’t

alwayssaywhattheyarethinking

iv. EyeContact

19

Establisheyecontactwhenspeakingtoothers.Whenyoumakedirecteye

contact,itshowstheotherpartythatyou’reinterestedinwhatheissaying.Ifyou

mustgiveapresentationatwork,establisheyecontactwiththeaudience.Ittells

them thatyouareconfidentinwhatyouarepresenting.Makingdirecteyecontact

23
providesotherswiththecomfortneededtocommunicatewithyouinreturn.

v. Space

Payattentiontoyourproximitytoothers.Differentculturesviewproximityin

variousways,sotakenoticeifthepersonyou’recommunicatingwithis

uncomfortable.Thiscouldmeanthatyouarestandingtooclose,andshouldcreate

somedistancebetweenthetwoofyou.

vi. TonesandSounds

Yourtoneofvoiceandthesoundsyoumakecancommunicateyourthoughts

tootherswithoutyourevenspeaking.Yourtoneorsoundscaninform peopleof

youranger,frustrationorsarcasm.Avoidsighingrepetitivelyorspeakinginahighpitchedvoiceunlessitisnecessa
ry.

Speaksoftlyandcalmly.

III. VISUALCOMMUNICATIONANDLEARNING

Visualcommunicationiscommunicationthroughvisualaids.Itisdescribedasthe

conveyanceofideasandinformationinformsthatcanbereadorseen.Visual

communicationinpartorwholereliesonvision.Italsoexplorestheideathata

visualmessageaccompanyingtexthasagreaterpowertoinform,educate,or

persuadeapersonoraudience.Examplesofvisualsinclude-illustrations,pictures,

maps,drawings,diagramsstillandmotionpicturesetc.Itinvolvestheuseofthe

senseofsightandcontributesalottothelearningofastudent.84–85%ofwhatis

learntiscaughtthroughvision.

Factorstoconsiderwhenusingvisualcommunication

a)Locationofwhattobeobserved:whatistobeobservedshouldbeplaced

whereeveryonecaneasilysee.

b) Clarity:thevisualshouldbeclearenough

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c)Culture:culturalfactorsmustbeconsideredbeforeusingthevisual.Some

things/visualshavealotofculturalmeans.Itisgoodtouseculturefriendly

visuals.

d)Relevance:thevisualshownofrelevancetothelearnersneeds&interests

e)Suitability:thevisualmustbesuitabletotheclasslevelofthelearner(s).

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Relevanceofvisualcommunicationtolearning:

a)AccordingtoConfucius(Chinesephilosopher)whenyouseesomething,you

remember;whenyouhear,youtendtoforget;whenyoudosomething,you

understand.Assuch,ittendstomakestudentsrememberwhattheyhave

beentaughtbecauseofthepictorialrepresentation.Ittendstoenable

studentsretainwhattheyhavebeentaught.

b)Ittendstoprovidemorelearningexperiencesi.e.onecanseeactors,read,

participateinwhatishappeningmentally.Theselearningexperiencescould

eitherbephysical,socialormentalinvolvement.

c)Alargeproportionoflearnersarevisual.¾ofteachinginKenyacallsforthe

presenceoftheteacher,displays,useoftextbooksmaterials.Allthese

involvethingsthatcanbeobserved.

d)Ittendstoprovidestimulusvariationi.e.shiftingchildren’ssense.Assuch,it

enrichesthechild’slearningprocesshencecreatinginthechildmotivationto

learn.

e)Itisveryusefulintheinternationalizationofideas,factsandconceptsi.e.it

iseasytoassimilatewhathasbeenseen.

TypesofVisualmaterialsusedinordertoimprovetheinstructionalprocess

Objects/realia

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 Theuseofobjectsasvisualaidsinvolvesbringingtheactualobjectto

demonstrateonduringthespeech.Forexample,aspeechabouttyingknots

wouldbemoreeffectivebybringinginarope.

 Adv:theuseoftheactualobjectisoftennecessarywhendemonstratinghowto

dosomethingsothattheaudiencecanfullyunderstandprocedure.

 Cons:someobjectsaretoolargeorunavailableforaspeakertobringwiththem.

Models

 Modelsarerepresentationsofanotherobjectthatservetodemonstratethat

objectwhenuseoftherealobjectisineffectiveforsomereason.Examples

includehumanskeletalsystems,thesolarsystem,orarchitecture.

 Adv:modelscanserveassubstitutesthatprovideabetterexampleofthereal

thingtotheaudiencewhentheobjectbeingspokenaboutisofanawkwardsize

orcomposureforuseinthedemonstration.

 Cons:sometimesamodelmaytakeawayfrom therealityofwhatisbeing

spokenabout.Forexample,thevastsizeofthesolarsystem cannotbeseen

from amodel,andtheactualcomposureofahumanbodycannotbeseenfrom a

dummy.

21

Graphs

 Graphsareusedtovisualizerelationshipsbetweendifferentquantities.Various

typesareusedasvisualaids,includingbargraphs,linegraphs,piegraphs,and

scatterplots.

 Adv:graphshelptheaudiencetovisualizestatisticssothattheymakeagreater

impactthanjustlistingthem verballywould.

 Cons:graphscaneasilybecomeclutteredduringuseinaspeechbyincludingtoo

26
muchdetail,overwhelmingtheaudienceandmakingthegraphineffective.

Maps

 Mapsshowgeographicareasthatareofinteresttothespeech.Theyoftenare

usedasaidswhenspeakingofdifferencesbetweengeographicalareasor

showingthelocationofsomething.

 Adv:whenmapsaresimpleandclear,theycanbeusedtoeffectivelymake

pointsaboutcertainareas.Forexample,amapshowingthebuildingsitefora

newschoolcouldshowitscloselocationtokeyneighborhoods,oramapcould

showthedifferencesindistributionofAIDSvictimsinaregion.

 Cons:inclusionoftoomuchdetailonamapcancausetheaudiencetolose

focusonthekeypointbeingmade.Also,ifthemapisdisproportionalor

unrealistic,itmayproveineffectiveforthepointbeingmade.

Tables

 Tablesarecolumnsandrowsthatorganizewords,symbols,and/ordata.

 Adv:Goodtablesareeasytounderstand.Theyareagoodwaytocomparefacts

andtogainabetteroverallunderstandingofthetopicbeingdiscussed.For

example,atableisagoodchoicetousewhencomparingtheamountofrainfall

in3countieseachmonth.

 Cons:-Tablesarenotveryinterestingorpleasingtotheeye.Theycanbe

overwhelmingiftoomuchinformationisinasmallspaceortheinformationis

notorganizedinaconvenientway.

-Atableisnotagoodchoicetouseifthepersonviewingithastotakealotof

timetobeabletounderstandit.

-Tablescanbevisualdistractionsifitishardtoreadbecausethefontistoo

smallorthewritingistooclosetogether.

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-Itcanalsobeavisualdistractionifthetableisnotdrawnevenly.

Photographs

 Adv:Photographsaregoodtoolstomakeoremphasizeapointortoexplaina

topic.Forexample,whenexplainingtheshanty-townsinathirdwordcountryit

wouldbebeneficialtoshowapictureofonesothereadercanhaveabetter

understandingofhowthosepeoplelive.Aphotographisalsogoodtousewhen

theactualobjectcannotbeviewed.Forexample,inahealthclasslearningabout

cocaine,theteachercannotbringincocainetoshowtheclassbecausethat

wouldbeillegal,buttheteachercouldshowapictureofcocainetotheclass.

Usinglocalphotoscanalsohelpemphasizehowyourtopicisimportantinthe

audience'sarea.

 :theyarequiteusefulinholdingtheinterestofthestudents.

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 Cons:Ifthephotographistoosmallitjustbecomesadistraction.Enlarging

photographscanbeexpensiveifnotusingapowerpointorotherviewingdevice.

Drawings/Diagrams

 Adv:Drawingsordiagramscanbeusedwhenphotographsdonotshowexactly

whatthespeakerwantstoshoworexplain.Itcouldalsobeusedwhena

photographistoodetailed.Forexample,adrawingordiagram ofthecirculatory

system throughoutthebodyisalotmoreeffectivethanapictureshowingthe

circulatorysystem.

 Cons:Ifnotdrawncorrectlyadrawingcanlooksloppyandbeineffective.This

typeofdrawingwillappearunprofessional.

OtherVisualMedia:SimpletoAdvanced

 ChalkboardorWhiteboard

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Chalkboardsandwhiteboardsareveryusefulvisualaids,particularlywhenmore

advancedtypesofmediaareunavailable.Theyarecheapandalsoallowformuch

flexibility.Theuseofchalkboardsorwhiteboardsisconvenient,buttheyarenota

perfectvisualaid.

 Handouts

Handoutscanalsodisplaygraphs,pictures,orillustrations.Animportantaspectofthe

useofahandoutisthatapersoncankeepahandoutwiththem longafterthe

presentationisover.Thiscanhelpthepersonbetterrememberwhatwasdiscussed.

Passingouthandouts,however,canbeextremelydistracting.Onceahandoutisgiven

out,itmightpotentiallybedifficulttobringbackyouraudience’sattention.Theperson

whoreceivesthehandoutmightbetemptedtoreadwhatisonthepaper,whichwill

keepthem from listeningtowhatthespeakerissaying.

VideoExcerpts

Avideocanbeagreatvisualaidandattentiongrabber,however,avideoisnota

replacementforanactualspeech.Thereareseveralpotentialdrawbackstoplayinga

videoduringaspeechorlecture.First,ifavideoisplayingthatincludesaudio,the

speakerwillnotbeabletotalk.Also,ifthevideoisveryexcitingandinteresting,itcan

makewhatthespeakerissayingappearboringanduninteresting.Thekeytoshowinga

videoduringapresentationistomakesuretotransitionsmoothlyintothevideoandto

onlyshowveryshortclips.

 ProjectionEquipment

Thereareseveraltypesofprojectors.Theseincludeslideprojectors,PowerPoint

presentations,overheadprojectors,andcomputerprojectors.Slideprojectorsarethe

oldestform ofprojector,.PowerPointpresentationsareverypopularandareusedoften.

Overheadprojectorsarestillusedbutaresomewhatinconvenienttouse.Inordertouse

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anoverheadprojector,atransparencymustbemadeofwhateverisbeingprojected

ontothescreen.Thistakestimeandcostsmoney.Computerprojectorsarethemost

technologicallyadvancedprojectors.Whenusingacomputerprojector,picturesand

slidesareeasilytakenrightfrom acomputereitheronlineorfrom asavedfileandare

blownupandshownonalargescreen.Thoughcomputerprojectorsaretechnologically

advanced,theyarenotalwayscompletelyreliablebecausetechnologicalbreakdowns

arecommonofthecomputersoftoday.

 Computer-AssistedPresentations

PowerPointpresentationscanbeanextremelyusefulvisualaid,especiallyforlonger

23

presentations.Forlongerpresentations,PowerPointscanbeagreatwaytokeepthe

audienceengagedandkeepthespeakerontrack.Apotentialdrawbackofusinga

PowerPointisthatitusuallytakesalotoftimeandenergytoputtogether.Thereisalso

thepossibilityofacomputermalfunction,whichcanmessuptheflowofapresentation.

AdvantagesofVisualCommunicationintheclassroom

 Itdeliversthedesirablemessage/informationcandidly

 Itinfluencesthechild’slearningpositivelyhenceeventuallyinfluencingtheir

attitudes,behaviorsetc.

 Thereisahighretentionrateofwhathasbeenlearnt

 Motivatesthelearnertoparticipateinthelearningprocess

 Itreducesabstractnessinlearninghenceconcretizinglearning–e.g.theuseof

visuals

 Assistincreatingandsustainingavarietyofclassroom interactions.Learners

areabletointeractwithavarietyofvisualmaterials.

INTRODUCTIONTOTHERANGEOFMEDIARESOURCESFORTEACHING

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Alargevarietyofmediaresourcesareavailabletousasteachers.Learningasa

processhasalargevarietyofexperienceswhichinclude;

 Directlearningexperiences

 Vicarious/derivedlearningexperience

 Symboliclearningexperience

(a)Directlearningexperiences

Learnersneedtobeexposedtodirectlearningexperiences.Whenexposedto

directlearningexperience,theyhaveadirectsensorycontactwithactualobjectsin

theirlearningenvironment.Studentsherebecomeactiveparticipantsintheprocessof

learninginthatstudentsmayacquireinformationthroughgoingforfieldtrips,usingreal

objects,doingdramaticpresentation,simulatingtherealexperience,participatingina

discussion,doingtherealthinge.t.c

Studiesshowthatdirectlearningexperiencesprovidemeaningfullearningandassistin

assimilationofwhatisbeinglearnt.Learninghereis“active”

(b)Vicarious/derivedlearningexperiences

Duetothedifficultyofusingdirectexperiencesinaclassroom situation,realitycanbe

re-arrangedandbroughtintotheclassroom e.g.throughtheuseofmodels,videos,

films,taperecordings,pictures,photographs,slidese.t.c.Thisareamajorlyinvolves

24

observationi.e.sittingandwatchingfrom thesides.Italsoinvolvescriticalobservation

whereoneanalyseswhatisbeingpresentedtohim/her.Thiscanonlybepossible

whenthepersonpresentinghassomeguidestoonewatchingthepresentation.

Learningherecanbesaidtobe‘passive’.

(c)Symboliclearningexperiences.

Thesearelearningexperienceswhichinvolvetheuseofsymbolse.g.languagei.e.it

31
dependsverymuchonverbalism.Aspeechgivenbyapersonfallsunderthiscategory.

Otherexamplesincludereadingandhearingwords.Symbolism ishighlyabstractwhile

directlearningexperienceisconcrete.

EdgarDale(1946)cameupwiththeconeoflearningwhichappearsbelow;

Reading

Hearingwords

Watchingamovie

Watchingamovie

Lookingatanexhibit

Watchingademonstration

Seeingitdoneonalocation

Participatinginadiscussion

Givingatalk

Doingadramaticpresentation

Simulatingarealexperience

Doingtherealthing

Verbalreceiving=SYMBOLIC

EXPERIENCES

Visualreceiving=VICARIOUS

EXPERIENCES

Receiving/participating/doing=DI

RECT

LEARNINGEXPERIENCES

25

Valuesofmedia

32
 Theypromotemeaningthecommunication

 Theyensurebetterretentionofwhathasbeenlearnt

 Someprovidedirect-firsthandexperienceswhichisnecessaryforretentionofwhat

hasbeenlearnt

 Overcomesthelimitationoftheclassroom bymakingtheinaccessibleaccessible.

 Theymakelearningstudent–centered–theyshifttheburdenof

instructions/learningfrom theteachertothelearnersinceitisnowthedutyofthe

learnertoobserve,act,smell,touchetcwhatisgiven.

 Theytendtomakelearningenjoyableandinteresting.Thisisbecausethestudentis

exposedtovarietyoflearningexperienceshenceincreasingstudent’s

participation/involvementinthelesson.

Factorstoconsiderwhenselectingandusingmedia

 Aparticularform ofmediaisappropriateforagivenlocalitydependingonthe

activitiesthatarepursued.Anymedium drawnfrom therangeofmodulementioned

belowcouldbewellusedforteachingandlearningoftheclassroom teacherselect

itwiselyforhisparticularlesson

 Themedium oneusesforhisdailyteachingactivitiesshouldbeonewhichhe/she

hasamaximum amountofcontrol.

Itisgoodtonotethatnoonemedium isbestforallpurposes

Thefollowingarethefactorstoconsiderinselectingandusingmedia

a)Objectivesofthecourseshouldguideoneinchoosinganinstructionalmedia.

b)Goodknowledgeofthecharacteristicsofthemedia.

c)Themedium chosenmustbewithinthestudentslearningcapabilities.

d)Avoidbiasorpersonalpreferences.

e)Considerthephysicalenvironmentinwhichthemediawillbepresentedi.e.the

33
sizeoftheclassroom,lighting,sittingarrangementetc.

(a) Objectivesofthecourse

Whenchoosingarangeofmediaforyourteachingpurpose,besurethatyouare

consistentwithyourobjectives.Statingyourobjectivesexplicitlywillenableyoutouse

ateachingmediawiselyandproductively.

(b) Knowledgeofthecharacteristicsofthemedia.

Itisimportantthatyouknowthoroughlyhowtouseeachmedium,whatdifficulties

yourstudentsmightencounterandtheconditionsunderwhichyouareabletoobtain

accesstothemediaaswellasthesituationsinwhichyouaregoingtousethem.

-Examinethesuitabilityofthemediaforteachinginthegroup(smallorlarge)aswell

asitsappealtoindividualstudents.

©Medium ofstudentslearningcapabilities

-Youneedtobeawareoftheexperiences,needs,capabilitiesandlearningstylesof

thestudentssincetheygreatlyinfluencetheuseofmedia.Forexample,students

whoenjoyreadingtextbooksarelikelytobenefitfrom vaserlibraryfacilities.

Othersarehowlearnerswhomaynotbenefitfrom readingtom otherformsof

26

mediashouldbeusedtoassistthem.

(d)Avoidingbiasorpersonalpreferences

-Objectivechoiceratherthanpersonalpreferencesshouldbetheguidingprinciple.

Onesbiasorpersonalpreferencesshouldnotundulyinfluencethestandwhen

choosingmediaforteaching.

-Criticalexaminationofaparticularmedium toascertainitsup–to–datenatureand

theneedtouseitinaclassroom situationisnecessary.

-Donotdiscussaparticularmedium basingoncommentsfrom colleagues.

34
(e)Thephysicalenvironmentinwhichmediaistobeused

Thisgreatlyaffectstheresultsobtained.

-Outstandingmediamaterialmaybecomeuselessandineffectiveforteachingwhen

usedininappropriateconditions

Circumstanceswhichmayhinderefficientusesofmediaresourcesinclude;

-Noisyareas

-Overheatedrooms

-Poorlighting(e.g.textbook)andfaultyacoustics

Therefore,theenvironmentalsettingunderwhichthemedium willbeusedmustbe

considered.

THECATEGORIESOFMEDIA

(A)VISUALMEDIA

Itemsunderthecategoryofvisualmediamaterialsappealtothesenseofsightthey

includerealia,specimens,models,dioramaetc

(1) Realia

-Includerealobjectssuchassoil,liveanimalsandplantsequipmentandapparatus

forscience.AgricultureorHomescience,musicalinstrumentetc.

-Theyarethree–dimensionalandarethereforemorestimulatingandinteractiveto

thelearners.

-Learnersmaybeinvolvedincollectingtheitems–e.g.duringeducationaltours,in

theschoolcompoundorathome.

-Mayalsoincludeartefactsandthesehelplearnersidentifythemselveswiththe

peoplewhomadethem andexperiencelearningatdeeperlevel.

Advantagesofusingrealia

 Learnerscaneasilyrelatetothem andwhentheyhavebeeninvolvedincollecting

35
them

 Theyprovideclearandtrueexperiencecomparedtoanyotherform ofteaching

aid.

 Enhancedevelopmentofmanipulativeskills

 Theyarereadilyavailable

 Enhanceretentionofconcepts.

Disadvantagesofusingrealia

 Somemaynotbebroughtintotheclassespeciallyiftheyarebigandbulky

 Someitemsmaynotbesafeforlearners(poisonousordangerous)

 Collectingsomeofthem mayhavenegativeeffectsontheenvironment

27

(2)Specimens

-Areexamplesofthingsorobjectsthatrepresentagrouporclassofsimilarthings

-Itcouldbeawholethingorpartofit

-Theyareusuallypreserved

Advantages

Arethree–dimensionalandconferalltheadvantagesof3-dimensionallearning

aids

Areportable

Canbeusedforlongifhandledwell

Disadvantages

 Somepartsorcharacteristicsthatthespecimenmaybedistortede.g.colour

 Someoftheliquidpreservativeshaveanoffensivesmellwhichmaymakethe

learningenvironmentuncomfortable

 Withtime,specimensdisintegrateandgettingsimilaronesmaynotbeeasy.

36
(3)Models

-Amodelisathree–dimensionalsimplifiedrepresentationofarealobject.

Sometimes,modelsaresmallerinscalebutcanbeusedfordetailedstudy.

Advantagesofusingmodels

 Providesinformationthatisclosetowhattherealobjectwouldprovide

 Theycanbemadeusinglocallyavailablematerials.

 Canbedismantledforthepurposeofstudyingit’sinaparts

 Helpslearnerstodevelopmodelingskills.

 Makeslearninginterestingandeasier

Limitations

 Materialsformakingmodelsmaybeexpensive.

 Modelsmaybemisleadingifpoorlypreparedorexaggerated

 Itistimeconsumingtomakemodels

(4)Diorama

Adioramaisathree–dimensionalsceneindepthanditincorporatesagroupof

modeledobjectsandfiguresinanaturalsetting.Theyaremainlyfoundinmuseums

wheretheyareintendedtorepresentnormallifesettings.

-Itusuallyshowsascenewiththehelpofrealisticspecimensorobjectsinthe

foregroundandapaintedbackgroundtogivetheimpressionofdepth.

-Theycanbeusedtoteachhistoricalevents,geographicalareasaswellas

ecosystems.

(5)Printedmaterials

-Thesearepublicationsandmaterialswhichareeasilyencounteredinthecourseof

teachingandlearning.Theyincludetextbooks.Theyaredesignedforuseinteaching

thewholeorpartofastudycourse.Otherprintedmaterialsincludeworkbooks(for

37
practicingwhathasbeenlearnt),periodicals,programmedinstructionalmaterialsetc.

Advantagesofusingprintmediainteaching

 Textbooksarerelativelyinexpensive,readytouse.

28

 Theygenerallycontaineverythingthatstudentsaresupposedtolearnwithina

certaintimeframe,sonewteacherscanfocusmoreonhowtheyteachthanon

whattoteach.

 Mosttextbooksareaccompaniedbyateacher'sguidethatspellsoutclearlyand

indetaileverysteptobetakeninteachingacertainlessonorchapter.Theyalso

providelessonplans,materialsandideasforadditionalactivities.

 Textbooksareeasytousebecauseoftheirstructuredform thatgoesfrom

simple,basicissuestomorecomplexonesintheoryaswellasinpractice.

 Textbooksareperiodicallyupdatedtoreflectsocialrealitiesandtomeetthe

needsofasmanystudentsaspossible.

 Textbooksarealsoaresourceforself-directedlearning,becausestudentscan

usethem whereverandwhenevertheywant.Theycanreadthem slowly,attheir

ownpace,ortheycanjustskim thetextforagist.

 Textbooksarealsousedforfuturereference.

 Thesebookswillalsoenableinstructorsandteacherstogetmoreorganizedin

theirclasslessons.

 Somelikejournalscarrythelatestinformationhencehelpinglearnersgetupto

dateinformationespeciallyscientific.

 Newspapersupdatethereadersoncurrentaffairs.

 Newspapersarecheaptopurchase..Theyarealsoavailablealmosteverywhere

andhavealotofinformationallrolledupinone.

38
 Theinformationinnewspaperscoverdifferenttopicse.g.entertainment,politics,

sports,crime,religionetc.Thewritingiscaptivating,sothatthereader'sattention

isdrawnrightfrom thestart.

 Journalssummarizeideas,experiencesandopinionsthushelpingstudentsto

understandcontentduringinstruction.

 Periodicalsprovidecurrent,accurate,authoritativeinformationoftenbeforeit

appearsinbookform andexcellentsourceforsyllabus.

(6)Othervisualmediainclude

(a)-Varioustypesofboardse.g.chalkboards,flannelboards,bulletinboards

(b)-Graphics=charts,posters,maps,diagramsetcwhenusinggraphicsateacher

shouldrememberthefollowingprinciples:

Thatgraphicspresentfactsinasummarizedform

Thatthebackgroundofthedisplayshouldbechosenwiselytoenhancevisibility.

Thatdisplayedinformationshouldhavenomistakes

Thatgraphicsshouldberemovedaftertheyhaveservedtheirpurposeandreplaced

withnewones.

(c)Slides

(d)Transparencies

29

(e)Film stripsetc

(II)AUDIOVISUALAIDS

-Theseareaidswhichappealtothesenseofsightandhearing.Theyareeffective

whenteachinglargenumbersofpeople/learners.Theyincludeeducationalfilms,

televisions,computersandvideos.

(a)EducationalFilms

39
-Choseneducationalfilmsshouldbeshortandprecise

Characteristicsofeducationalfilmsinclude;

 Appropriatenessfortheleveloflearners

 Beinteresting,enjoyableandeasytounderstand

 Shouldbeeffectiveinachievingthelessonobjectives

 Soundandpicturesshouldbeclear

 Shouldcontainaccurateinformation

 Shouldnotcontainoffensivelanguageandscenes

Preparingandshowingeducationalfilms

Asateacher,watchthefilmsinadvancesoastoguidelearnersastheywatchit.

Watchingthefilmsinadvanceenablestheteachertoplanfollow–upactivitiesafter

thefilm

Theteachershouldalso;

Explainthepurposeofwatchingthefilm

Highlightkeyareasthatrequireemphasisinthefilm

Discouragenote-takingwhilelearnersareviewingthefilm –thiswilldividetheir

attention

Discussthefilm withaviewtoobtainimportantfeedbackfrom thelearners

Showthefilm asecondtimetoimprovelearnersunderstanding

Givelearnersfollow–upactivities

(b)Televisions

Thetelevisionisanelectronicdevicethattransmitsstillandmovingpictureswith

accompanyingsound,throughspace.

Inordertoprepareforandmakeuseoftelevisionbroadcastseffectively,theteacher

should;

40
 Studythebroadcastmanualtounderstandandexplainanydifficultconceptsand

wordsthatcouldbeusedintheprogrammetothelearners.

 Preparediscussionquestionsandlearningresourcestousebefore,duringand

aftertheprogramme.

 Explaintheobjectivesofwatchingthetelevisionprogrammetothelearners

 Providecomfortablewatching,viewingconditionsforexampleanoiseless

environment

 Preparefollow–upactivities

©Computers

30

Acomputerisamachinethatmanipulatesandprocessdatainformationinresponse

toalistofinstructions.Computerscanbeusedasateachingandlearningresourcein

thefollowingways;

Usingcomputer–aidedinstructionsdesignedforindividualslearningatdifferent

levelsofeducation.Hencelearnersworkattheirownpaceandgetfeedback.Assuch

theyareabletoevaluatetheirperformance.

Researchingontheinternetwhichmakesteachersandthelearnersaccessalotof

informationwhichiscurrent

Specificcomputerprogrammescanbeusedtoproduceaccuratemaps,graphs

otherdocumentandprintingthem

Worldspaceequipmentcanenhancethereceptionofradioprogramsandbroadcast

inschools.

Advantages

Breakmonotonyofroutineteaching.

Itcanbeusedtomaketeachingandlearningmoreinteractive.

41
Theyincreasethelearnersinterestinlearning

Theycanstoreretrieve,processandmanipulatedataintoinformation

Disadvantages

Wronginformationcanbeaccessedespeciallythroughtheinternet.

Notallschoolshaveaccesstotheinternet/power.

Literacyincomputerisarequirementforonetousethecomputer.

Thecomputerhasalotofgameswhichuserscanwastealotoftimein

Onlyonelearnercanusethecomputeratonego.Thereforewherelearnersaremany,

manycomputersneedtobebought.Thisisexpensive.

(III)AUDIOAIDS/MEDIA

Audioaidsorauralsareteachingandlearningresourceswhichappealtothesenseof

hearing.Theycanmakeseveralexperiencesavailabletotheuserthroughsound.

Soundisusefulincoursesinvolvingspeech,languageandmusic.Specificlistening

skillsarerequiredtomaximizetheuseofsoundasamedium.Theyinclude;

(a) people

Theteacher,theresourcepersonco–optedandevenstudentsaregoodexamplesof

peopleusingthemedium ofsound.

Theteacherisoneofthemostvaluableandflexibleusersofthemedium available.

-Resourcepersonscanbesoughtfrom thecommunitytohelpstudentsachieve

someobjective(s).Whenaresourcepersonisuseditisfairtobriefhim/heronthe

topic,objectivesandhowtheycanbesthelpthestudents.

(b) Radio

Liveorrelayedbroadcastradioprogrammesareasourceofusefulmaterialeither

duringorafterschool.

Characteristicsofagoodradiobroadcast;

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-Theradioteachershouldgiveexamplesthatarewithinthelearnersexperiential

background

-Itshouldallowforopportunitiesforrepetitionoremphasisofthemainpoints.

31

-Theinformationshouldbedeliveredatamoderatespeed.

-Thereshouldbevariationofvoiceduringpresentationtoenhancelearnerand

teacherparticipationandinterest.

-Theradio,teachershoulduselanguagewhichiswithinthelearner’slevel.

-Thereshouldbenotesforteacherstoreferto.

-Theorganizersshouldsendtime–tablestoschoolsinadvance.

Beforeduringandafteraradiobroadcastlesson,theteachershoulddothefollowing

Preparelearnersasdirectedbythebroadcastguideorbooklet

Prepareandavailthenecessarymaterials

Tunetheradiotothestationinadvancetocheckonclarityofsound

Ensuretheroom isconduciveforthelessone.g.adequateventilationandno

distractions

Actasinstructedbytheradioteachere.g.takingnotes,writingsomepointsonthe

boardetc

Prepareanyfollow–upactivitiesasdirectedbytheradioteacher

Advantages

Theytrainlearnerstobegoodlisteners

Theyenrichothercurriculum materialse.g.spotcoverageofimportanteventsorthe

speechofaprominentpersonalitycansupplementinformationintextbooks

Capturelearnersattention

Provideuniformityintheteaching

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Radiosareeasytooperate

Providecurrentandupdatedinformation

Breaknormalclassroom teachinghencereducingmonotony

Disadvantages

 Schedulingmayforcetheadjustmentoftheschooltime–table

 Timeoftheday,weatherconditionsorphysicalfeaturesmayaffectreception

 Lacksfeedback.Teachercannotgaugetheextentoftheachievementof

objectives

 Donotcaterforindividualdifferences

 Onlyonesenseofhearingisused

©Taperecorders/recordings

Ataperecorderisadevicethatrecordsandplaysbacksoundfrom tapes,reelsor

cassettesthatareusedforstorage.Taperecordinguseamagnetictapewhichisana

acetateorplasticribboncoatedonthesurfacewithalargerofmagneticcableiron

oxideparticles.

Taperecorderfacilitateslearningthrough;

 Recordingradioprogram/broadcaststobeplayedlater.

 Recordinginterviewswithresourcepersons.Thiscanalsobeusedlaterinclass

 Recordinglearnerspresentationsforevaluatione.g.inmicro-teachingandfor

oralexams

 Recordingdances,ordramaperformedbylearnersforlateruse

Considerationwhenrecordingtheprogrammes

32

Ensuretheenvironmentisfreefrom distraction

Highqualitytapesshouldbeused

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Headoftherecordershouldbecleanbeforerecording

Settherecordinglevelcorrectlytoensureclarityofsound.

Whenusingtherecordedlesson,theteachershouldobservethefollowing

 Ensurethattheroom isfreefrom distraction

 Sufficientbackgroundinformationontheinformationonthetapeisprovided

 Forbetterunderstanding,wordsshouldbeexplained

 Importantwordswhichmayrequirelaterexplanationbewrittenonthe

chalkboard

 Thatsufficientfollow–upactivitiesaregiventomakelearningpermanent

becausethelessondependsonlisteningonly.

Mediacanalsobeconvenientlyclassifiedintotwocategoriesnamely;

(1)Non–projectedmedia

(2)Projectedmedia

NON-PROJECTEDMEDIA

-Thisisthebackboneofthewholerangeofclassroom
visualresources.Nonprojectedmediaarematerialsthatcanbedisplayedtoorstudiedbylearners

withouttheneedforanopticalorelectronicprojector.Theyincludedisplays,

boards,posters,three-dimensionaldisplays(mobiles,modelsetc

Nonprojectedmediahavethefollowingadvantages;

 Theyrequirenoelectricpower

 Theyhaveaninfinitevarietyofsize,shape,colourandappeal

 Theyarefarmoreeasilyprocuredormadebytheteacher

 Amendmentandalterationofnon–projectedmaterialspresentsfewer

difficultieseventhecasewiththeprojectedmedia

 Manynon–projectedmediae.g.thechalkboard,theflannelboardandnon–

magneticboardareeasilyadaptedtotherequirementsofanysubject.

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Examplesofnon–projectedmediainclude;

(a)Varioustypesofboardse.g.chalkboard,flannelboard,pinboard,bulletinboard

etc

(b)Flatpictures

(c)Graphics(graphs,chartsdiagrams,postersetc)

(d)Threedimensionaldisplaymaterialse.g.mobiles,models,dioramasandrealia

(A)Chalkboards

UntilthedevelopmentoftheOverheadProjectorduringthe1940sanditssubsequent

spreadintovirtuallyeveryclassroom andlecturetheatrethechalkboardwasprobably

themostimportantofalltheinstructionalaids(apartfrom theprintedpage).Even

today,suchboardsarestillastandardfixtureinteachingandtrainingenvironments

andtheiruseisautomaticanduniversalaswasinthepast.

Thechalkboardisversatile,inexpensiveandausefulteachingaid.Itcanbeusedto

servethefollowingpurposes;

(a) Forsystematicdisplayofvirtuallytheentiresubjectmatterofalectureor

thoughtlessontoaclass

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(b) Forthedisplayofaskeletonguidetoalectureorlessone.g.intheform ofaset

ofsectionheadings

(c) Forthedisplayofspecificitems(maps,diagramstablesetc)duringalectureor

lesson.

Advantagesofthechalkboard

(a)Itisalwaysavailableandreadyfortheteachersuse

(b)Itrequiresnospecialskillortalenttouseit

(c)Itishighlyflexibleinthatanythingcanbewrittendrawnorillustratedonit

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(d)Copycanbeerased,replacedormodified.Thesealterationsareeasytomake.

(e)Itisversatilei.e.itisadaptabletotherequirementsofmanysubjects

Disadvantagesofthechalkboard

(a)Theareaofthechalkboardmaynotbesufficientforeverythingthattheteacher

maywanttowriteorago

(b)Somearenotportable.

(c)Chalkdustmaycausediscomfortinclass

(d) Iftheboardisnotmaintained/paintedregularly,informationwrittenonitmay

becomeillegible.

(e)Cannotstoreinformationforlong.

Thechalkboardasafocusofattention

-Allworkshouldbeneatandtidy

-Theboardshouldnotbeclutteredupwithavarietyofsymbolsfightingforspace

andattention.

-Allunwantedmaterialsshouldbeerased

-Whennotinuse,thechalkboardshouldbeclean.

Foreffectivechalkboardwork,thefollowinghintsshouldbeobserved

-Thechalkboardmustbevisibletoeveryleanerinclass.

-Itmusthavedullsurfaceandfreeofglare(stronglightwhichhurteyes)

-Itmustbeingoodlightsothatallworkisseenwithoutstrain

-Theteachershouldnotstandinlinebetweenthelearnersandthechalkboardwork.

-Drawingshouldbeaslargeaspossible

-Firm,clearboldlinesshouldbeused.

-Simpleoutlinesshouldbeused.Theyaremoreeffectivethancomplexdetails

-Usecolourwisely–i.e.forillustrations,tobeabletocommandattention.

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Someaidstochalkboardwork

(a)–Useofpermanentlines-e.g.squaresforarithmetic,blueandredlinesformusic,

stafflinesormusicandmapoutlines.

() –Useoftemplates-theseareshapescutoutofcardboardorplywoodfor

shapeswhicharerequiredmorefrequently.

(c)–Useofperforatedlines-involvesuseofapieceofstrongpaperorcardboard.

Whatistobedrawnonthechalkboardisdrawnonthepaperandholespunctuated

alongtheoutlineofthedrawinge.g.map.Theperforatedpaperisheldontothe

chalkboardthendubbedwithachalkydusteralongthelinesofperforation.The

dotsleftbehindarejoinedtomakeadrawingrequired.

(d)–Useoffineguidelines-thesefineguidelinesaremadebeforethelesson.Thefine

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linesarevisibletothereaderalone.Theyarethenthickenedasthelesson

progressandthisgivesanimpressionoforiginality.

(e)–Useofprojectedpictures.

- Aprojectore.g.slidesoropaquecanbeusedtoprojectapicturethenchalkingit

alongtheoutlines.Thepicturecanbemadelargerorsmallerbyadjustingthe

positionoftheprojector

Othertypesofboards

(1)Markerboards

- Arealsoknownaswhiteboardsandconsistoflargesheetsofwhiteorlight–

coloredplasticmaterialwithasurfacetexturesuitableforwritingordrawingon

usingappropriatefeltpens,markersorcrayons

- Theyservethesamefunctionaschalkboards.

Advantagesofmarkerboards

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Nodustaswiththecaseofchalkboards

Awiderrangeofcolorstoneandstrengthsusedonit.

Theresultingworkismoreclear,sharperandbetterdefinedthanwithusingchalk.

Itcandoubleupasaprojectionscreenifrequired

Disadvantages

Thereisdifficultyincleaningthesurfaceproperlysothat‘ghost’marksarenotleft

behind.Assuchonlytherecommendedpensorcrayonsshouldbeused

Replacingaruinedmarkerboardisexpensive.

(2)Feltboards/flannelboards

-Relyonthefactthattheshapescutoutoffelt,flannelorsimilarfabricswilladhereto

thedisplaysurfacecoveredwithsimilarmaterials.

-Itisimportantapplicationinsituationsrequiringthemovementorre–arrangement

ofpiecese.g.showinghowwordscanbejoinedtogethertoform phrasesand

sentences,illustratingmathematicalandgeometricalconcepts,demonstrating

changesinplanlayoutsorcorporatestructuresetc.

(3)Hook–and–loopboards

-Workonthesamebasicprinciplesasthefeltboard.

-Howeverthedisplaymaterialsarebackedwithspecialfabricwhichincorporates

largenumbersoftinyhooks,whilethedisplaysurfaceiscoveredwithmaterial

incorporatingtinyloopswithwhichthehookscanengage.Materialsformakingthis

kindofboardcanbebought.

(4)Magneticboards

-Moreusefulandversatilethanfeltboardsandhook–and–loopboards

-Theycomeintwomainforms–magneticchalkboardsandmagneticmarkerboards

-Theyenabledisplayitemsmadeofmagneticmaterialtobestucktoandmoved

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aboutontheirsurfaceandthismovabledisplaycanbesupplementedbywritingor

drawingontheboard.

Advantages

Canbeusedtoproducehighlysophisticateddisplaysenablingmovement

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Idealfordemonstratingtactics(military)orcarryingoutsportscoaching.

Makingmagneticboardiseasyasreadilyavailablematerialsareused–plusathin

sheetofferromagneticmaterial

(B)Pictures(flat)

Aflatpictureisastill,opaquerepresentationofeitherasceneoranobjecte.g.

drawings,paintingsandtextbookillustrations.Flatpicturesarepicturesthatcanbe

examinedandusedastheyarewithoutaprojectororaviewer.

Picturesusedforteachingshouldpossessthefollowingqualities

-Goodcomposition-Thisisthegoodoverallorganizationofelementsofthepicture.

Thereshouldbeafocusofattention

-Clearcommunication-Shouldclearlycommunicatetheintendedmessage.Itshould

besimplenotcarrytoomuchdetail.

-Effectivecolour-Goodcolourinpicturesaddsrealism andattractivenesstothe

pictureseen

-Goodcontrastandsharpness-Asharppicturewithstrongcontrastprovidesbetter

opportunityforaccuracyindetails

Whenchoosingpictures,ateachershouldconsiderthefollowing

 Relevancetothelesson

 Appropriatenesstotheagelevelofmaturityofthelearners

 Clarity,sizeandaccuracy

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Teachingwithpictures

Picturescanbeusedto;

-Nameobjects

-Graspimportantinformation

-Observedetails

-Drawinferences

-Engageinfurtheractivitiessuggestedbypictures

-Timinginshowingapicturegreatlyinfluencesitseffectiveness.

Advantages

-Lowcostandreadyavailability

-Arouseinterest

-Theydeveloplearnersimagination

-Theycanbeusedinavarietyofsubjectandlessons

-Theyhelpclarifyconcepts

-Easytomake/acquire

Disadvantages

-Somepicturesareverysmalltobeused

-Lackofmotion.

-Lackofdepth.

(C)Graphics

-Thesearematerialsthatcommunicatefactsandideasclearlythroughthe

combinationofdrawings,wordsandpictures.Themostcommonlygraphics

includecharts,posters,tables,diagrams,cartonsetc

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Whenusinggraphics,ateachershouldrememberthat;

51
-Theypresentfactsinasummarizedform

-Thebackgroundofthedisplayshouldbechosenwiselytoenhancevisibility.

-Graphicsshouldberemovedaftertheyhaveservedtheirpurpose.

Charts

Characteristicsofgoodcharts

-Mustbebigenoughtobeseenthewholeclass.

-Labelingusedshouldbehorizontalandinstraightlines

-Attractiveenoughtocaptureandholdtheattentionoftheclass

-Mustbesimpleastoomuchdetailsmayconfuselearners

-Suitabilitytotheageandlevelofthelearners

Preservationofcharts

-Agebindings–chartssufferagreatdealofwearandtear.Edgescanbereinforced

bybinding

-Surfaceprotection.Involvesdustingandhandlingwithcleanhands

(D)Threedimensionaldisplaymaterials

(Mobiles,models,DioramasandRealia)

Thisisanothergroupofnon–projectedmedia

-Models,DioramasandRealiahavebeendealtwithbefore.Thereforeonlymobiles

willbelookedat;

Mobiles

Amobileisathreedimensionalwallchartinwhichtheindividualcomponentscan

moveabout.Insteadofdisplayingarelatedsystem ofpictures,wordsetcontheflat

surfaceofawall,theyaredrawnoncardorstenciledonmetalcutoutormoldedand

hungindependentlyfrom therooforasuitablebeam usingfinethreads.Theresulting

display,whichturnsandchangesshapeasitisaffectedbyrandom airmovements,

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acquiresavitalitywhichcanneverbeproducedinflatdisplayofthesamematerials

-Suchmobilescanbesuspendedinacornerofanylearningroom orwheretheywill

notgetinpeople’sway,butwillstillbeclearlyvisible.

PROJECTEDMEDIA

Projectedmediaaremediathatrequireprojectionontoascreen.Theyfallintothree

maingroups

1) Opaqueprojection

2) Transparentstillprojections

3) Cineprojections

Qualitiesofprojectedmedia

-Projectedimagescanbeadjustedtoanydesiredsize

-Someprojectedmediacombinesoundandvision;hencetwochannelsof

communicationareeffectivelyused.

-Usingtheprojectedmedia,learners’attentioniscompelledtowardsabrightpicture,

thusbeingattentionfocusing.

-Thematerialforprojectionisgenerallyofknownstandardsizes,compact,lightand

portable

-Withsomeprojectedmediatherealexperienceoftheenvironmentisbroughtinto

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theclassroom makinglearningrealandeffective

(1)Opaqueprojection

-Thisoccurswhenmaterialtobeprojectedisnottransparent.Itmaybeabookora

pieceofrock,hereanopaqueprojectororanepiscopeisused

Opaqueprojector

Anopaqueprojectorisusedtoprojectnon–transparentmaterialsontoascreenfor

53
usebyanindividualorgroupsoflearners.Thisismadepossiblebymeansof

reflectedlight

Flatprintedordrawnpicturesorothermaterialsaswellassomethree-dimensional

objectsmaybeprojectedwithanopaqueprojector.Itcantransferandenlarge

diagramsfrom textbooksandothersources

Advantages

-Itallowsonthespotprojectionofreadilyavailableclassroom materialssuchas

maps,newspapers,pictures,drawingsetc

-Itpermitsgroupviewinganddiscussions

Limitations

-Itdemandsrathercompleteroom darkeningifvisualsaretobeclearenough

-Themachineisheavy,bulkyandcumbersometomove.

-Informationonatransparencycannotbeprojectedasheatfrom theopaque

projectorcanmeltdownthetransparency

(2)Transparentstillprojection

Thisistheprojectionofnon-motiontransparentpictures.Theyareinform offilmsor

slides

(a)Slides

Aslideisafilm transparencycontainedina5cm by5cm frame.Aslideprojectoris

usedtoprojecttheslideontothescreenorwallsothatstudentscanstudythepicture

Advantages

Flexibilityinuse–theteacherhasmorecontroloverwhichvisualstoshowand

theorderinwhichhe/sheshowsthem.Theteachercanalterthesequenceof

presentationtomeetspecificneeds

Easeoffilmingandpreparation.Onecaneasilyproduceownslidesusinga35

54
mm camera.

Theequipmentofslideprojectionslight,smallandeasytooperateandstore.

Theslidesaredurableinthattheyareprotectedwell.

Disadvantages

 Highlypronetodisorganizationsincetheslides,comeasindividualunits.They

caneasilybecomemixedup

 Thereislackofstandardizationleadingtojammingupofslidesintheslide

changingmechanizationassomeslide.Mountscomeinvaryingthickness.

 Slidesnotenclosedinglasscoversaresusceptibletocommunicationofdust

andfingerprints.Carelesshandlingandstoragecaneasilyleadtopermanentdamage.

 Mostslideslackcaptionslikethosefoundonfilmstripsandthereforeanother

medium suchasatapedcommentaryorteachersremarksisafterneededtointerpret

38

thepictures.

(b)Film strips

Fallsundertransparentstillprojectionitisalengthof35mm film containingaseries

ofstillpicturesintendedforprojectioninsequence.Theinstrumentusedtoproject

thefilm stripiscalledfilmstripprojector

-Thenumberofframesinafilm stripvaryrangingfrom 30–50framesandare

clarifiedaseither‘sound’or‘silent’silentoneshavecaptionstooramanualto

explainthetext.

Advantages

 Thesequenceofpicturesisalwaysthesamehencecarefulplanningbeforeits

production.

 Individualpicturescanbeheldonthescreensoastohaveclassdiscussionsfor

55
aslongasitisdesired.

 Pictorialorgraphicmaterialscanbeusedaloneorincombination.

 Thesmallsizeofafilm strippermitseasystorage.

 Theequipmentforprojectionissmall,cheapandeasytooperate.

 Theroom forprojectionneednotbeextremelydark.

Limitations

 Thefixedsequenceofframesdoesnotpermitflexibility

 Filmstripsdonothaveattention-compellingqualitiesofmotion,picturesand

Television

 Film stripscannotbemadeeasilyintheschoolhenceselectionisconfinedto

commerciallyproducedones

 Theydonotshowmotion

(iii)Cineprojection

-Referstomotionpicture.Itcouldbesilentorsoundmotionpicture.

-Theyarealsoknownasmotionpicturefilms.

-Itisaseriesofstillpicturestakeninrapidsuccessionon8mm or16mm film.

Projectionbymeansofamotionpicturesprojector,givestheviewerstheillusion

ofmovement.

-Theyrangeinlengthfrom 2m to600m

-Soundcanberecordedwhiletakingthepicturesordubbedonaftertheprocessing

ofthefilm.Itcanbeerasedeasilyandnewrecordingsdoneonthesamereel

-LikeTV,theyappealtoseveralsenses.

Advantages

-Eventscanberecordedastheyhappenandmadeavailablelater/again.

-Theycanbeusedtoreducethespeedofaneventorprocess(e.g.safarirallycar).

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-Throughtheuseofmotion,pictures,studentscanbetransportedtoadistantplace

forstudy.

Limitations

-Thelengthofusefulnessofanexpensivefilm islimitedifthematerialgetsoutof

dateandbytherateofitsphysicaldeterioration.

-Teachersregardfilmsasasourceofentertainmentandnotforteaching.

-Darkenedroom maybeneededwhichlimitsnotetakingbystudents

39

-Projectionconditionsmaybecumbersomeespeciallywiththecaseofmanually

threadedprojectors.

VARIETYOFCOMMUNITYLEARNINGRESOURCES

Definitionofterms:

Community:Isagroupofpeoplelivingtogetherinaparticularareaandshare

commonfacilities,resourcesandinterests.Itcanbedescribedintermsofsizee.g.

school,clan,villageetc.

LearningResource:Anythingorpersonusedtofacilitateandenhancetheprocessof

learning.

InstructionalDevelopment:Purposefulplanningandteachingusinginstructional

materialsinordertoeffectdesiredbehavioralchangeinlearnersthroughprogressive

achievementoflessonobjectives.

CommunityLearningResources:Thesearepeopleanditemsofvaluewithina

physical,socio-culturalandeconomicenvironmentwhichcanbeadaptedforthe

purposesofinstruction.Theyarealsomaterialsandexperiencesfoundwithinthe

schoolandtheneighborhoodthatlendthemselvesforinstructionalpurposes.

Theyincludethingsliketrees,dams,rivers,plantations,statutes;placese.g.visiting

57
differentplacesofinterestwithaviewtocollectinglearningresources;ideasfrom

varioussourcesandresourcepersonse.g.

politicians,doctors,teachers,engineers,clergymenetc.Theseaddvitalityandrelevance

tolearning.Theycreateatwo-waytrafficlinktotheoutsideworld.Theschoolgoes

outsidetothecommunityforideasandlearningmaterials.Thecommunitybringsto

theschoolitsproblems,solutionsandunderstandings.Thisdynamicinteractioncan

provideanexcellentmotivationforlearningpurposese.g.activecooperationbetween

representativesofcivicandsocialorganizationse.g.police,churches,welfare

agencies,familyplanningassociations,clubsetc.Allthesecanbebroughtintothe

educationalframeworksoastoenrichthelearningprocess.

ThereisnocommunitywhereonecanmisstofindCommunityLearningResources

(CLRs).TheteacherhastokeenlyidentifyavailableCLRsespeciallythoseoflowcost;

haveadegreeofimaginationandstretchouttothink.Modernprinciplesoflearning

demandthatalearningprocessshouldbringoutthedesiredoutlookinthelearner.For

theseresourcestobringoutthechangeinthelearner,theteachermustknowand

arrangesituationsthatstimulatethelearneractivitiesandunderstandhowtouse

CLRstofacilitateeffectivelearning.Insummary,byputtingtheschoolandthe

communityintoadynamicinteraction,thecommunitybecomesalearningresource,a

facilitatorandanacceleratorofthelearningprocess.

TypesofCommunityLearningResources

Potentially,everyoneandeverythingwithinthecommunitycanbealearningresource

dependingonthecurriculum contentandresourcesavailableandadaptabilitytothe

40

learningsituation.Fieldtripsconstituteacommunitylearningresource.Accordingto

theircharacteristics,CLRscanbeclassifiedas-people(resourcepersons),realia,natural

58
resourcesegmountains,rivers,lakes,valleysetc;human-madefeatureseg

factories/industries,offices,communicationfacilities;cultural

artifacts,libraries,museums/zoos/archives;outdoorlaboratoriesetc.

(a)People

Thisinvolveshumaninteractionwithinbothformalandinformalsetting.

Informalsetting:Studentslearninformallyfrom interactingwithmembersofschool

andthecommunityatlarge.Thisiscalledhiddencurriculum e.gstudentscanprovide

oneanotherwithenthusiasm,collaboration,audience,encouragement,feedbackand

evaluation.

Resourcepersons/peoplemustbeknowledgeableinagivenareaofinterest.They

mustbereadytocometotheschooltosharetheknowledge,skillsandother

experienceswithstudents.

Studentsascommunityresources:

Studentscanalsobeusedascommunityresources.

Howcanteachersdevelopstudentsasresources?

 Encouragingstudyskillsandacquisitionofknowledgee.g.throughresearch,

projectwork,assignmentse.t.c

 Usingteachingmethodsthatencouragethedevelopmentofsocialskillse.g.

listening,constructivecriticism,skillsin presentation ofworketc.Such

teachingmethodsincludediscussion,brainstorming,debate,groupworketc.

 Specializedinstructionforcertaingroupofstudentstoassisteachothere.g.

prefects,peercounsellors,team leadersetc

 Throughteam teachingtodevelopasenseofcommunityin theschool

where virtues such as punctuality,integrity,loyaltyetc can be acquired

throughexamples.Itmeanssettingaschooltraditionbasedonschool

59
virtuesand/orvaluesandobjectives.

 Makinglearningresourcesavailablee.g.relevanttextbooks,laboratory

equipments,specimens,etc.

Advantagesofdevelopingstudentsaslearningresources

 Developselfesteem,selfworkamongallmembersofschoolcommunity.

 Encouragementofthelife-longvirtues.

 Itincreaseslearning(retention,reproduction,motivation).

 Itprovidesforthedevelopmentofindividualizedinstruction.

 Providesopportunitiesforremediallearning.

(b)Realia(realobjects,specimen)

Thesearerealthings.Specimenandobjectslendthemselvestotheteachingand

learningprocessinthattheymakelearningsituationsmoreconcrete,authenticand

interesting.

(c)Museums

Theseareplacesorroomswhereobjectsoritemsofhistorical,scientific,artistic

interestare kept.There are severaltypes i.e.National,historic,children and

41

anthropological(specialtypesofmuseumswhererareand valuableeducational

materialsarestoredforlearningpurposes)museums.

(d)NaturalResources

Theseareresourcesfoundintheenvironmentnaturally.Theyincludenaturalforests,

rivers,hills,lakesplateaus,sunshine,airetc

(e)Human-maderesources

Theseareresourceswhichhavebeenmadebyhumanbeingsandcanbeusedfor

teachingandlearningpurposes.Theyincludefactories,officesetc.

60
(f)Culturalartifacts

Thesearetheremainsofthematerialcultureofagivensocietywhichexistedata

given period in the past.These materials have been preserved from the local

communityandareusefullearningtoolsintheculturalsociety.Thesetoolsmayno

longerin usetodaye.g.thoseused in hunting,fishing,cultivating,weaponsor

ornaments.These materialshelp uslearn the historyand the occupation ofa

community where there is no documented information.Theyincludecalabashes,

shields,spears,arrows,traditionalhats/crowns,traditionalwearetc.

(h)Mock-ups

These are replicationsofrealsituations.Theyare full-size models.Theyshow

operationsoftoolsandmachinesandareconcernedwiththeactualprocess.

(i)Zoosandparks

Agamereserveisanenclosurewithinwhichdifferentwildanimalsandbirdsarefree

toroam aboutintheirnaturalsetting;whereasazooisanartificialgamepark.

Learnerscanbetakentotheseareasforthepurposesoflearning.

(j)Outdoorlaboratories

Theteachermayuseexteriorlearningareaswithinoradjacenttotheschoole.g.

aquatic(pond,stream),terrestrial(farm,woodlandetc)andgeological(rockand

mineraldeposits).

Methodsofutilizingcommunityresourcesforinstruction:

(a)Takingtheschooltothecommunity

(b)Bringingaportionofthecommunitytotheschool

(a)Takingtheschooltothecommunity

Thisisdonethroughfieldtrips,communitysurvey,schoolcampingandcommunity

serviceprojects.

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Fieldtrips:

Therearetwo typesoffield trips-field study/excursion and field system study.

Excursionimpressesshorttripswhichdonottakemorethanoneday.

Fieldsystem studyimpresseslongtravelswhichtakeoveroneday.Itismore

organizedandpurposeful.Insettingoutforanytrip,theremustbeatheme,objectives

andthedurationofthetripmustbespecified.

Communitysurvey

This involves taking learners to the communityto learn through surveying i.e.

observingdifferentactivitiescarriedoutinthecommunity.Theactivitiesobserved

mustberelatedtotheobjectivesofthesyllabus.

42

Schoolcamping

Thisisanoutdoorlearningexperienceoutsidetheschool.Objectivestobeachieved

mustclearlybestated.

Communityserviceprojects

Thisisalsoanoutdoorlearningexperienceinwhichthestudentsaretakenintothe

communitytoprovidesomeservice(s).Servicesmayincludetreeplanting,controlling

soilerosion,cleaningtheenvironmentwithinthecommunitye.t.c

(b)Bringingasectionofthecommunitytotheschool:

Thisisdonethroughusingresourcepersons,PTAs,bulletinboardsforinformationon

thecommunityhappenings,lending schoolfacilitiesto thecommunity(e.g.during

weddingandfuneralfunctions,fieldsbeingusedbylocalclubsetc),financialaidfrom

thecommunitytotheschoole.g.throughharambeeorotherdonationsetc

AdvantagesofCLRstoteachingandlearning:

 Theyenhanceretentionofwhathasbeenlearned/taught.

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 Theyenhanceprecariouslearningi.elearningthroughexperience

 Learningbecomesmeaningful.

 Thecommunitylearningresourcesarereadilyavailable.

 Linkschooltothecommunitybecausetheschoolisnotaclosedsystem.

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EDUCATIONALBROADCASTINGINKENYA

44

PRODUCTIONTECHNIQUESFORVISUALMEDIA

Objectives

- Stateanddescribethephysicalcharacteristicsofvisualmedia.

- Explaintheprinciplesgoverningthepreparationofvisualsusedforteachingand

learning

CharacteristicsofVisualMedia

- Allformsofvisualmediafallintooneofthefollowingcategories

 Opaque

 Translucent

 Transparent

a)Opaque

 Thesearetheonesthatcannotallowlighttopassthrough

 Mostofthem cannotbeprojectedunlessanopaqueprojectorisused.

 Egs:-Pictures(still,charts,maps,feltboards,chalkboards.

b)Translucent

 Thesevisualspermitpartialpassageofdiffusedlightthroughthem

 Visualaidsfallingunderthiscategoryincludephotographicnegatives

c)Transparent

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 Transparentdescribesvisualmaterialswhichallowlighttopassthrough

 Visualsproducedusingtransparentmaterialsinclude:-slides,Filmsand

overheadtransparencies.

DesignTechniques

SourcesDesigntechniques

 Booksandcurrentmagazinesthatfocusonmediaproductionmethodscan

beagoodsourceofdesigntechniques.

 Thiswillexposetheteachertosomeessentialmethodsoftracingand

transferringdrawingsfrom oneform toanother.

 Enlargementandreductionskillsofvisualimagesisessential.

 Projectionscanbeusedtoenlargetheimage.

 Sketchingfollowsnext.

d)Photography

 Ateachercanapplytheprinciplesofphotocopyasasourceofhis/herdesign

techniques.

 Photographsofvarious(visuals/realobjectscanbetakenthenusedas

sourcesofinformationondesigningthevisuals.

e)Freehanddrawing

 Ateacherwhoisgoodatdrawingcanapplyfreehanddrawingasasourceof

his/herdesign.Thefreehanddrawingcanthenbegivenaprofessionaltouch

45

oncetheintendedvisualinseentohavetakenshape.

5 Computergraphics

 Thecomputercanalsobeusedtodesignimageswhichwilleventuallybe

usedintheteaching/learningsituation.Oneneedstobeabletoapplythe

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appropriatecomputerprogrammes.

PrinciplesofDesign

1 Thefirstprincipleistofocusthedesignonthecentreofinterestandthe

subjectmattercontent.Theobjectiveshouldguidethedesigneronthearea

offocus.Thedesignershouldtrygiveoriginalitytohis/hervisualandshould

designitfrom auniquepointofapproach.

2 Thesecondprincipleistheprincipleofsimplicity.

 Thedesignershouldtrytobesimplebynotcrowdingthevisualwithtoomany

details.

 Asimpledesignisagooddesign.

3 Thethirddesignprinciplerelatestobalancingofelements:Thedesigner

shouldbalancetheelementsofhis/herdesignbymaintainingstabilityin

his/herdesign.

4 Thefourthprinciplerelatestoconsistency.Thedesignershouldbe

consistentandensurethatallpartsofthevisualareinagreementandhavea

senseofunity.

5 His/hervisualshouldbesuitabletoitspurpose.Inaclasssetting,thedesign

shouldbesuitableforteachingandlearningpurposes.

SIZESPECIFICATIONOFVISUALS

Whenateacherisdesigningandproducingvisuals,heshouldbearinmind

thesizeandspecificationsofthevisualtobeproduced.Forexample,ifthe

visualtobeproducedisa35mm slidethenitshouldbeborneinmindthatthe

slidewillbeprojectedthrough35mm projector.

 WhendesigningvisualsforProjection,theteachershouldensure

thatimportantdetailsfallwellwithintheprojectionframe.

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 Anotherconsiderationwhendecidingonthesizeofthevisualis

whatkindoftargetaudiencearegoingtousetheusual–Isthe

audienceonestudent,asmallgroupormassesofpeople?

 Thetypeofvisualalsomatters;isitachart,amap,aslide,afilm

etc.Thetypeofvisualdeterminethevehicletobeusedfor

displayingorprojectingit.

 Vehiclereferstomaterialsuchaschalkboard,bulletinboard,film

shipprojector,videocassetterecorder/playeretc.

MethodsofDevelopingVisuals:

1 Thecreationofvisualmaterialstartswithsomekindoforiginalartworkthat

46

maybeinform ofapainting,drawing,adiagram etc.Allsuchoriginalforms

arereferredtoasillustrations.

 Agoodillustrationshouldpossesscontentrelevanttotheteaching

andlearningsituation.

 Theteachershouldtrytoeliminateunnecessarydetailsinhisvisual.

 Pasteuptechniqueisanothertechnique.Itconsistsincuttingour

papertoconstitutecertainvisualsandpastingthem ontheboard

foruseinclassEg.=College.

 Whendevelopingopaquevisualse.g.flatpictures,charts,posters

etc,theteachershoulduseopaqueinks,pencilsandcolouring

devices.

ArrangementofVisuals

Arrangingthevisualssuchthatthecompositionofthesubjectmattercontentis

attractiveandholdstheattentionofthestudentsasaveryimportantskill.

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 Colour,line,size,spaceandshapearesomeofthetoolsusedtoarrange

visualssoastoachieveaparticularvisualeffect.

READABILITYOFVISUALS

 Theteachershouldlettervisualsbeingproducedinaboldandlegiblestyle.

 Theteachershouldselectarecognizablealphabetandaclearstyleof

lettering.Ifpoorinlettering,onecanuseletterguides.

 Rightspacingisanimportantconsiderationwhenlabelingeducationalvisuals.

Abasicruleis–leaveoneletterspacebetweenwordsandtwoletterspaces

betweensentences.

COLOURINGTECHNIQUES

- Whenateacherisdesigninganddevelopingeducationalvisuals,heshould

considerthecolouringtechniqueshe/shewilluse

 Colourcanbeusedto

 Attractattentionoftheaudience

 Emphasizecertainimportantpartsofthedesign

 Toshowsimilaritiesordifferenceinagivenvisual

Thefollowingcanbeusedforcolouring

 Pens

 Pencils

 WaterColours

 Crayons

 Markers

 Transparentcolours

 Coloured

Photography

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- Blackandwhiteorcoloured

photographscanbereproduced

asbasicvisuals.Thereadability

ofattractionandimpactofthe

picturearegovernedbythe

mannernwhichthephotographer

approachesthesubjectmatter.

Graphics

Graphicsintheform ofdiagrams,maps,

graphs,charts,postersmustbesimple

inordertoachieveastrongvisualeffect.

MountingandPreservationofVisuals

47

- Onceavisualhasbeendesigned

andproducedforeducationaluse,

ithastobepreservedand

protectedsoastoendurewear

andtear.Mountedvisualsare

wellprojected.

Mountingtechnique

 Framing

 Drymounting

 Wetmounting

 SoftMounting

Duplication

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- Thisistheprocessofpreparing

severalcopiesfrom anoriginal

one.

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IDENTIFICATION,SELECTIONANDUSEOFMEDIARESOURCES:

Identificationofmediaresourcesforuseininstruction

Mediaresourcescanberecognizedbygivencharacteristics

Identificationofmediaresourcesisaprocessofrecognizingmediaresources,

lookingformediaresourcesandplacingthemediaresourcesinwhatever/different

categories.

Simplyitistheprocessoflookingformediaresourcestobeusedinthe

instructionalprocess.

Considerationsinconductingtheidentificationprocess

I. Theknowledgeofthemediaresourcesrequired

_Onemustknowthem forhim toidentifythem foruseintheteaching–learning

process.Thismaybedeterminedbythetraininginmediaeducationi.e.studyof

mediaeducation.

II. Subjectneeds–Theneedsofthesubjecttaughtdeterminesthetypeof

resourcestobeidentified.Forexample,effectiveteachingoflanguagemay

requiretheuseofpracticals,charts,films,bookmaterials,reallifesituations,

tapesforPronounciationetc.Differentsubjectshavetheirownuniquemedia

resources.

III. Thecostofthemediaresources–thecostofthemediaresourceswill

determinewhethertheschoolcaafford.Veryexpensivemediaresourcesare

likelytobeavoided.Thecostofaccessoriesofthesemediaresourcesalso

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determinewhethertheywillbepickedforuseinteachingornot.

IV. Availabilityofmediaresources–Thisisconcernedwithhoweasyitisto

obtainthemediaresources.

V. Characteristicsofmediaresourcesandtheirnature–aretheyoriginale.g.

realiaorrepresentational(e.g.models),aretheyharmful,fragileetc

VI. Teachingexperience–Thisistheexperienceoftheteacherinteaching

usingtheseresources.

VII. Learnercharacteristics–Characteristicshereincludetheageofthe

learners,mentalabilityofthelearnersetc.

Approachesinconductingidentificationprocess:

a. IndividualteachersApproach:-Thisiswhereanindividualteacheridentifies

themediaresourcesforteaching.Thismaybedoneonthebasisoftheteachers

experienceandthesubjecttaught.

Advantages

 Theteacherknowshisneeds

 Theteacherknowstheneedsofthestudents

 Theteacherknowstheneedsofthesubject

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Disadvantages

 Biasness/favoritism byteachers-wheresometeachersonlygoforspecific

mediaresourcestheyfeelcomfortablewith.

 Identificationmaybeinfluencedbyteachers’negativeattitudetowards

someresources.

 Problemsofexpertise–Teachersdonotgetadequatetraininginmedia

resourceshencesometeachersdonothaveskillsinidentifyingmediaresources.

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 Itencouragesindividualism i.e.deniestheteachertheopportunitytocooperatewithotherteachers.

Teachersbecometoopossessiveoftheresources

andevenkeepthem intheirresidentialareas

 Theteachermaynotbringinawidevarietyofmediaresources.

b. School(joint)Teacher’sApproach–Thisiswhereagroupofteacherse.g.

departmentalcometogethertoidentifymediaresourcesbyconsideringthe

needsofthesubject,costetc

_Itmayinvolveteachersteachingaparticularsubjectorthewholeschool

teacherscomingtogether.

_ItispreferredinsomecountriesbutverylimitedlyusedinKenya.

Advantages

I. Teachersofdifferentteachingexperiences,interests,expertiseetctendto

sharewhattheyknowandwhattheydo.i.e.thereissharingofexperiencesand

expertise.

II. Itencouragesthespiritofco-operationamongtheteachers.

III. Promotesuniformityintheidentificationofmediaresources.

IV. Thereissomesortoftransparencyinidentificationwhereeachteacher

feelspartandparceloftheidentificationprocess

V. Theprocessincreasesresponsibilitiesonthemediaresources.Thismeans

thatallteachershavetheobligationoftakingcaseoftheresources.

Disadvantages

I. Itmighttakelongforteacherstoagree.Differencesatdepartmentallevel

mayleadtodisagreements(conflicts)whichareattimespersonalwhenone’s

ideaorproposalisnotconsidered.

II. Toomanydemandsarelikelytobeplacedontheinstitution.Againwhen

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notapprovedbythedepartmentortheschool,thisbringsalotoftension

betweentheteachersandthedepartmentortheschoolitself.

III. Itissometimesnotpossibletobringteacherstogetherforsuchpurposes.

Attimes,teachersrarelymeetforsuchpurposes.

C.NationalApproach

Thisisconductedbytheoutsider’si.e.thecentralidentificationisdoneatthe

nationallevel.AnexampleisK.I.E.whichproposesthetypeofmediaresources

50

tobeusedinteachingacertaintopicinthesyllabus.

Advantages

 Thereisuniformityinidentificationofmediaresources.

 Thereisuseofexpertsinmediaresources

 Thereisawidevarietyinidentification–i.e.thereisfreedom toidentifyany

resource.

 Therearesomeguidelinestofollowwhenidentifyingmediaresources

whichmaynotbeattheotherlevels.

Disadvantages

 Theteacher’sinterestmaynotbeservedproperly.Thisisbecausethe

nationallevelidentificationteam mayonlyconsideranaveragestudentand

hencetheneedsofotherstudentsmaynotbeconsidered

 Thegovernmentmaypoliticizetheprocessifcareisnottakenhence

extravagancewhichmaybecostlytothenation.

SELECTIONOFMEDIARESOURCES

Thisinvolveschoosingthemediaresourcesonthebasisoftheconducted

identification.

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Basisofselection

I.Relevance–Isthemediaresourcesrelevanttotheneedsoftheteacher,

studentsandthesubject

II.Suitability–isthemediaresourcesuitabletothestudents.Canthestudents

handle/manipulatethemediaresource

III.Quality–Whoistheauthor?Howisthecontent?Howhasbindingbeendone?

Ifitwasatextbook.

IV.Availability–isitgoingtobeavailablewhenneeded?

V.Cost–Cantheschoolorteacheraffordthemediaresource?

VI.Versatility–Canthemediaresourcebeusedacrossthecurriculum i.e.canit

beusedtoteachvariedsubjects?

APPROACHESINSELECTINGMEDIARESOURCES

a. IndividualTeacherApproach

- Here,theteacherselectsthemediaresourcesatsubjectorclasslevel

- ThisisverycommonlypracticedinKenya

Advantages

I. Servesindividualteachers’needs

II. Ensuresthattheteachermakessomeprovisionandresponsibilityforthe

resourcesegstoragefacilities

III. Teacherhastheexpertiseinthearea

Disadvantages

I. Theremaybesomebiasnessinselection

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II. Thereislikelytobelackofvarietybecauseoftheindividualapproachto

selection

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III. Thereistheissueofindividualism andpossessiveness

IV. Thereisalikelihoodoflackoftransparencyintheselectionprocess

V. Lackofvarietylimitsstudents’exposure

b. SchoolselectionApproach.

- Thisiswhereagroupofteachersselectmediaresourcesfortheschoolthe

basisofwhattheyhadidentified

- Mayinvolvessubjectteachers,departmentortheschool.

- ThisispracticedinKenyadepartmentally.

Advantages

I. Promotesvarietyinmediaselection

II. Democratizesmediaselectionprocessasteachersworkinanenvironment

wherematerialsaresharedandviewsinselectionarecateredfor

III. Encouragescooperationamongandbetweenthemembersofstaff.

IV. Createstransparencyinmediadevelopment.

V. Usefulintheaccountabilityofmediaresources

Disadvantages

 Occasionally,individualsubjectneedsmaynotbeadequatelycateredfor.

c. NationalApproachtoMediaSelection

-Mediaresourcesareselectedfortheschoolsystem atthenationalleveli.e.by

theministryofeducationthroughitsagenciesliketheK.I.E.forthewholecountry

Itisahighlycentralizedprocessi.e.thereisanauthoritydealingwiththe

identificationselectionandeventuallydeliveryschools

-Specialistsorexpertsrunthisselectionprocess

Advantages

 Ensuresthatthedeliveryofmediaresourcesistimely

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 Useismadeofspecializedexpertisetomanthisprocess

 Thereisproperbudgetingsystem practicesi.e.workonthebudget,

sourcingoffundsetc

 Promotesuniformityinmediaresourcesuppliesforschools

 Selectionisdoneaccordingtoestablishedpolicyandtheministryuses

clearlylaiddownguidelines

 Thereisaccountabilityofthemediaresourcesselectedanddeliveredtothe

schools.Attimesheadsofschoolsaresacked/dismissedafterbeingfound

misusingorstealingtheseresources

 Thereisefficiencyinselectingthematerialsdeliveringandusageofthis

52

materials

Disadvantages

 Occasionallytheselectedmediamaterialsmaynotsuittheneedsofcertain

schools.

 Occasionallysometeachersmayrejecttousethesematerialsbecausetheir

inputwasnotconsidered

 Littleattentionispaidtothesupportservices/facilitiese.g.storagefacilities

 Thereislittleresponsibilityofownershipoftheseselectedresources.There

isatendencyforsometeacherstomisusethem becausetheybelongtoG.K.

USEOFMEDIARESOURCESININSTRUCTION:

Thisistheapplicationofmediaresourcesintheinstructionalprocessi.e.putting

them intouse.

-Itistheemploymentofmediaresourcesininstructionalprogrammes

-Itistheadministrationofmediaresourcestoinstructioni.e.organization,

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developmentapplication,evaluationandmanagement

Considerationsinmediause

I.Relevanceofthemediaresource–Howrelevantisittothecontent

II.Suitability–isitsuitabletoyouasateachertothestudent,totheenvironment

youaregoingtousein?

III.Effectivenessofthemediaresource–selectthebestfrom theonesthatare

available.

IV.Natureofthemediaresource–isitfixed,movable,huge,realobject,

model/representationaletc

V.Timeavailable-someresourcesrequirealotoftimetosetupforuse.

VI.Skillsrequired(competenceoftheteacher)–Istheteacherabletousethe

mediaresourcesuccessfully?

VII.Versatility–canitbeusedtoteachanumberofconcepts?

Problemsassociatedwiththeuseofmediaresources

I.Availability–Attimessomemediaresourcesmaynotbeavailablewhenthey

areneeded

II.Attitudesoftheteacherandthelearners–someteachersmaynotbe

interestedinusingsomemediaresources.Thismayalsoaffectstudents

III.Lackofexpertise/technicalknowhow(skills)forusingthesemediaresources

IV.Natureofthecurriculum –TheKenyancurriculum islargelytheoreticalin

approach.Puttingresourcesintouseisnoteasy.

V.Governmentpoliciesorschoolpractices:-Administrationmaynotbe

supportingmediause.Theydonotencourageteacherstoidentify,selectanduse

53

mediaresources.

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SELECTIONOFPRINTEDMEDIARESOURCES

Printedmedia

-Arethosemediaresourceswhichareinprintform,e.g.books,internet,

materials,journals,periodicalsetc.

a. Books

 Coursebooks

-Bookspreparedspecificallyforteachershandlingaparticularsubject

-Theyareinlinewiththesyllabus

-ArepreparedbyK.I.E.orotherpublishers.Onlyforonesubjectandtheycome

intwoformsi.estudentandteacher’scopies

 Textbooks

-Arewrittenbysubjectspecialistsoutofresearch,experienceetc.Theyare

manyinthemarket.Tocatchtheattentionofthewould-beusers,thesebooks

aremadeattractivelyandhavewellillustratedexamplesofareascovered.

-Aremoredetailedthancoursebooksandmaynotbeinlinewiththesyllabus

 Referencebooks

-Generalbookswithcollectedinformationtoenrichwhatisbeingtaught.They

mayincludestorybooks,generalbooksetc

b. Internetmaterials

-Areveryusefularticlesintheinternet

-Oneneedstoknowhowtooperatethecomputerandthewebsiteofthe

informationneeded.

c. Journals.

Therearevariousjournalswhichareeducationaloracademice.g.subject

journalsfocusingonanumberoftopicalissues

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-Oneneedstoknowthenameofthejournal,thevolumenumberandtheauthors

ofthejournalorarticleinthejournal

d.Periodicals

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“A periodicalpublication containing articlesbyvariouswriters- a periodical

publicationintendedforgeneralratherthanlearnedorprofessionalreaders,and

consistingofamiscellanyofcriticalanddescriptivearticles,essays,worksof

fiction,etc(byOxfordEnglishDictionary)

Thesearemediaresourceswhichareproducedperiodically(i.e.afteracertain

periodoftime.)Theycarryalotofinformationwhichmaybeusefultoacertain

topic.Theyincludemagazines(e.g.drum),newspapers,newslettersetc.

Encyclopedia:Thesearereadilyavailablesourcesofinformationinanyfield.

Therearemanysetsofthem inthemarkete.g.Britannica,Americanae.t.c.The

informationintheseencyclopediasisarrangedinacertainconvenientmannerso

astogivereadersanopportunitytoaccessinformationeasily.

Comics:Thisisaform ofcartooninginwhichacastofcharactersenactastory

oraplayinasequenceofcloselyrelateddrawingsdesignedtoentertainor

involvethereader.Mostcomic-bookserieshaveturnedintostraightpicture

storiesinastriporpamphletform e.g.Juhakalulu,Bogibendae.t.c.

Theinfluenceofyounglearnersandadultsinstraightpicturestoriesemphasizes

thepotentialuseofcartooningorcomicsforeffectivelearning.Mosthistorical,

scientificandliterarysubjectscanbepresentedwellandaccuratelyincomic

bookform.

Programmedteachingandlearningmaterials:

Underthis,informationispresentedinaseriesorframesandthepresentation

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stimulusdemandsanactiveresponsefrom thelearnerwhoistoldeitherif

responsesarerightorwrongbycheckingagainstthosegivenintheprogrammed

series.Thelearnerproceedsatanypaceandthesematerialsareputforboth

slowandfastlearners.

Teacherpreparedhandouts:

Thespecificobjectivesofthesematerialsaretoguideforstudyandpractice.If

wellpreparedandupdatedaccordingly,theycanbeasourceofusefulprinted

mediamaterialsforlearning.

Advantagesofusingprintmediainteaching

 Textbooksarerelativelyinexpensive,readytouse.

 Theygenerallycontaineverythingthatstudentsaresupposedtolearnwithin

acertaintimeframe,sonewteacherscanfocusmoreonhowtheyteach

55

thanonwhattoteach.

 Mosttextbooksareaccompaniedbyateacher'sguidethatspellsoutclearly

andindetaileverysteptobetakeninteachingacertainlessonorchapter.

Theyalsoprovidelessonplans,materialsandideasforadditionalactivities.

 Textbooksareeasytousebecauseoftheirstructuredform thatgoesfrom

simple,basicissuestomorecomplexonesintheoryaswellasinpractice.

 Textbooksareperiodicallyupdatedtoreflectsocialrealitiesandtomeetthe

needsofasmanystudentsaspossible.

 Textbooksarealsoaresourceforself-directedlearning,becausestudents

canusethem whereverandwhenevertheywant.Theycanreadthem slowly,

attheirownpace,ortheycanjustskim thetextforagist.

 Textbooksarealsousedforfuturereference.

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 Thesebookswillalsoenableinstructorsandteacherstogetmore

organizedintheirclasslessons.

 Somelikejournalscarrythelatestinformationhencehelpinglearnersget

uptodateinformationespeciallyscientific.

 Newspapersupdatethereadersoncurrentaffairs.

 Newspapersarecheaptopurchase..Theyarealsoavailablealmost

everywhereandhavealotofinformationallrolledupinone.

 Theinformationinnewspaperscoverdifferenttopicse.g.entertainment,

politics,sports,crime,religionetc.Thewritingiscaptivating,sothatthe

reader'sattentionisdrawnrightfrom thestart.

 Journalssummarizeideas,experienceandopinionsthushelpingstudents

tounderstandcontentduringinstruction.

 Periodicalsprovidecurrent,accurate,authoritativeinformationoftenbefore

itappearsinbookform andexcellentsourceforsyllabus.

Factorstoconsiderwhenselectingprintmediaresources:

 Content–thisisthemostimportantfactortobeconsidered.Thecontent

mustbeaccurateandtotheleveloftheintendeduser.Thecontentshouldhave

emergentandculturalissuesincooperated.Itshouldadequatelycoverthe

syllabusandshouldnotcontaincontroversialviewsonthesubject.Itshouldalso

adaptitselftotheindividualdifferences.

 Illustrations

Thesearenecessarytoenhancetheunderstandingofthecontent

Theyshouldbedistributedthroughoutthebook

Theyareexpectedtobenexttothetext(passage)

Thesizeoftheillustrationshouldbeappropriatei.e.bigenoughtobeseen

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56

withoutstrain

Thecolourusedshouldbeappropriate

Illustrationusedmustberelevanttothetopicbeinghandledandthattheymust

beveryclear–easytointerpret

 Language

Languageusedmustbetothelearnerslevel

Vocabulariesusedshouldbesimple–thereshouldbenobigjargons

Foryounglearnersthesentencesshouldnotbetoolongi.e.theyshould

measuretotheleveloftheuser

Explanationgivenshouldbeveryclear

Theshouldn’tbespellingproblems

Languageusedshouldbeofacceptedmoralstandards

 Teachersguides

Theteachersguidesshouldprovideforcross–referencing

Theguidesshouldbeabletogivealternativeapproachesofhandlingthe

topic/answers

Theteachersguideshouldsuggestorgiveadditionalexercisesandanswers

Itispartofthetextbookpolicythatteachersbooksmustbeaccompaniedby

teachersguide

Shouldclarifyconceptsinthepupilsbook

Shouldbeinlinewiththetextbookcontent

Answerssuggestedshouldmatchquestionsasked

 Relevance

-Istheinformationintheresourcerelevanttothesubject

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 Cost

-Isthepriceaffordable

 Availability

-Istheprintmaterialreadilyavailable

Problemsassociatedwithselectingtheseprintedmaterials

 Lackofproperoradequateinformation–Lackoravailabilityofcatalogues

makeithardforusersorteacherstoselectthesematerials

 Poorpreparationofsomeofthematerials–Someofthem arepoorly

preparede.g.poorbinding

 Someoftheprintedmediaarecostly

 Lackofexpertiseinpreparingthesematerialssuitablepreparationofthe

materialsandnotcolourshouldbeconsidered

 Lackofpoliciesorguidelinesinselection

 Thechangingnatureofthecurriculum

57

-Rapidchangesinthesubjectsorsyllabusmakesithardforselectiontobe

representative

ApproachesinSelectingPrintedMaterials

a) Accesstorelevantinformationontheavailableprintedmedia.Through

brochures,advertisements,visitations,exhibitionsetc

b) In-serviceEducation(inductioncourses)onselectionofprintedmaterials

c) Group/teachersapproachtoselectionofprintedmaterials

d) Familiaritywiththeschoolcurriculum andthesubjectsyllabus

e) FamiliaritywitheducationreportsonaimsofeducationinKenyae.g.

MackayReport

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SELECTIONOFELECTRONICMEDIA

-Electronicmediaareallthoseresourcesthatrequireelectricitytorune.g.–

Radio,projectors.TVsets,computersetc

GuidelinesinSelection

I.Availability

II.Skillsrequiredforusingiti.e.competence

III.Accessories–Accessoriesshouldbeeasytoacquireoreasilyavailable

IV.Cost–Theschoolshouldbeabletoafford

V.Compatibility-I.e.tothelocalenvironment

VI.Repairsandmaintenance–Arethespare–partseasilyavailable

VII.Portability

VIII.Versatility

IX.Availabilityofstoragefacilities

ProblemsAssociatedwiththeirSelection

I.Cost–Mostofthem areexpensive

II.Inavailabilityofsomeoftheseresources

III.Culturalfactors–Wehavebeenbroughtuponverbalandprintmaterialculture

hencelowattitudetoelectronics

IV.Lackofspareparts.

V.Lackofexpertiseinuse.

VI.Attitudeofteachers,studentsandeducationaladministrators.

ApproachesUsedInSelectingElectronicEquipment

1. Informationconcerningelectronicequipmentneeded.

2. Expertiseinusingthem.

3. Physicalcheckoftheelectronicmedia,e.g.goingwiththetechnicianfor

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inspection/checkingpurposes

4. Group/team workapproach–e.g.technicians,administrators,teachersetc.

MANAGEMENTOFASCHOOLMULTI–MEDIACENTRE(MMC)

-Aschoolmulti-mediacentreisalsoreferredtoasthelearningResourcecentre

58

-Itisalsoreferredtoascurriculum LaboratoryorinstructionalMaterialsCentre

-Itisastorehousewhereavarietyofmediaresourcesareassembledorkeptfor

purposesofinstruction

-Itisafacilityusedininstruction–i.e.alearningareawhereonecantake

studentstolearnthereorgetmaterialsfrom.

PurposeofestablishingaMMC/whyaSMMC

1. Tostoreandretrievemediaresources

-Mediaresourcesarestoredhere

-Whenresourcesareneeded,theyareretrievedfrom theschoolMMC.

Retrievalmeansborrowing/loaningmaterialstothepeopleandtherearerules

governingtheseprocess

2. Tofacilitateaccesstoavarietyofmediaresources

3. Toensurethatstudentsareexposedtoavarietyoflearningexperiences

4. Topromotesocializationbetweenstudentsandmembersofstaffand

betweenandamongstudents

5. Toprovideconsultancyservicestotheclients–e.g.seekingadvicefrom

theMMCpersonnel

6. Todesignandconductresearchineducationalarease.g.mediaproduction,

instructionsetc.

7. Todesignandproducemediaresources

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TheOriginoftheIdeaoftheSchoolMMC

-Bornin1920s.ItisaproductofJohnDewey.Accordingtohim,hesays

studentsshouldbelefttodowhatevertheywanti.e.thereshouldbenotime–

tableintheschool.Whoeverisreadycanbetaught.

-Leaningcanonlyberealizedwhenthereisavarietyoflearningexperiences.

LateroneducationistsfoundthatDeweywasadvocatingthatpeoplelearnin

differentwayshencefacilitatedbydifferentleaningexperiences.

a. Philosophicalbasis

-EducationisnothingbutmediaresourcesasDeweyandFroebelSaid.They

arguedforalargeamountofresourcesforteachingbutthequestionwas“can

oneteacherbeabletocollecttheseresources?”Assuch,thereisneedtocollect

them andputthem inoneplace.

-Educationisdynamicduetochangeinthesociety.Assuch,itcouldmaybe

easyforteacherstokeeppacewiththecollectiontomediaresources,hence

needforabodytodoit.ActivitymovementintheU.S.Ain1920schangedthe

characterofeducation.Advocatesfocusedonactivelearningi.e.keeping

learnersbusyinthelearningprocess.ThisgavebirthtoNewPrimaryApproach

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tolearninginKenya.ItthengaverisetoSchoolMMC

b.Psychologicalbasis

Psychologicalstudieshaveshownthathumanbeingslearnindifferentstylese.g.

reading,listening,observingthings,touching(tactileactivities),learningprivately,

learningingroups,learninginquietandnoisyenvironments.

Howdoweprovidefortheselearningdifferences?

- Thiscanbecateredforbyprovidingavarietyoflearningresourceswhowill

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collectthem sinceteachersarebusy?

- EstablishamediaResourceCentre.

c.Pedagogicalbasis

Studiesshowthatwhenmediaresourcesareusedlearningbecomesenjoyable,

interesting,easyetc.Theproblem hereisthatnotallmediaresourcescanbe

usedinthesamesituations;

- Thereisneedforavarietyofmediaresources

- Teachershaveheavyworkload

- Individualdifferencesexistamongstteachershenceneedforafacilitatorto

organizethesemediaresources.

TypesofSchoolMulti–MediaCentre(SMMC)

TypesofSMMCaredeterminedbyfunctionsandactivitiesandmanagement

strategiesusedinrunningthem (managementstructure)

SMMCcanbesaidtobeeither;

1.Simpletypefacility–Usinganordinaryroom forkeepingdifferentmedia

resourcese.g.books,computersetc

2.Complextypefacility–Thisisasophisticatedmediacentrewherealotof

activitiestakeplaceine.g.photocopying,catering,lendingandissuinglearning

resourcesetc.Itiscommonindevelopedcountries

3.Student–OrientedSMMC

- Thisisestablishedtomeettheneedsofthestudent

- Materialsinsideareintendedtokeepthestudentbusy

- Managementisinthehandsofthestudentse.g.issuingandcollecting

materials.Amemberofstaffactsasanadviserorhelper.

4.Teacher–OrientedSchoolMulti–MediaCentre

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- Thisisthefacilityestablishedforthepurposesofprovidingteacherresources

e.g.books,computerprogrammesetc.

ValuesofaschoolMMC(Advantages)

I. Easyaccessibilitytomediaresourcesbyclients–i.e.studentsandteachers

II. Promotesinstructionalprocess

III. Time–savingfacilityandclientsdonotwastetimelookingfortheresources

becausetheyarekeptwithintheSMMC

IV. Itiscosteffectivewhenitcomestodevelopmentofmediaresourcesi.e.

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poolingofresources

V. EnhancesuniformityinlearningespeciallywheretheMMCisusedbyseveral

schools

VI. Promotesinnovationsineducationespeciallywhenpeoplecomeformeetings,

demonstrationsetctheybecomeinnovativeinonewayorother

VII. Promotessocialization(interaction)amongmembersoftheschool

community

VIII. Facilitatesthedevelopmentofmediaresourcesi.e.–production,acquisition,

storageandusage.

EstablishmentofSMMCwasrecognitionofthefollowingeducationfacts;

 Ideascannotbereliablycommunicatedthroughasinglechannelormedia.

Therearemanydifferentchannels(media)fordoingso.

 Individualdifferencesinlearningexistamongpeople.Assuchthereisneedto

establishamulti–mediacentrewithresourceswhichtakecareofdifferentrates

oflearning

 Therearedifferentstylesormodesoflearningthatindividualsprefer

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TypesofmediafoundinatypicalSMMC

 Realobjects–specimensetc

 Graphics–charts,postersetc

 Displaymaterialse.g.bulletins/pin/softboards

 Modelsofvarioustypese.g.globe

 Equipment–e.g.machines,projectors,computersetc

 Audiomaterials–e.g.radio,audiorecordingsetc

 Audio–Visualse.g.motionandstillpictures,videorecordingsandLCDS

IX. Productions–Schoolsproducenewownmaterials/filmsasintheU.S.A.

Teachermadeandstudent-mademediausingmechanical,electronic

photographicandothermeansfrom ownproductions

X. Freeandinexpensivemediaresourcese.g.charts,newspapers,cuttings,

globes,specimensofalltypes,mapsetc

Functionsoftheschoolmulti–mediacentre

ThisreferstowhataSMMCissetouttodo.ThemainfunctionsofSMMC

include;

I. Storageandretrievalofmediaresources

II. Productionofavarietyofmediaresourcese.g.throughphotocopyingetc

III. RepairsandmaintenanceofmediaresourcesavailableintheSMMC

IV. Acquisitionanddistributionofmediaresourcesforclients

V. Organizingandconductingeducationalforums/forae.g.seminarsteachers,

conferences,symposiums

VI. Conductingresearchineducationrelatedareas

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Evaluationofresearchmaterialsinmediaeducation,instructionaltechnologyand

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strategiesetc

ActivitiestoorganizeinSMMC(expectedactivities)

I. Themostimportantactivityisreading.Studentsandteachersbegivenreading

materials/facilitiese.g.privateoropenreadingfacilities

II. Makinginquiriesaboutnear/recentdevelopmentsineducationingeneraland

mediaeducationinparticular

III. Productionofrelevantmediaresourcese.g.graphics,photographicmedia

resources

IV. Providingrepairsandmaintenanceservicesforclients

V. Viewingofallsortsofprojectionse.g.slides,films,videosandotherdisplay

materials

VI. Organizationandconductofeducationalforae.g.;

Seminars–tailoredandfacilitatedcantaketodisplayorso

Workshops–brainstorming

Conferences–multi–themeexercise.Involvesexperts,lastsmorethan3

days

Symposiums–researchmaterialspresentedforpublications

VII.Listeningtorecordingsandlivespeeches

VIII.Lending,loaningorborrowingofmediaresources

IX.Display/exhibitionsofmediaresourcese.g.bookmaterials,equipment,

graphicmaterialsalltheseactivitiesareintendedtoprovidebothteachersand

studentswiththefollowing:

Directorpurposefullearningexperiences

Vicariouscontrived,iconicmodeledorderivedlearningexperiencesand

symbolicexperiences

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StaffingofaSMMC

Thisreferstothepersonnelrequirementsforthisfacility.Staffingisusually

determined

I.ThetypeofSMMCestablishedortobeestablished

II.TheintendedfunctionsoftheSMMC

III.Therelevantactivities

IV.Thefinancialbaseoftheschool

Needs

InatypicalSMMC,thestaffneedsincludethefollowing;

 Thewarden(head/leader)ofthegroupworkingthere

-Mustbeaspecialistinmediaeducation

-Experiencedteacher

-Musthavemanagerialskills

 Librarian(librarianstaff)

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-LibrarianmustoperateunderSMMCandnotautonomous

-Musthavetrainedinlibrarystudies

-Mustbeagoodmanager/administratorandfamiliarwitheducationandwhere

possibleexperienced

 Technicalstaff

-Toprovidetechnicalservices

-Mostschoolsdonotaffordtopaythem

 Secretarialstaff

-Currently,shouldbecomputerliterate

-Shouldalsoserveasasecretaryandacopytypist

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 Auxiliarystaff

-Theyincludecleaners,messengersetc

Spacerequirements:

Thisisdeterminedbyitsfunctionactivitiesandrangeofstaffing

Alsodeterminedbytheavailablespaceintheschool

I.Thereisneedforreadingspacesforusers

II. Officespacesarealsorequiredofforthesecretary,librarian,chief

techniciansubordinatestaffetc

III. Workshopswheremediaresourcescanbedesignedandproduced

IV. Hallformeetings–e.g.seminars,conferencesetc

V. Repairsandmaintenancespace

VI. Displayandexhibitionroom

VII.Studio–forphotos,developmenttobeusedinteaching

VIII.Stores–forkeepingweededmaterialsornewlyacquiredmaterialsawaiting

processing

- Alsostoreforkeepingcleaningmaterials

ManagementofaSMMC

-Thisreferstohowthisfacilityshouldberuninaschoolestablishment

-ThemanagementofaSMMCshouldbeInco-operatedintheschoolsystem i.e.

bepartandparceloftheschoolsystem asoneoftheunitsordepartments

Thereisneedtoconsiderthefollowingmanagementrequirementswhensetting

upaschoolMMC

1. Policies/guidelinesgoverningthefacility.Thisincludesrulesand

regulations.TheschoolMMCmanagementshouldbeconsideredinthe

establishmentoftheschool.

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2. BudgetaryneedsoftheSMMC

- Thereisneedtoclearlyallocatefunds(vote–head)tothisfacility

3.Staffneeds–TheheadofSMMCmustbeamediaspecialist

4.Administrationofthefacility–thequestionhereishowwillitberan?

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5.Supervisionandmonitoringofperformanceofthefacilityintheschoolsetup

- Whowillsuperviseit?

- Whattypeofsupervisionshouldbeemployed?

- Followingupitsperformancee.g.recordtaking,studentsatisfactionetc

6. Evaluation

- Whowillcarryouttheevaluation?Willitbedoneinternallyorbecarried

outbytheministry?

- Whatwillbethefrequencyofevaluation?Isitgoingtobemonthly,yearly?

ApproachestowardsestablishingtheSMMC

1. ThereisneedforaclearunderstandingoftheconceptofSMMC–i.e.a

centrallylocatedfacilitywithmediaresources

2. Conductconsultations–thereisneedtocarryoutconsultationsonits

establishment.Also,consultationbecarriedoutforsupportfrom otherstaff

members

3. Workingoutthebudget–Thiswillbebasedonanumberofuses

- Functions

- Activities

- Staffing

- Spacerequirements

4. Locationofthefacility

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- Itshouldbecentrallylocatedintheschoolestablishmentforeasyaccess

5. SettinguptheSMMC

6. Policies/guidelinesandroutinestobefollowedintheSMMC

OPERATIONOFTEACHINGEQUIPMENT/MACHINES

Teachingequipment/machinesarethosematerialsthatareharnessedfor

presentationofeducationalinformation.Theyareofvarioustypes;

Operation

Operationofequipmentmeansusingormanipulationoftheequipmentorthe

applicationoftheequipmentinoperation,practicalworkisneeded.

Consideration

Itisimportanttobearinmindthefollowingfactorsbeforeusing/operatingany

machine

 Skillsrequirements–Adequatecompetenceisrequiredinhandling,

applyingorusingtheseequipmentsinteaching.Assuch,onemustbeproperly

trainedinusingtheseequipment

 Typesofequipment–thequestionhereis:whattypeof

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equipment/machineareyougoingtouse?

 Precautions/safetymeasures–itisimportantthatbeforeonestartsto

usethisequipment,itisgoodforhim/hertounderstandhowtheywork.

Thereforeoneneedstoreadthemanualprovideddeeply

 Requiredinfrastructure–mayincludeelectricityamongothers

 Environmentalfactors

Typesofequipment/Teachingmachinesteachersareexpectedtohandle.

a. Electronicequipment

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1. Audio–recordingmachinese.g.taperecorders,radiotaperecorders,video

taperecordersandtheirsoftware.

2. ETV/ITVi.e.educationalTvorinstructionalTv

3. Computers–modelsofcomputersavailableinthemarketandtheir

accessoriese.g.diskettes,flashdisksCDetc

4. Cameras–e.g.35mm camera(ordinary)videotaperecordingcameras

5. Projectorse.g.film,LCD,opaque,slide,filmstrip,projectorsetc

6. Workshopsmachines–mostofthem areheavyandgoodfortechnical

education

7. Typewriters

8. Duplicatingmachines

9. Photocopiers

b. Non–electronicequipment

1. Displaymaterials/equipmentse.g.chalkboards,whiteboards,bulletin

boards/pinboards

2. Furniture–chairs,tables,desks

3. Workshopequipments–saws,harmersetc

4. Practicalwork–handlingtheequipment

FUTUREDEVELOPMENTSINEDUCATIONALTECHNOLOGY

Theseareanticipatedorexpectedinnovationsinmediadevelopmentand

administrationofmediaininstruction.

Thesedevelopmentsmaybeadeparturefrom theestablishedpracticesinmedia

use

Underlyingcausesoftheseanticipateddevelopments

I.Technologicaladvancements–Newthingsarebeingdeveloped/producedand

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thereisnowaytheschoolwillrunawayorbeshieldedfrom thesedevelopments

II.Globalization-internationalinteractionsmadepossiblebysophisticationin

communication

III.Changingtrendsineducation–Thesetrendshavebroughtabout

developmentsineducation.Increasedenrolmentsinschoolscallsforachange

inhowtomanagelargeclasses

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- Differentlearningmodeshaveemergede.g.distanceeducation

- Thereisneedtochangeinstructionalmethodssoastomaintainlearners

inschool.

IV.Informationtechnologyandinformationexplosion

- Thereisalotofradicalizationofeducationasstudentquestionwhatthey

aretaught

- Learnersbecomerestlesswhenarchaicmethodsofinstructionarebeing

employedtoteach

V.Changingskillsneededinthemodernsociety

- Peoplearecurrentlycallingforbetter/sophisticatedskillshenceusedfor

advancedtechnologyandmedia

VI.Natureoflearners

- Children/learnersarebecomingmoreinformed.Forteacherstohandle

them properly,thereisneedtousenewmedia

- Studentsarealsobecominghighlycritical–i.e.questioningmostofwhat

wesay/teach.Theyarebecomingveryinquisitiveandtohandlethem

properly,thereisneedtousenewmedia

VII.Fashionsineducation

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- Itisbecomingfashionabletousenewmediaineducation

RequirementsforfuturedevelopmentsineducationalTechnology

1. Infrastructure

- Thereisneedforinfrastructuralfacilitieswhichmakeeasyforustouse

theadaptedmediae.g.electricity,communicationsystemsandeven

propertyarchitecturally,structurallydesignedbuildingstoaccommodate

theseemergingmediaresourcescomputerlaboratories,storeroomsetc

areneeded

2. Expertise

- Thereisneedforknowledge,skillsandpositiveattitudebyschoolsand

thelocalcommunityinrelationtotheuseofthenewtechnology

- Well–trainedmanpowerisrequiredtoadministerthesedevelopments

andeventoprovideadequateinformationonthesedevelopments

3. Logisticalsystems

- Thereisneedforanunderstandingoflogisticsinvolvedinthesefuture

developmentse.g.administrativesystems,collaborationandcooperation

indevelopmentandadministrationofthesefuturedevelopments

- Roleoftheministryofeducationinpresentandfuturedevelopmentsi.e.

shoulditcontinuecontrollingorshouldoperationsoftheM.O.E.Be

decentralized

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4. Funding

- Adequatefundsarerequired/needed

- Thesourceofthesefundsmustbereliable/dependable

- Thereisneedtodevelopasoundmonitoringsystem onfundsuse.

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5. Mediaresources

- Thereisneedtoacquiretheequipment(hardware)andtheiraccessories

Implicationsofthedevelopmentsineducationaltechnology

1) Needtoreviewtheexistingeducationalcurriculum ingeneralandteacher

educationalcurriculum inparticulartoaccommodatethesedevelopments

2) Thereisneedtoreviewtheexistingmediaprogramsintermsofstructure,

developmentandadministratione.g.theministryshouldalsoaddressissuesto

dowithothermediaotherthanbooks

3) Theadoptionandadaptationofthesedevelopmentsmeansthattherehas

tobecorrespondingdevelopmentsinrelevantinfrastructure–e.g.buildings,

communicationssystemsetc

iv) Thereshouldbeadequatefinancingofanticipateddevelopments.Assuch,

sourcesoffundsshouldbeestablished,sourcesshouldbesustainable.Thereis

needtoensurethatthefundssoughtareenoughandproperaccountingbeputin

place.

5) Thereisneedtoprepareandproducecompetentteachersinmedia

educationsoastomaintain/copeupwiththesedevelopments.

Challengesofthesefuturedevelopments

Povertyinthedevelopingworld–littleornomoneyisdirectedtowards

meetingthenewdevelopmentsintechnology

Underdevelopment–Thisaffectsindustrializationprocesswhichis

responsibleforproducingandmaintainingtherelevantmedia

Existingtraditionsandpracticesineducationandteachingprofessionwhich

leadstoresistancetochange(believethatbetterdevilknownthanangelnot

known)

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Dependencysyndrome-developingworlddependingtoomuchondeveloped

worldonfunding,technology,ideasandinnovations

Existingrigidorinflexible–narrow–scopeeducationcurriculum inparticular.

(lackofreadinesstochangeinabilitytoadapttochangesineducation_

Lackofexpertise/limitedexpertiseinmediaeducationinthedevelopingworld.

Thisleadstooverrelianceonimportedmediaspecialists

Inequalityinresource(financial,humanandotherfacilities)distribution

amongstlearninginstitutions.

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Managementoftheemergingdevelopmentsineducationaltechnologyand

media

Thefollowingarethestrategiesthatthedevelopingcountriesshouldemployin

ordertomanagethesedevelopments

i.Reviewtheexistingcurriculum especiallytheteachereducationcurriculum.

ii.Enhanceeconomicgrowthinthedevelopingworldtogenerate

enough/adequaterevenuetosupportthesedevelopments

iii.Fast–trackcapacitybuildinginmediaeducationasacompetentofeducation

-Teachersshouldbeexposedtomoderndevelopmentsineducational

technologye.g.providingexchangeprogrammes

IV.Conductingciviceducationontheroleofmoderneducationtechnologiesand

mediainnationaldevelopmentingeneralandeducationandparticular

V.Developingandmaintainingrelevantinfrastructureforadministrationof

evolvingeducationaltechnologiesandmediaineducation

Futureofinstructioninrelationtoadvancementineducationaltechnologyand

media

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a) Instructionisgoingtobemedia–basedhenceneedtoestablishSMMC

b) Thereisneedformorecollaborationandco-operationbetweenthe

educationsectorandtheindustry

c) Schoolteacherswillbere-trainedonmediaeducationmoreaggressively

itiscurrently

d) Therewillbeanaggressiveacquisition,developmentandadministrationof

mediaprogrammesIneducationtoaidteaching

Inviewoftheabovethefutureofinstructioninthiscenturyandbeyondwill

dependontheCadre(Calibre)ofteachersproducednow

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99