MASINDE MULIRO UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 5.

0 ASSESSMENT

DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS EDUCATION The achievement of the course objectives will be evaluated through:

ESM 725: TEACHING METHODS IN BIOLOGY (3 UNITS)  Continuous assessment accounting for 30% of the total marks.
This will be done through project work, assignments and written
LECTURER: DR. CATHERINE AURAH tests.
LBB: 003/SPD 320 Mobile No. 0724966574  Examination accounting for 70% of the total marks and will
consist of a three-hour written examination administered at the end
1.0 INTRODUCTION
of the course.
This course focuses on the evolution of biology in the wider discipline of Science. Specifically
6.0 COURSE DESCRIPTION
the course introduces the teacher trainees to the strategies and techniques of teaching biology
in secondary schools and lays the foundation for the subsequent practical session during school Meaning and goals of science education; static and dynamic views of science; Historical
practice. development of the biology syllabus in Kenya; Critical analysis of the biology syllabus in
Kenya; Methods and approaches of teaching biology at secondary school level: Class
2.0 OBJECTIVES OF THE COURSE
experiments, field trips demonstrations, etc. Science process skills and their development
By the end of the course the student trainees should be able to: through biology teaching; Critical view of biology: recent developments in the discipline and
the welfare of humankind; Planning for biology instruction: the syllabus, schemes of work,
a) Develop an understanding of the place of biology in the lesson planning, lesson notes and record of work covered; resources and facilities for teaching
science discipline. biology; Botanical techniques and resource building for biology teaching; laboratory design
and management; Assessment and evaluation in Biology; professional growth in biology
b) Identify the scientific knowledge, skills and attitudes teaching.
which can be developed through the teaching and
learning of biology. COURSE CONTENT

c) Design, implement and evaluate biology curriculum in 1.0 THE NATURE OF SCIENCE AND SCIENCE EDUCATION
secondary schools.
1.1 The meaning of science: static and dynamic views and their influence on
d) Demonstrate an understanding of the evolution of science teaching
biology curricula in Kenya and other parts of the world.
1.2 The scientific method
e) Plan and teach various concepts, ideas and issues in
biology using suitable resources and strategies. 1.3 The meaning and goals of science education

f) Identify the significance of new developments in 1.4 Biology as a science: Biology Education
biology for the well-being of humankind.
https://www.slideshare.net/shydagreat/unit-1-the-science-of-biology
3.0 DURATION
2.0 SECONDARY SCHOOL BIOLOGY CURRICULUM
The course will last for one semester (16 weeks). It will consist of three credit hours per week
2.1 Historical development and progress of the biology syllabus in Kenya.
(two hours of lecture and three hours of practical work).
2.2 Goals and objectives of secondary school biology in Kenya.
4.0 MODE OF INSTRUCTION
2.3 Content and organization of the biology syllabus in Kenya.
The student trainees will be taught through the following techniques: Lectures, discussions and
seminars, Projects, Field excursions, and Laboratory experiments

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3.0 LEARNING IN BIOLOGY 6.5 Progress records and profiles in biology

3.1 Theories of learning and their application to the teaching of biology 6.6 National examinations in biology

3.2 Active learning in biology

4.0 INSTRUCTION IN SECONDARY SCHOOL BIOLOGY 7.0 PROFESSIONAL GROWTH IN BIOLOGY

4.1 Theories of instruction and their application to the teaching of biology. 7.1 Recent developments in the discipline and the welfare of mankind:
Internet and networking.
4.2 Methods and techniques of biology teaching at secondary school level:
Experiments, demonstration, Excursions, Fieldwork, projects and 7.2 Professional growth after college: membership in subject panels, biology
simulations. teacher associations, biology journals, etc.

4.3 A process-based approach to biology teaching: An examination of the REFERENCES

science process skills with special reference to the skills of observation,
recording, classifying, synthesizing, evaluation, interpretation, etc. 1.
4.4 Planning for biology teaching: the syllabus, schemes of work, lesson
planning, lesson notes and record of work covered. 2.
Raven, P.H and Johnson, G.B (1988) Understanding Biology St. Louis:
Times Mirror/mosby college publishing.
Toole, G and Toole, S. (2000) A – Level Biology Study Guide London: Letts
Educational.

3. Roberts, MBV (1988) Biology: A functional Approach. Cheltenham: Nelson

5.0 INSTRUCTIONAL RESOURCES IN BIOLOGY
4. Dawson, B and Honeysett, I (2001) Revise GCSE Biology, London: Letts
5.1 Resources for teaching biology: Botanical gardens, arboreteums, herbaria, Educational

museums, aquaria, ponds, specimens, etc 5. KIE Secondary Biology and Biological sciences Books 1,2,3 and 4 pupils and
Teachers’ books.
5.2 Facilities for teaching biology: Microscopes, hand lenses, chemicals and
6. Sequeira, L (2004) Certificate Biology, (pupils and Teachers Books 1,2,3 and
Other assorted equipment and apparatus. 4).

5.3 Laboratory design and management 7. Wilke, A.O (1996) Exploring Biology To-day : Lab manual St. Louis: Mosby.

5.4. Botanical techniques and resource building for biology teaching. 8. Mackean, D.G (2003) Introduction to Biology (3rd Tropical Edition), London:
John Murray.
5.5 Integrating ICT in biology teaching/learning.
9. Martin D.J (2000) Elementary Science Methods: A Constructivist Approach,
Belmont: Wardsworth.

6.0 ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION IN BIOLOGY 10. Cotter, D.J (1993) Learning Biology Today, St. Louis: Mosby

6.1 Meaning of evaluation and assessment 11. Gottfried,S.S (1993) Biology Today. St Louis: Mosby.

6.2 Assessment of performance in biology: products Vs processes 12. Tsuma, O.G.K (1998) Science Education in the African Context.

6.3 Test construction in biology 13. Hayward, G (1999) Biology for Kenya , London, Macmillan.

6.4 Marking and scoring tests in biology 14. Keeton/Gould (1993) Biological science (Biological Science Text and Study
Guide).

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 15. 1.0 THE NATURE OF SCIENCE AND SCIENCE EDUCATION Therefore,

1.5 The meaning of science: static and dynamic views and their influence Science is a methodical approach to studying the natural world. Science asks basic questions,
on science teaching such as how does the world work? How did the world come to be? What was the world like in
the past, what is it like now, and what will it be like in the future? These questions are
What is science? answered using observation, testing, and interpretation through logic.

The question of science has been asked since the days of Aristotle (over 2,500 years ago). Most scientists would not say that science leads to an understanding of the truth. Science is a
Nobody has given a conclusive answer to this question. determination of what is most likely to be correct at the current time with the evidence at our
disposal. Scientific explanations can be inferred from confirmable data only, and observations
However, for a science teacher, this question must be answered because the way we view and experiments must be reproducible and verifiable by other individuals. In other words, good
science influences the following: science is based on information that can be measured or seen and verified by other scientists.
Science is, however, a human endeavor and is subject to personal prejudices,
1. The type of science curriculum we adopt
misapprehensions, and bias.
2. The instructional strategies we employ
There are two views of what science is:
3. The type of school leavers we channel into the labor market
1. Traditional or Static view of science
There are various perceptions to science. Examples include
2. Modern or dynamic view of science
1. Reading a passage from a science book
Those who view science as static assert that science consists of a group of facts that are best
2. Wanting to know how to get to Lamu from Mombasa memorized. Those who view science as dynamic believe that scientific ideas develop and
change and that the best way to learn these ideas is to understand what they mean and how they
3. Sowing bean seeds in tin cans are related.

4. Driving a car Two basic views of science are the static and the dynamic.

5. Explaining how a car works
Some of these activities may appear not to have any science but you can convert them into
scientific activities. For example, the third activity can become a scientific activity by restating
it as:
Suppose I sowed bean seeds in different tin cans all under the same conditions except soil
types. What will happen?
It is scientific because:
1. We are asking a question that will lead us to get evidence as a basis of the truth
2. We are experimenting - an investigation is being carried out.
3. We are investigating a natural phenomenon
Science is not simply a body of knowledge or a list of facts to be remembered. It is an
intellectual activity encompassing observation, description, experimentation, and explanation
of the natural phenomena.
It is a pathway by which we can come to discover the world around us.
1. The static view perceives science as a body of systemized information that includes
connected principles, theories, and laws.
2. In this view, science is the cumulative results of past investigations, to which contemporary
scientists add blocks of information to an existing knowledge base. The dynamic view presents
science as a process, and suggests that scientific theories and principles "would soon become a
dogma if not subjected to constant investigation and development. In the dynamic view,
science is a body of generally accepted rules by which one deals with knowledge; through
application of the scientific method
The static view represents science as a systematic body of knowledge, while the dynamic view
represents science as an ongoing and continuing activity.  On the dynamic view the present
state of knowledge is of importance chiefly as a basis for further research activity.
Traditional/Static View of Science
This view has been in operation since the days of Aristotle. Proponents of this view believe
that science is a collection of facts and ideas which explain the universe in which we live. It is
a way of explaining the what exists in the universe. This means that experiments can only be
conducted to prove or confirm what scientific theories, laws and principles.

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Teachers who believe in this view teach by rote memorization whereby learners are expected
to cram as many facts into their heads as possible without regard for whether they do in fact
understand what they are taught.
To the pupils, science does not offer them opportunities to be creative. Everything seems to
have been found out. Students hope to learn/know a lot of science but end up knowing very
little which they forget very fast; as soon as they leave school.
The Modern/Dynamic View of Science
Proponents of this view consider science as an investigative activity. They focus on acquisition
of scientific skills rather than on scientific knowledge parse.
In this view, science is not just accumulation of knowledge but is the process which stimulates
further investigation.
If an atom was totally held as indivisible according to Dalton's atomic theory, then both the
atomic and neutron bonds would not have been invented. Therefore science is a continuous
activity in search of new findings about the natural world.
Refer to the activity of sowing seeds in a tin can:
Let the students design an experiment on their own to investigate conditions necessary for
germination. They will build skills for observation, recording, controlling variables, etc.
In this approach, science is seen as the process through which we find out things for ourselves.
It is an inquiry process (investigative process) into the real world around us with a view to
discovering patterns and regularities , and explaining these. This approach ensures that learners
leave school having developed a new skill: the ability to approach any problem in a logical
scientific manner. They are able to inquire. They have acquired Inquiry skills.
Scientific inquiry refers to the diverse ways in which scientists study the natural world and
propose explanations based on the evidence derived from their work. Inquiry also refers to the
activities of students in which they develop knowledge and understanding of scientific ideas, as
well as an understanding of how scientists study the natural world. (National Science
Education Standards, p. 23.)
Science is dynamic in nature – it's not a fixed set of facts & doesn't simply represent the 'truth'
about the natural world, but changes through time as new data are collected. Darwin was
alive at a time when scientists were redefining a whole range of concepts ('species', for one)
If the two views are merged, then science can be defined as:
An investigative process by which we explore the real world around us to understand it much
better.
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Who is a scientist?
A scientist is one who seeks answers to problems about the nature of the universe. He/she is
able to see problems where other people do not. In trying to find answers to problems of
nature, he/she asks the "why', 'how' and 'what' of things.
Some scientists spend most of their time just searching for facts, thinking up explanations of
the facts, and doing experiments to test their explanations. Such are called Research Scientists
and their work is called Pure Science.
On the other hand we have scientists who work on practical problems. They try to find out uses
for scientific facts and explanations. These are called Practical scientists or Technologists.
Do We Want to Make School Children Scientists?
It is true that some students in schools will become scientists. Others will not. However, we
would like students to work as scientists while still in school and after they leave school. We
would like them to be familiar with the scientific process as a means of making sense of the
world for themselves. We would like them to sharpen a desire to discover things through
observation and critical analysis of situations and be able to differentiate opinions from facts.
They should be familiar with areas of scientific knowledge by developing basic skills:
scientific skills and scientific attitudes, necessary for all-round development. All entities that
go with outcomes of science learning contribute to development of a good citizen who is able
to solve day to day problems in a rational manner.
Activity
Find out what each of the following scientists contributed to scientific knowledge
1. Louis Pasteur
2. Gregor Mendel
3. Galileo Galilei
4. Isaac Newton
5. Archimedes
6. Gay Lussac
7. Robert Hooke
8. Aristotle
9. Michael Faraday
10. Albert Einstein
11. Crick and Watson

12. Mendelev Deductive Reasoning

Refer to the activity of wanting to reach Lamu from Mombasa:

1.6 THE NATURE OF SCIENCE AND THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD - Use a map or atlas to identify the route.

a. Nature of Science (NOS)
Over the course of human history, people have developed many interconnected and validated
ideas about the physical, biological, psychological, and social worlds. Those ideas have
enabled successive generations to achieve an increasingly comprehensive and reliable
understanding of the human species and its environment. The means used to develop these
ideas are particular ways of observing, thinking, experimenting, and validating. These ways
represent a fundamental aspect of the nature of science and reflect how science tends to differ
from other modes of knowing.
Deductive reasoning involves making an individual decision by applying a map or accepted
general principles for a given situation.
Examples of deductive logic:
All men are mortal. Joe is a man. Therefore Joe is mortal. If the first two statements are true,
then the conclusion must be true.
Bachelor s are unmarried men. Bill is unmarried. Therefore, Bill is a bachelor.

Just what is nature of science? As simple as this statement sounds, the term in and of itself is To get a Bachelor's degree at Masinde Muliro University, a student must have 120 credits.
not readily agreed upon in scientific communities. Sally has more than 130 credits. Therefore, Sally has a bachelor's degree.

Nature of science is not so much defined by a concise statement, but rather defined more by its
components:

a. That science is a way of knowing, and there are values and beliefs inherent to the
development of scientific knowledge

b. That the philosophy, history, sociology, and psychology of science affect science
teaching and learning

c. That science is a human endeavor and that people of all ages, races, sexes, and
nationalities engage in this enterprise

d. That science is based upon evidence—not logic or faith

e. That no single universal step-by-step scientific method captures the full

complexity of doing science

f. That creativity is a vital, yet personal, ingredient in the production of scientific

knowledge;

g. That with new evidence and interpretation, old ideas are replaced or supplemented
In the process of deduction, you begin with some statements, called 'premises', that are
by newer ones
assumed to be true, you then determine what else would have to be true if the premises are
Science is about reasoning. It is about arriving at a conclusion. There are two ways of true.
reasoning:
Examples of deductive logic:
a. Deductive reasoning
All men are mortal. Joe is a man. Therefore Joe is mortal. If the first two statements are true,
b. Inductive reasoning then the conclusion must be true.

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Bachelor's are unmarried men. Bill is unmarried. Therefore, Bill is a bachelor. In the process of induction, you begin with some data, and then determine what general
conclusion(s) can logically be derived from those data. In other words, you determine what
To get a Bachelor's degree at Masinde Muliro University, a student must have 120 credits. theory or theories could explain the data. However, induction does not prove that the theory is
Sally has more than 130 credits. Therefore, Sally has a bachelor's degree. correct. There are often alternative theories that are also supported by the data.

The first 2 statements are called premises. If they are true, then the conclusion is also true. Scientists discover general principles by looking at various phenomena to determine the
however, sometimes the 2 premises may be false but giving a true conclusion. For example: general principles that govern such phenomena. Science uses inductive reasoning to infer
general principles from detailed observations.
All mammals are immortal (False)
Inductive reasoning has its place in the scientific method. Scientists use it to form hypotheses
All dogs are immortal (False) and theories.
All dogs are mammals (True) Deductive reasoning allows them to apply the theories to specific situations.
In this example, logic in the argument is faulty but giving a true statement b. The Scientific Method
All humankind relies on deductive reasoning to make everyday decisions. We use general How does scientist work? A scientist has a way of working things. The process of finding
principles as a basis for making such decisions. Deductive reasoning is also used in things is called The Scientific Method.
mathematics, philosophy, politics, and ethics. It is also the way computers work.
Consider a boy who finds that his bicycle tyre is flat:
Implications of Deductive Reasoning for Teaching
He has a problem that requires a solution.
Deductive reasoning subscribes to static view of science, In this case experiments are carried
out to prove what is already known, rather than raise questions for further investigations. Question that arises is:
Discovery of knowledge is not therefore a major concern in deductive reasoning. The concern
is relating observation to what is already known. What is the cause of the flat tyre?

Inductive Reasoning There will be several possible answers or guesses. They are called "Hypotheses"

Inductive reasoning involves the discovery of general principles from careful examinations or A hypothesis is a possible answer or response to the problem:
observation of specific specimens.
Puncture in the tyre

Low air pressure in the tyre

Valve leakage

He then finds out the correct guess through experimentation/testing

Experimentation

The boy will require materials e.g., basin full of water, air pump, etc.

He then removes the tube and immerses it in a basin full of water.

If bubbles are seen, it is a puncture. Hypothesis 1 is supported. If no bubbles, then no puncture.

Hypothesis 1 is discarded.

Through experimentation, a scientist verifies hypotheses and then focuses on the one he
accepts to solve the problem. So he concludes

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Conclusion: The tyre had a puncture.
Rene Descartes established the framework of the scientific method in 1619, and his first step is
seen as a guiding principle for many in the field of science today:
By sticking to certain accepted “rules of reasoning,” scientific method helps to minimize
influence on results by personal, social, or unreasonable influences. Thus, science is seen as a
pathway to study phenomena in the world, based upon reproducibly testable and verifiable
evidence. This pathway may take different forms; in fact, creative flexibility is essential to
scientific thinking, so there is no single method that all scientists use, but each must ultimately
have a conclusion that is testable and falsifiable; otherwise, it is not science.
The scientific method in actuality isn’t a set sequence of procedures that must happen, although
it is sometimes presented as such. Some descriptions actually list and number three to fourteen
procedural steps. No matter how many steps it has or what they cover, the scientific method
does contain elements that are applicable to most experimental sciences, such as physics and
chemistry, and is taught to students to aid their understanding of science.
That being said, it is most important that students realize that the scientific method is a form of
critical thinking that will be subjected to review and independent duplication in order to reduce
the degree of uncertainty. The scientific method may include some or all of the following
“steps” in one form or another: observation, defining a question or problem, forming a
hypothesis, prediction from the hypothesis (deductive reasoning), experimentation (testing the
hypothesis), evaluation and analysis
Elements of The Scientific Method
Scientific method is not a rigid process to follow like following a recipe. In practice, the
scientific method is not a single pathway that is always rigidly followed from start to finish.
Rather, it is an adaptable process that includes many different methods. This flexibility makes
the scientific method a more powerful process that can be used to explore a wide variety of
thoughts, events, or phenomena, not only in science but in other areas as well.
Step 1: Make Observation
The first process in the scientific method involves the observation of a phenomenon, event, or
“problem.” The discovery of such a phenomenon may occur due to an interest on the
observer’s part, a suggestion or assignment, or it may be an annoyance that one wishes to
resolve. The discovery may even be by chance, although it is likely the observer would be in
the right frame of mind to make the observation. It is said that as a boy, Albert Einstein wanted
to know what it would be like to ride a light beam, and this curious desire stuck with him
throughout his education and eventually led to his incredible theories of electromagnetism.
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Question
Observation leads to a question that needs to be answered to satisfy human curiosity about the
observation, such as why or how this event happened or what it is like (as in the light beam). In
order to develop this question, observation may involve taking measures to quantify it in order
to better describe it. Scientific questions need to be answerable and lead to the formation of a
hypothesis about the problem.
Step 2: Formulate a Hypothesis
To answer a question, a hypothesis (pl. hypotheses) will be formed. This is an educated guess
regarding the question’s answer. Educated is highlighted because no good hypothesis can be
developed without research into the problem. It is a proposed explanation for observed
phenomena. Sometimes numerous working hypotheses may be used for a single subject, as
long as research indicates they are all applicable. Hypotheses are generally consistent with
existing knowledge and are conducive to further inquiry.
A scientific hypothesis has to be testable and also has to be falsifiable. In other words, there
must be a way to try to make the hypothesis fail. Science is often more about proving a
scientific statement wrong rather than right. If it does fail, another hypothesis may be tested,
usually one that has taken into consideration the fact that the last tested hypothesis failed.
One fascinating aspect is that hypotheses may fail at one time but be proven correct at a later
date (usually with more advanced technology).
For example, Alfred Wegener’s idea that the continents have drifted apart from each other was
deemed impossible because of what was known in the early 1900s about the composition of the
continental crust and the oceanic crust. Geophysics indicated the brittle, lighter continents
could not drift or be pushed through dense ocean crust. Years later, it was shown that one
aspect of Wegener’s idea, that the continents were once together, was most likely correct
(although not as separate units but as part of a larger plate). These plates didn’t, however, have
to plow through ocean crust. Instead, magma appears to have arisen between them and formed
new oceanic crust while the plates carrying the continents diverged on either side The exact
mechanism of how the plates were pushed apart from the rising magma, or were pulled apart,
allowing magma to rise between them, or a combination of both, is still not completely
understood.
Devise a testable hypothesis
The hypothesis should also contain a prediction about its verifiability. For example, if the
hypothesis is true, then (1) should happen when (2) is manipulated.
The first blank (1) is the dependent variable (it depends on what you are doing in the second
blank) and the second blank (2) is the independent variable (you manipulate it to get a
reaction). There should be no other variables in the experiment that may affect the dependent
variable.
Once you make a testable prediction, the next step is to go ahead and test it.
Conduct a Critical Experiment
Once the hypothesis has been established, it is time to test it. The process of experimentation is
what sets science apart from other disciplines, and it leads to discoveries every day.
A critical experiment is designed to prove or disprove the hypothesis.
If your prediction is correct, you will not be able to reject the hypothesis.
Testing and experimentation can occur in the laboratory, in the field, on the blackboard, or the
computer. Results of testing must be reproducible and verifiable. The data should be available
to determine if the interpretations are unbiased and free from prejudice.
Well-designed experiments are essential to testing hypotheses. Controlling variables makes
experiments more powerful.
Some elements common to most experiments include:
1. Treatment- experimental condition applied to the research subjects
2. Experimental group- a group of subjects who are exposed to a particular treatment
3. Control group- a group of subjects who are treated identically to the experimental group
with one exception; they are not exposed to the treatment.
4. Variables- These are characteristics of an experimental design that are subject to change.
There are three categories of variables:
i) Dependent Variable (DV)- This is the outcome variable. This is the one where the “effect”
can be seen; changes that occur in this are caused by the changes to the independent variable;
[y-axis on graph] , It is influenced by changes in the independent variable
ii) Independent variable (IV)- This is the one that is being suggested as a “cause”; you
manipulate this in your experiment; [x-axis on graph] . As this variable is manipulated/ as it
changes, the dependent variable changes too.
iii) Control Variable- A variable that can have undue influence on the dependent variable if not
controlled for.
Draw Conclusions and make revisions
Once the results of the critical experiment are in, they are pulled apart, examined, and
analysed. Researchers look for patterns, trends, and relationships in the evidence they have
gathered from their experiments, they draw conclusions and see whether the findings support
their hypotheses.
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Note:
If an experimental result is not what you expected, this does not mean your answer is wrong.
Science includes a great deal of trial and error, and if the conclusions do not support the
hypothesis, then you must revise your hypothesis, which often spurs you to conduct more
experiments.
Evaluation
All evidence and conclusions must be analyzed to make sure bias or inadequate effort did not
lead to incorrect conclusions. Qualitative and quantitative mathematical analysis may also be
applied. Scientific explanations should always be made public, either in print or presented at
scientific meetings. It should also be maintained that scientific explanations are tentative and
subject to modification.
Evaluation includes reviewing the experimental procedures, examining the evidence,
identifying faulty reasoning, pointing out statements that go beyond the evidence, and
suggesting alternative explanations for the same observations. Thus, evaluation is integral to
the process of scientific method.
When do Hypotheses become Theories, and what are Theories?
If all evidence continues to support a given hypothesis through numerous experiments, then it
may eventually be termed as a Theory.
When a theory has been verified beyond doubt then it may be termed as a LAW.
Note
Scientific thinking can be distinguished from those alternative ways of acquiring knowledge
about the world in that it is 'empirical'. Empirical knowledge is based on experience and
observations that are rational, testable, and repeatable. The empirical nature of the scientific
approach makes it self-correcting in the process of analysing the topic, event, or phenomenon,
with the scientific method. Incorrect ideas are discarded in favor of more accurate
explanations.
Definitions
Fact: 1. A confirmed or agreed-upon empirical observation or conclusion. 2. Knowledge or
information based on real occurrences: an account based on fact. 3. a. Something demonstrated
to exist or known to have existed: Genetic engineering is now a fact. That Einstein was a real
person is an undisputed fact. 4 . A real occurrence; an event.
Hypothesis: An educated proposal to explain certain facts; a tentative explanation for an
observation, phenomenon, or scientific problem that can be tested by further investigation.
Scientific Theory (or Law): An integrated, comprehensive explanation of many “facts,”
especially one that has been repeatedly tested or is widely accepted and can be used to make
predictions about natural phenomena. A theory can often generate additional hypotheses and
testable predictions. Theories can incorporate facts and laws and tested hypotheses.
Unfortunately, the common/non-scientific definition for theory is quite different, and is more
typically thought of as a belief that can guide behavior. Some examples: “His speech was
based on the theory that people hear only what they want to know” or “It’s just a theory.”
Because of the nature of this definition, some people wrongly assume scientific theories are
speculative, unsupported, or easily cast aside, which is very far from the truth.
A scientific hypothesis that survives extensive experimental testing without being shown to be
false becomes a scientific theory. Accepted scientific theories also produce testable predictions
that are successful.
In biology, two of the most important theories are
Cell Theory: All organisms are made up of cells and all cells come from pre-existing cells
Theory of Evolution by natural selection: Species can change over time and all species are
related to each other through common ancestry.
SHOULD PUPILS KNOW ABOUT THE SCIENTIC METHOD?
The use of scientific method in teaching science has been criticised recently as an
oversimplification of the way in which scientists actually work. It is believed that scientist do
not just work in a rigid stages but use a lot of creativity and imagination to solve the often
complex tasks. A scientist really gets in mind the problem he/she wants to solve. He/she knows
just what it is that he/she is trying to do; or explain; or prove; or disapprove.
The scientific method itself therefore does not have a real meaning to the pupil of science as
such; rather it is the art of scientific investigation that should be introduced to the pupil; i.e.,
learning how to recognise, depict, and state problems clearly. The pupil should practice about
how to collect data about the problem through careful observation. From the data collected, the
pupil should make testable hypotheses and devise experiments to test them using suitable
equipment and other resources.
Generally the scientific process will help pupils of science to:
a) acquire scientific skills necessary for studying and solving problems
b) acquire scientific knowledge in form of concepts, laws, principles, theories and
generalisations.
c) develop positive attitudes towards solving problems in their everyday lives; i.e., scientific
attitudes; e.g., curiosity, love for asking questions, appreciation for self-criticism, tolerance,
cooperation, love for objectivity, open mindedness; all of which are ingredients of over-coming
everyday problems.
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Assignment (1st CAT)
Joseph Farman, a British earth scientist discovered a hole in the ozone layer in the Antarctica
through a systematic process.
a) Discuss the major steps in this process, citing specific examples from his work
b) Do you agree that scientific discovery and process is merely the result of applying a series of
steps called The Scientific Method? Explain your answer.
1.3 THE MEANING AND GOALS OF SCIENCE EDUCATION
Science education is the process by which learners acquire scientific knowledge, skills, and
attitudes through a prescribed science curriculum.
Enhancing the scientific literacy (also commonly referred to as science literacy) of students has
been a goal of science educators for more than a century.
A major goal of science is to explain and describe phenomena observed in the natural world.
These explanations and descriptions are contained in the concepts, theories, laws, and
principles of science; all of which have been tested and shown to be reasonably but tentatively
true.
They are based on systematic observation, inductive reasoning, and application of methods of
scientific investigation; and are considered universally applicable.
For the learners to be exposed to all these, desirable methods of teaching should be used; which
not only encourage the acquisition of these concepts, theories, laws, and principles, but also the
development of useful investigation skills; i.e., scientific skills; and scientific attitudes. This is
the goal of science education.
Components of Science
Science can be defined as a process of producing scientific knowledge. In this case science
comprises of both process and content/knowledge/products.
The Products of Science
The products of science are the things, thoughts, and attitudes that occur as a result of doing
science.
The thoughts include facts, concepts, generalizations, theories, laws, and principles.
Things refer to technological devices, arising from application of thoughts.
 Scientists have identified seven basic characteristics of life. For something to be described as
living, that something must display all seven of these characteristics. Although many different
Scientific Concepts people have many different opinions about what "living" means, the following characteristics
were designated "characteristics of living things" with the consensus of the scientific
A concept is an idea that combines several facts or observations. It is an abstraction that community
explains a regularity in observations. Examples are:
1. Living things are made of one or more cells.
1. Green plants need light in order to grow- 2 facts here are light and growth
A cell is a tiny, microscopic structure that is the basic unit of all living things. Some
2. Green plans bend towards light
living things, such as the bacteria are made up of only one cell. Other living things, such as the
Scientific Generalizations deer contain many cells. You are made of trillions of cells
A generalization is a broad notion linking several small concepts. Example: 2. Living things grow and develop.
Green plants are living things Some organisms, such as a butterfly, change shape as they grow and develop.
Scientific Theories Most organisms have a life span—the maximum time that they can live. Some bacteria live for
only a few hours. A mayfly’s life span is one to three days, and a human’s life span is over 110
(See earlier definition)
years. Some plants and fungi can live for more than 10 000 years!
Scientific theories are arrived at through a great deal of complex inquiry and learners are
3. Living things reproduce to form more of the same kind of organism.
unlikely to discover this for themselves.
These offspring are also able to reproduce. There are many methods of reproduction. Some
organisms, such as humans, give birth to live young. Other organisms, such as birds and fish,
1.4 BIOLOGY AS A SCIENCE: BIOLOGY EDUCATION hatch from eggs.

Definition of Biology 4. Living things respond.

The word biology came into being in 1802 coined by two scientists: Lamarck (Frenc scientist) For example, if you touch something hot, you respond by quickly pulling your hand away. Or
and Tre Viranus (Germany scientist). In Greek the words bios and logos stand for life and if you look into a bright light, you respond by squinting your eyes. Some plants, such as
knowledge respectively. So sunflowers, respond to light by turning towards it

Definition 1. Biology is the study of living things. 5. All living organisms display heredity

This is a general definition but is not really good enough for someone studying biology. Living organisms inherit traits from the parent organisms that created them

6. All Living things Maintain Homeostasis

Definition 2. Biology is the scientific study of living things. All living things maintain a state of internal balance.

This definition is better because it uses the terms 'scientific'. 7. Living Things Respire

The word life lacks a definite definition. Instead biologists attempt to define life in terms of the All living organisms require energy, usually in the form of ATP. They use this energy to carry
attributes that characterise life- the characteristics that distinguish living things from non-living out energy-requiring activities such as metabolism and locomotion
things.

Note: Both living and non-living things are made up of matter.

Non-living things, such as rocks and buildings, do not have these characteristics.
Characteristics of Living Things

10
 heavens.

Biology as a Science Secondly, he is generally credited with inventing

the scientific method as we understand it today
It took a long time for biology to be recognised s one of the disciplines of science. Three
periods in time can be recognised in this long journey: –or at the very least, being the first to apply it
systematically.
1. Era Before Christ

2. Era of Intellectual Awakening

3 Isaac Newton (1642 - 1727) Law of gravitation
3. Darwinian Era
4 Robert Hooke (1635 - 1703) Simple microscope. Suggested that living things
are composed of cells
1. The Era Before Christ 5 Leuwenhoek (1632 - 1723) Encouraged the work of Robert Hooke
The most prominent scientists like Socrates and Aristotle enquired into nature majorly through
6 Fransesco Redi (1670 - Designed controlled experiments. Discovered that
deductive reasoning of philosophy
living things such as maggots did not
Superstition reigned during this period and later reliance was placed on religious dogma. No spontaneously develop from dead matter.
real distinction was made between science and theology. The scientific method had not been
7 Malphighi (168 - 1694) Studied embryological development of human
discovered. This period lasted upto 12th century.
beings

8 Carolus Linnaeus (1707 - Founded the modern system of classification of

2. Era of Intellectual Awakening 1778) living things

This era is referred to as the Renaissance Period. Renaissance means re-birth. During this era, 9 William Harvey (1578 - Studied human anatomy and discovered the
an attempt was made to distinguish between natural truth and revealed truth (Revelation). The 1657) circulatory system
Renaissance began in Italy, especially in art and architecture, in the fifteenth century. As
England became the most powerful nation in Europe in the late sixteenth century, new worlds
were discovered and new ways of seeing and thinking developed. Columbus discovered
3.Darwinian Era (1809-1882)
America in 1492, Copernicus and Galileo made important discoveries about the stars and
planets, Ferdinand Magellan sailed all round the world. The Renaissance was worldwide. The modern era of biology as a science began in 1859 when Charles Darwin published a book
called “Origin of Species” in which he proposed his theory of evolution by Natural Selection.
Scholars like Magnus (1193-1280), Thomas Aquinas (1225 - 1274) and Roger Bacon (1210 -
This book triggered an explosion in growth of Biology.
1293) at the universities urged people to base their arguments on truths arising from
experimental approach. Despite violent rejection of these ideas Darwin never relented and instead gave more papers
explaining his findings. In formulating his theory Darwin used the following evidence
Some scientists during this period include:
I. Existence of Fossils of Extinct Animals
Scientist/Scholar Known for:
II. Similarities of Living Organisms
1 Nicolaus Corpenicus Solar system. The earth rotates around the sun. He
was almost killed because the sun was to be III. Gradual Morphological Changes in Fossils over Time
(1473 - 1543) worshipped.
IV. Structural Changes in Domestic Animals and Plants
2 Galileo Galilei (1609 - The first, in 1609, to use a telescope to study the

11
Almost immediately interest in Biological Research began to grow rapidly. Men began to
investigate the phenomena they had so long considered beyond the scope of science. Today
there are so many discoveries, theories and principles in the area of Biology, the latest being
the Human Genome
WHAT IS THE STATUS OF BILOGY AS A SCIENCE FERTHE DARWINIAN ERA?
 MENDEL'S WORK
 GENETIC ENGINERING
 DNA CONCEPT
 BIOTECHNOLOGY
 MICROBIOLOGY
Biology Education
Through the study of biology students employ the processes of science in their investigations
and explore the diversity of life and the inter-relationship between organisms and their
environment. Students develop an understanding and knowledge of the unit of life – the cell –
whose structures and processes are shared by all living organisms and, in so doing, gain an
insight into the uniqueness, function and role of organisms, including themselves. In addition,
they become aware of the use by humans of other living organisms and their products to
enhance human health and the human environment and make informed evaluations about
contemporary biological issues. Biology education enables students to gain biological literacy.
Biological literacy is the ability to:
1) use the process of scientific inquiry to think creatively about real world issues that have a
biological component
2) communicate those thoughts to others
3) integrate these ideas into their decision-making
Biological literacy involves both the big issues facing society and personal issues too.
Biological issues including global warming, fossil fuel use, stem-cell research, and
proliferation of genetically modified foods have also become important in political campaigns.
These biological issues permeate all aspects of our lives. To make wise decisions, it is essential
for individuals and societies to attain biological literacy through biology education. Scientific
thinking will help you make wise decisions for yourself and for society.
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The main objectives of biology education include
(a) Knowledge, Understanding and Skills
Students should have a knowledge and understanding of biological facts, terms, principles,
concepts, relationships and experimental techniques, including practical laboratory skills.
Such skills should include
• an ability to carry out practical work, laboratory work and fieldwork activities safely and
effectively
• an ability to record and interpret biological data.
(b) Application and Interface with Technology
Students should be able to apply, where possible, their knowledge and understanding of
biology in environmental, industrial, agricultural, medical, waste management and other
technological contexts.
(c) Science in the Political, Social and Economic Spheres
Students should be able to apply, where possible, their knowledge and understanding of
biology in personal, social and economic spheres and to make informed evaluations about
contemporary biological issues
Biology education aims to
1. to contribute to students' general education through their involvement in the process of
scientific investigation and the acquisition of biological knowledge and understanding
2. to encourage in students an attitude of scientific enquiry, of curiosity and self-discovery
through
(i) individual study and personal initiative
(ii) team work
(iii) class-directed work
3. to develop an understanding of biological facts and principles
4. to enhance an interest in and develop an appreciation of the nature and diversity of
organisms
5. to create an awareness of the application of biological knowledge to modern society in
personal, social, economic, environmental, industrial, agricultural, medical, waste
management and other technological contexts
6. to develop in students an ability to make informed evaluations about contemporary  To innovate generally means to make c or introducing three things new usually
biological issues. leading to curriculum improvement.

 The biology curriculum for secondary school experienced fundamental changes

since that time up to now.
TOPIC 2: SECONDARY SCHOOL BIOLOGY CURRICULUM
The changes were in terms of: -
2.1. Historical development and progress of the biology syllabus in Kenya
a) Content
2.1.1 Historical development of biology as a science
b) Teaching materials
 The ancient Greeks in Romans such as Plato Aristotle were skilled observers but
were not scientists by today’s definition. Their science was called Natural history c) Teaching methods
we refer to as naturalists
d) Assessment procedures
 They relied mainly on external observation of living things to make their
conclusions about the nature of living things. In their frame of references, biology,  the changes that took place in this subject are best understood by tracing them
majorly a descriptive science. However, this position has changed science to-day through focus phase namely: -
adequate measurements and other qualitative measures were employed in creating
biological knowledge until the mid 1800s, biology confirmed to have a natural  experimental
perspective focusing on descriptions as a basis for comparing organisms and
 adoption
providing experimentation to questions based on observation a lone through the
scientific method had began in physical sciences, it was not readily used in biology  adaptation
because any people at the time feels that the knowing world transcendence physic
allows and experimentation could not answer questions regarding living things. A  ownership phase
critical shift occurred during the 19th century when Charles Darwin came up with
the theory of natural selection. This shift biology as a true science a pre-occupation Experimental phase
with move into an investigation of functions and concepts scientist began to go
beyond observation to put forth hypothesis and testing them by experimentation. Phase Primary Science And Secondary Science And
Mathematics Mathematics
Hypothesis formation and experimentation are key attributes of a scientific method in this case;
biology is a young science whose nature developing has been with the last 300years, the Experimental (latent) 1963-1975 1963-1967
development of biology can be summarized under four Major stages
Adoption 1976-1984 1968-1980

Adaptation 1985-2003 1981-2002

a) Primitive era (pre-scientific era)
Ownership 2003 2003
b) Classical era-(time of Romans/Greeks –Aristotle)

c) Reconnaissance era(lung revolution)

a) Experimental phase (latent)
d) Modern era (Darwin period)
Content- The biology curriculum i.e. traditional curriculum secondary schools had the
2.1.2. Secondary School Biology Curriculum following characteristics

 Curriculum innovation was a major focus when Kenya achieved her independence 1. basic biological concepts were introduced in Form 1- Form 2, they focused on
in 1963. during things and how they function but excluded genetic and ecology

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 2. the concepts- were further elaborated in form 3 – Form 4 in spiral approach i. African Mathematics program (AMP)

3. the content of ‘A’ level (F5-F6) curriculum was a cope detailed and included a ii. African Primary Science Program (APSP)
molecular approach to physiology and genetics and detailed analysis of Ecology
iii. Science Education Program for Africa
4. a) The syllabuses for F1 to F4 and F5 to F6 were developed and examined by
Cambridge university examination syndicate and in collaboration with East African The programs initially focused on primary science of mathematics but rather expanded to
examination council up to 1973. This role was taken by East African examination include secondary science of mathematics in drawing experimental curriculum a lot of
council between 1974-1977. reference was made to the existing program in the US particularly made

b) Teaching method a) Biological Science curriculum Study (BSCS)

The teaching approaches were mainly didactic whereby transmission of information and
knowledge was more important than practical understanding/searching knowledge.
Experiments were done only to confirm or improve the absenteeism and facts covered in
theory work. Emphasis was on development of scientific skills and attitude but rather on
acquisition of scientific knowledge
c) Teaching resources-these included basic textbooks Written by authors in Britain who looked
at the biological concepts from their own perspectives. These perspectives were passed on to
the leanest in Kenya. There were no teachers guide but although inspectorate section
occasionally issued circulars addressing specific issues on the curriculum.
d) Assessment procedures
It was mainly through external examinations they test items in the theory paper were structured
and essay type focusing on the entire aspect of the syllabus but while at the same time
reflecting on the British environment
b) Physical Science Study Committee (PSSC)
c) Chemical Education Material Study (CHEMS)
At the workshop held at Entebbe in 1962 the participants drawn from various parts of the
world resolved to develop curriculum in science and mathematics for African characteristics
both at primary and secondary school best on inquiry or discoveries approach adopted by the
existing programs in the US between 1965-1967, several expatriates teacher and education
officers in East Africa mainly British held series of workshop under the auspices of school
science project and developed science curriculum for secondary schools at the ordinary O’
level from F1 to F4 the school science Project (SSP) was based on the philosophy of Nuffield
Science Project in Britain (NSP). However, this project was similar in philosophy approach to
the programs in USA.
The expatriate and Education officers eventually developed curricula and trial materials in the
following areas-;

Product examination focused on skills and observation applications and conference since many a) The school science Project (SSP) –Biology
teachers did not developed some of these skills results/practical exams were usually
disapproving overall for the curriculum. In general the biology curriculum focused on b) The school science Project (SSP) -Chemistry
knowledge at the expense of the development of essential scientific skills.
c) The school science Project (SSP) –Physics
Experimental curriculum
d) The school science Project (SSP) SMP-Mathematics
 experimental curriculum in biology was developed between 1965 to Materials were tried in some schools in E. Africa and were refined in readiness for
1967 with the expressed goal of replacing then the existing traditional implementation by 1968.
curriculum

 The initial efforts were made by the educational development centered

(EDC) in the termed state at worship in 1961. Prof. J. Zacharias of the
Masseuchetes Institute of Technology along several other scholars
created the pillar education program under the auspices (umbrella) of
EDC funded by USAID
 the purpose of (AEP) was to give knowledge, skills, and attitudes
necessary for use of teaching in development of African characteristics,
therefore AEP initiated several projects among them: -
Reasons for the introduction of the School Science Project- Biology curriculum
The school science project (SSP) biology curriculum was finally implemented in Kenya
between 1968 -1980.The SSP was based on the philosophy of Nuffield Science Project (NSP)
in Britain. According to SSP biology, teaching was supposed to be inductive using scientific
inquiry or discovery approach. Their focus was on the development of scientific skills,
knowledge, and attitudes. The scientific process such as observation, measurement,

14
experimentation, record keeping, inferences were key issues in SSP biology. The main reasons
for its introduction were as follows
o The SSP biology emphasized the mode of teaching to be discovery oriented and
open minded through scientific inquiry.
o The SSP biology focused on the development of scientific process skills e.g.
scientific knowledge, scientific skills and attitudes. The scientific process skills are
observation, measurement, experimentation, recording keeping and inferences.
o The SSP biology emphasized interplay between experiments and theory.
o The SSP biology present science and mathematics as a unified but even changing
subject.
o SSP biology encouraged students and teachers to create scientific knowledge rather
than absorbing textbook fashions.
o SSP biology curriculum approach placed heavier demand to the approach of
teachers in terms of preparation on pupils. Teaching materials were availed for
teachers and students e.g. pupils manual and teachers guide,
o SSP biology curriculum emphasized the need for practicals in school science and
pupils had to conduct practical and encourage hands –on –activities.
b) Adoption phase
The school Science project (SSP) Biology curriculum was finally implemented between 1968
and 1980. However, it was implemented in some schools in Kenya. Many schools rejected the
programs citing unpreparedness of the teachers and lack of certain teaching material. The real
problem was that many teachers were not involved in the in the initial development of the
program and were not inducted in implementing it. Teaching was supposed to be inductive
using the inquiry or discovery approach. Their focus was to be on the development of scientific
skills, attitude as well as scientific knowledge. Process such as observing, measurement,
experimentation, record keeping, inferences etc. were key in SSP Biology. The approach
placed heavily demand on the approach of teachers in terms of preparation on pupils. Ping
material included the use of pupils’ manuals and teachers guide.
Assessment included: -
a) Recording of field and experimental data in field notebooks which were assessed by
teachers and verified by external examiners.
b) Printed essay and structured questions based on class experiments performed and on
the applications of result obtained
c) Between the same periods i.e. 1960-1980 a majority of 20 schools confirmed with
the traditional curriculum both at Q and A, level. Both SSP Biology and traditional
curricula were a case of adoption of the content, objectives, philosophy of the
15
programs, instructional, procedures and assessment technique were heavily drawn
from Nuffield Biology program in the US and Britain and Biological sciences
curriculum study in the (US respectively) and the mainstream British curriculum
respectively
c) Adaptation phase
In 1981, the new mathematics program was scraped by a presidential decree. The MOE also
scrapped SSP Biology, Physics, and chemistry, Biology was replaced by integrating Biology
curriculum which incorporated aspect of SSP Biology as well as traditional biology
curriculum.
Why the SSP Biology curriculum was scrapped in Kenya?
 Most of the teachers were not in-serviced and inducted.
 There was lack of proper training on teachers.
 There was unpreparedness of the teachers. Teachers were not involved
in the development of the SSP program.
 There was lack of adequate of teaching materials like teachers guide and
manuals were not available.
 Most of the materials were sketchy and had factual information.
 Most of the laboratories were not equipped. teaching was supposed to be
based on inquiry approach, but most teachers preferred to use didactic
approach due to lack of proper training and workload,
Between 1981and1984, a new biology curriculum was developed under the auspices of 8:4:4
curriculums. It had two components biology and biological sciences. The curriculum was
implemented in 1986 and lasted up to the year 2002. The content of new curriculum was an
integration of SSP Biology, the traditional biology, integrated Biology curriculum and some
aspects of ‘A’ level biology which was contained topics such as survey of plant and animal
kingdom, chemical of life, cell physiology, transport in plants and evolution involved a more
detailed analysis than before and included many ideas covered by ‘A’ level curriculum Ting
materials included pupils manuals, and teachers guide the latter gave clues on objectives,
duration and instructional procedures and Ting materials for every topic. Teaching is supposed
to be based on inquiry approach, but many teachers prefer to use deductive approaches due to
lack of proper training, workload, lack of adequate teaching materials and possibly due to lack
of commitment to professional work. Assessment involved continuous assessment tests in
school as well as external examinations, includes theory and practical papers. Practical exams
still focused on observation, application and inference skill. There is a great need to improve
on the use of CATs with new to testing of practical skills and attitudes.
d) Ownership for indigenous phase
Biological science was discounted and emerged with Biology syllabus. The content of new
syllabus is eventually it’s the biology syllabuses except that it now embraces aspects of human
biology and first aid that were previously included in the biological syllabuses.
More significantly, the curriculum did not require a detailed analysis of chemicals of life
mechanisms of inheritance, physiological processes, taxonomy, and ecology. The move helps
to place a lighter road on both students and teachers and may be friendlier to pupils in terms of
cognitive demand but whether we can say we own the curriculum. They underline questions.
Education to pupils and society at how relevant biology is at large. Thus, the curriculum draws
heavily form the society. If it does, are processes skills are the centre of teaching skill rather
than content.
Are there differences between the secondary school project biology (SSP Biology) and the
new biology curriculum in Kenya?
o The new biology curriculum embraces aspects of human biology and
first –aid unlike a detailed analysis of chemicals of life, mechanisms of
inheritance, physiological processes, taxonomy, and ecology unlike SSP
biology which was sketchy with factual information.
o The new curriculum places a lighter demand friendly to pupils in terms
of cognitive demand whereas SSP biology places heavier cognitive
demand to pupils.
o The new curriculum draws heavily from the society and scientific
process like scientific skills are the centers of learning whereas SSP
biology the subject was the main centre of learning.
o In terms of assessment continuous assessment tests, practical exams and
theory papers are used in new biology as a mode evaluation to students
whereas SSP biology use field and experimental data in field notebooks
which were verified by the teachers and external examiners. Also printed
essays and structured questions based on class experiments performed
were also used.
2.1.3 Factors influencing curriculum Change in Kenya
The curriculum change in Kenya was and has been influenced by two categories of factors: -
a) External pressure
b) Internal pressure
External Pressure
involves agents of curriculum development based outside Kenya particularly in USA and
Britain following the launching of the sputnik by the Soviet Union in 1957 the USA and its
elites saw a need t form science and mathematics education an idea that quickly gain courage
in Western Europe. At the time, the goal was to help teachers in schools gain scientific skills
16
that would help them understand the realities of the need to use technology in their day to day
lives. The changes that were proposed and implemented in USA and Britain easily found their
way to Kenya and other parts of Africa since they were justified on the ground of introducing
modernity. They were also accompanied by financial and other forms of technological system
Internal Pressure
The most fundamental changes in any curriculum are always sparked off by
i. Political aspirations, after independence, the new government wanted a
new curriculum to reflect the need of an independent nation
ii. The Ominde Commission of 1964 recognized the role of science and
mathematics in the promotion of social and economic development of
the country and therefore recommended that the Ting of science and
mathematics should be improved and given priority over fields of
knowledge.
iii. The political pressure, came at a time when external pressures to reform
the Ting of science and mathematics were on increase
iv. In the subsequent years, the internal pressures have been responsible for
the retirement observed in science and mathematics curriculum such
pressure have risen from Non-governmental organization, ANC society,
PTA, Associations of Head teachers among others.
2.0 Goals and objectives of secondary school biology in Kenya
2.2.1 Goals of teaching biology in secondary schools
o Biology teaching will help learners to acquire scientific skills i.e.
learners acquire the scientific processes of inquiry by which knowledge
of biology is obtained. These skills will help learners to solve problems
they encounter in their daily life. The scientific knowledge is created
through scientific methods through which learners acquire scientific
skills such as observation, measurement, control of variables,
experimentation, recording of data and interpretation of data.
o Learning of biology will help learners to acquire scientific knowledge
about living matter necessary in understanding real life situations i.e.
interrelationships and interdependence of living things together. Also,
learners gain a better understanding of themselves in terms of how their
bodies function and how they relate with organisms in their
environment.
o Learning of biology teaching will help learners to develop useful
positive attitudes and values towards biological phenomena and life –
long learning. Good examples are honesty and integrity in planning and
communicating, open-mindness in their approach to solve problems,
 ability to think and work independently, the spirits of co-operation and  Energy flow (Environment Living things)
development of career interests.
 Ecology

Modern Application in Biology

2.3 Content and organization of the biology syllabus in Kenya
Encompasses all the above themes

 Biotechnology- Improving life processes using technology

2.3.1 The scope and organization of the secondary school biology curriculum in Kenya
 Genetic Engineering
The biology curriculum is highly organized into five major general themes which explain
biology as a science. The biology curriculum in Kenya is organized using the subject –centered The secondary school Biology Curriculum in Kenya covers all these themes
approach, the approach entails acquisition of factual knowledge/every fact leads towards
general development of the subject.

Major Themes of Secondary School Biology Curriculum In Kenya Organisation of the Biology Curriculum

Diversity Of Life There are several approaches to curriculum organization, some are:

 Taxonomy 1. Topical approach

 Structure and Function 2. Logical and physiological approach

 Cooperation/Relationship/Association e.g. 3. Subject-centered approach

Symbiosis, Parasitism, Saprophytism etc. 4. Process-based approach

5. Integrated approach

Patterns Of Perpetuation of Life And Development 1. Topical Approach-Thematic Approach

 Homeostasis In this approach topics from a particular subject area selected and arranged in order of
relevance e.g.
 Reproduction
You may select and order the following for a Biology course
 Inheritance
a) Acid rain
 Growth and Development
b) Pollution
 Nutrition
c) Genetic engineering
 Physiology
d) Biotechnology
Patterns Of Change
e) HIV and AIDS
 Evolution
f) Drug and Drug Abuse
 Genetics
Limitation
Integration with Environment.
This approach does not help learners to develop the concepts inherent in a given

17
Subject area
2. Logical and Physiological Approach
This approach requires a sequence of topics of the syllabus based on sound
physiological grounds. While framing the programme physiological principles of learning such
as Readiness, Transfer of learning, Reinforcement are taken into consideration
Physiological theories of curriculum and instruction advanced by physiologists such as Jerome
Brunner, Robert Gagne and Ausubel are important in this process
3. Subject-Centered Approach
This approach stresses the acquisition of factual knowledge. Every fact leads towards
the general development of the subject. In this approach the syllabus is based on the acquisition
of facts and concepts by learners followed by practical work which is an integral part of the
approach. Many countries including Kenya use this approach.
The science curricular projects PSSC, BSCS, CHEM-S, NSP, and SSP have been
developed using this approach. Physical science, Biological Science Curricular Study and
Secondary School Project focuses on both processes and product. The two supplement each
other
4. Process-Based Approach
It stresses the processes of sciences in which learning is encouraged through hands-on-
activities. The approach gives teachers the freedom to teach any topic provided instruction is
based on problem solving. The major limitation of this approach is that it is difficult for pupils
to attain a coherent view of the subject matter.
5. Integrated Approach
In this approach all the disciplines of science are involved in teaching any given
task. The purpose of this approach is to provide a unitary view of science as a whole on the
part of the pupils. Whereas this approach reduces the number of hours spent on teaching
science as separate subject it is difficult to implement on the part of the teacher.
5.0 LEARNING IN BIOLOGY
3.1 THEORIES OF LEARNING AND THEIR APPLICATION TO THE TEACHING
OF BIOLOGY
3.1.1The Concept of Learning
Learning is seen as a process by which one modifies his/her behaviour as a result of being
exposed to a certain situation or stimulus or a series of stimuli. It involves acquiring and
modifying knowledge, skills, strategies, beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors. The process is
18
believed to be physiological and takes place in the brain. Crow and Crow (1963) define
learning as: “ a change in the individual due to the interaction of that individual and his/her
environment, which fills a need and makes him/her more capable of dealing adequately with
his/her environment.”
We can recognize that learning has occurred when we note a behavioural change in the learner
and when we note the persistence of this change.
The modified behaviour is observed or detected when the learner performs some task related to
the situation or stimulus exposed to. The modified behaviour may also be exhibited in form of
attitude, interest or value.
People learn cognitive, linguistic, motor, and social skills; and these can take many forms.
Therefore learning can be defined as
An enduring change in behavior, or in capacity to behave in a given fashion, which
results from practice or other forms of experience.
From this definition, we note that
1. People learn when they become capable of doing something differently. Learning involves
developing new actions or modifying the existing ones. From a cognitive perspective, learning
is inferential- we do not observe it directly, but rather its products/outcomes.
2. Behavioral change endures over time. This excludes temporary behavioral changes, such as
slurred speech brought about by such factors such as drugs, alcohol, fatigue, etc. In such
situations, when the cause is removed, the behavior returns to its normal state.
3. Learning occurs through practice or other forms of experience such as observing others.
3.1.2 Defining Learning Theory
Learning theories are conceptual frameworks that describe how information is absorbed,
processed, and retained during learning. Cognitive, emotional, and environmental influences,
as well as prior experience, all play a part in how understanding, or a world view, is acquired
or changed, and knowledge and skills retained
In short, a learning theory is a statement about the conditions under which learning will take
place. It is a testable prediction.
3.1.3 Significance of learning theories in teaching and learning of science
Theories of learning are efforts to explain how people learn. Different theories are based on
different assumptions and are appropriate for explaining some learning situations but not
others. Theories of learning can inform teaching and the use of different instructional resources
including technology, but ultimately the learning activities in which the student actually
engages (mental, physical, and social) determine what a student learns in the classroom.
Classroom learning involves social, emotional, and participatory factors in addition to
cognitive ones, and theories of learning need to take these factors into account. Most current
theories of learning presuppose that the goal of education is to develop the ability of students to
understand the content and to think for themselves, presumptions that are consistent with the
majority of modern-day schools.
In short, a learning theory gives us the following information
o Nature of the learning process.
o Conditions under which learning takes place.
o Clues about human thought.
o Direction on teaching under various conditions.
Theories of learning make it easy for us to depict how learning takes place and the conditions
that facilitate learning.
Having knowledge of learning theories helps teachers in terms of:
o Identifying possible outcomes of learning (objectives).
o Choice of learning experiences.
o Choice of instructional strategies.
o Assessment of what has been learned.
o Choice of teaching/ learning materials.
3.1.4 Theories of Learning
1. Behavioral Learning Theories
The origins of behaviorist learning theories may be traced backed to the late 1800's and early
1900's with the formulation of "associationistic" principles of learning. The behaviourists take
the view that learning is brought about through stimulus, response and reward, a form of
conditioning process or associative learning.
a. Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov's legacy to learning theory was his work on classical conditioning.
Classical conditioning is a multi-step procedure that initially presenting an Unconditioned
stimulus (UCS), which elicits an Unconditional response (UCR). Pavlov placed a hungry dog
in an apparatus and presented it with meat powder (UCS) which would cause the dog to
salivate (UCR). To condition the animal requires repeatedly presenting an initially neutral
stimulus for a brief moment/period before presenting the UCS. Pavlov often used a ticking
metronome (equivalent to a bell) as the neutral stimulus. In the early trials, the ticking of the
metronome produced no salivation. Eventually, the dog salivated in response to the ticking
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metronome prior to presentation of the food powder. The metronome had become a condition
stimulus (CS) that elicited a conditioned response (CR) similar to the original UCR.
Classical Conditioning Procedure
Phase Stimulus Response
1 UCS (Food powder) UCR (salivation)
2 CS(Metronome) + UCS (food UCR (salivation)
powder)
3 CS (Metronome) CR (salivation)
Repeated presentation of CS without the UCS cause the CR to diminish in intensity and
disappear, a phenomenon known as Extinction.
Spontaneous recovery- occurs after a time lapse in which the CS is not presented and the CR
presumably extinguishes. If the CS is then presented and the CR returns, we say that the CR
spontaneously recovered from extinction. A CR that recovers will not endure unless the CS is
presented again. Pairings of the CS with the UCS restore the CR to full strength.
Generalization- this means that the CR occurs to stimuli similar to the CS. Once a dog is
conditioned to salivate to metronome tickings at 70 beats per minute, it may also salivate in
response to a metronome ticking faster or slower, as well as to ticking clocks or timers.
The more dissimilar the new stimulus is to the CS, the less generalization occurs.
Discrimination- This is the complimentary process and occurs when the dog learns to respond
to the CS but not to other , similar stimuli. To train discrimination, an experimenter might pair
the CS with the UCS and also present other similar stimuli without the UCS.
b. Skinner’s Operant /Instrumental Conditioning
The theory of Burrhus Frederic (B. F.) Skinner is based upon the idea that learning is a
function of change in overt behavior. Changes in behavior are the result of an individual's
response to events (stimuli) that occur in the environment. A response produces a consequence
such as defining a word, hitting a ball, or solving a math problem. When a particular Stimulus-
Response (S-R) pattern is reinforced (rewarded), the individual is conditioned to respond.
Skinner’s work focused on the relationship between behavior and its consequences. Responses
are controlled by their consequences, not by antecedent stimuli. This type of behavior is termed
as Operant behavior because it operates on the environment to produce effect.
According to Skinner, if the operant is followed by presentation of a reinforcing stimulus,
the strength is increased.....If the occurrence of an operant already strengthened through
conditioning is not followed by the reinforcing stimulus, the strength decreased.
Operant behavior is thought of as learning by doing. It acts upon the environment and becomes
more or less to occur because of reinforcement.
Basic Processes
The basic processes in operant conditioning are: reinforcement, primary and secondary
reinforcers, extinction, the Premack Principle, punishment, generalization, and discrimination.
Reinforcement
Reinforcement is the key element in Skinner's S-R theory. A reinforcer is anything that
strengthens the desired response. It could be verbal praise, a good grade or a feeling of
increased accomplishment or satisfaction. The theory also covers negative reinforcers -- any
stimulus that results in the increased frequency of a response when it is withdrawn (different
from adverse stimuli -- punishment -- which result in reduced responses).
Reinforcement is thus the strengthening/increasing the rate of responding or making responses
more likely to occur.
The basic operant model is a three-term contigency:
A discriminant stimulus (SD) sets the occasion for a response (R) to be emitted, which is
followed by a reinforcing stimulus (SR). The is any stimulus (event, consequence) that
increases the probability the response will be emitted in the future when the discriminative
stimulus is present. In more familiar terms, we label the model as A - B - C model:
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Positive Reinforcement
It involves presenting a stimulus, or adding something to a situation, following a response,
which increases the future likelihood of that response occurring in that situation. A positive
reinforcer is a stimulus that when presented following a response, increases the future
likelihood of the response occurring in that situation. They are usually things given to students
that they value, e.g., praise, rewards, etc.
Negative Reinforcement
This involves removing a stimulus or taking away from a situation following a response, which
increases the future likelihood of the response will occur in that situation. It is escape from an
unpleasant or a way of preventing unpleasant behavior from occurring. A negative reinforcer is
a stimulus that, when removed by a response, increases the likelihood of the response
occurring in that situation.
Positive and negative reinforcers have the same effect: They increase the future probability of
the response.
Assume a teacher is holding a question-answer session with the class. The teacher asks a
question (SD), calls on a student volunteer who answers the question correctly (R) and the R).
If volunteering by this student increases or remains at a high level, praise is a positive
reinforcer.
Now assume that after the student gives a correct answer, the teacher tells the student he/she
does not need to do homework assignment. If volunteering by this student increases or remains
at a high level, the homework is a negative reinforcer.
NOTE: The goal in both positive and negative reinforcement is for the behavior to increase.
Primary and Secondary Reinforcers
Primary reinforcers satisfy basic human needs while Secondary reinforcers acquire their value
or become conditioned by their being associated with primary reinforcers. They are necessary
for survival. Stimuli such as food, shelter and water are primary reinforcers. A child's favorite
milk glass/bottle becomes secondarily reinforcing through its association with milk (a primary
reinforcer).
Extinction
Involves removing reinforcers from previously learned behavior until the behavior disappears
or involves the decline of response strength because of non-reinforcement.
Students who raise their hands in class but never called on may stop raising their hands. People
who send many e-mail messages to the same person but never get a reply will eventually quit
sending e-mail messages to that person.
Punishment
Punishment, in contrast, is when the increase of something undesirable attempts to cause a
decrease in the behavior that follows. Punishment decreases the future likelihood of responding
to a stimulus/ Consequences that weaken behavior. Punishment may involve withdrawing a
positive reinforcer or presenting a negative reinforcer, following a response.
 Positive punishment is when unfavorable events or outcomes are given (negative
reinforcer) in order to weaken the response that follows.
 Negative punishment is characterized by when an favorable event or outcome
(positive reinforcer) is removed after a undesired behavior occurs.
NOTE: The goal in both of these cases of punishment is for a behavior to decrease.
Punishment suppresses a response but does not eliminate it; when the threat of punishment is
removed, the punished response may return.
Shaping
Shaping is guiding behavior toward goals by reinforcing the many steps that lead to success.
This is the basic operant conditioning method of behavior change which involves differential
reinforcement of successive approximations to the desired form or rate of behaviour. Shaping
is learning by doing with corrective feedback. To shape behavior, one adheres to the following
sequence:
1. Identify what the student can do now (entry behavior)
2. Identify the desired (terminal) behaviour
3. Identify potential reinforcers in the student's environment
4. Break the terminal behaviour (step 2) into small substeps to be mastered sequentially
5. Move the student from the entry behaviour to the terminal behaviour by successively
reinforcing each approximation to the terminal behavior.
Schedules of reinforcement
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Schedules refer to when reinforcement is applied. Two types of schedules: Continuous and
Intermittent
A continuous schedule involves reinforcement for every correct response. This may be desired
when skills are being acquired. Students receive feedback after each response concerning the
accuracy of their work. Continuous reinforcements ensure that incorrect responses are not
learned.
An intermittent schedule involves reinforcement for some but not all correct responses. This is
common in classrooms because it is impossible for teachers to reinforce each student for every
correct or desirable response. Intermittent schedules are defined in terms of time or number of
responses. There are two types of intermittent schedules: Ratio and Interval schedules. For
each type, there is either fixed or variable sub-types as shown below:
Schedules
Continuous Intermittent
Interval Ratio
Fixed- Fixed
Interval (FI) Ratio(FR)
Variable- Variable
Interval (VI) Ratio (VR)
Interval Schedules- involves reinforcing the first correct response after a specific time period.
Fixed interval (FI) schedule – reinforcer is given after a fixed number of behaviors. The time
interval is fixed from one reinforcement to the next. FI5 means that reinforcement is delivered
for the first response after 5 minutes - can encourage cramming, e.g., end of grade test.
Variable Interval (FI) schedule means that the time interval varies from occasion to occasion
around some average value. Variable interval – reinforcement is available at some times, but
not at others – spot checks. variable number of behaviors are necessary for reinforcement. This
reinforcement schedule is very effective for maintaining a high rate of behavior and are highly
resistant to extinction.
A Ratio Schedule- Depends on the number of correct responses or rate of responding. 2. Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

Fixed ratio (FR) schedule means that every nth correct response is reinforced, where n is
constant.
Fixed ratio schedules are effective in motivating individuals to do a great deal of work
especially with high requirements for reinforcement
Variable ratio (VR) schedule means that every nth response is reinforced but the value varies
around an average number, n.
Reinforcement schedules produce characteristic patterns of responding:
- Ratio schedules produce higher rates than interval schedules although they cause fatigue due
to rapid responding
In social learning theory Albert Bandura (1977) states behavior is learned from the
environment through the process of observational learning. The social learning theory of
Bandura emphasises the importance of observing and modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and
emotional reactions of others.
The component processes underlying observational learning are: Attention, Retention, Motor
Reproduction and Motivation.
Attention:
In order to learn, you need to be paying attention. Anything that detracts your attention is going
to have a negative effect on observational learning. If the model is interesting or there is a
novel aspect to the situation, you are far more likely to dedicate your full attention to learning.
Some of the key features in Attention include:

- Fixed Interval schedules show a scalloped pattern- responding drops off immediately after  Observer characteristics
reinforcement but picks up toward the end of the interval between reinforcements.

- The VI schedule produces a steady rate of responding. Unannounced quizzes operate on VI  perceptual /cognitive capacities
schedules and typically keep students studying regularly.

- Intermittent schedules are more resistant to extinction than continuous schedules. When
 arousal level

reinforcement is discontinued, responding continues for a longer time if the reinforcement has
been intermittent rather than continuous. The durability of intermittent schedules can be seen in
 past performance
people's persistence at such events as fishing and bargain shopping.
 Event characteristics
Note: Some behaviors that have been acquired through reinforcement become intrinsically
motivating, e.g., reading, soccer.  relevance
Generalization
 affective valence
Once a certain response occurs regularly to a given stimulus, the response also may occur to
other stimuli. This is called generalization.  complexity
Discrimination

This is the complimentary process to generalization. It involves responding differently (in

 functional value

intensity or rate) depending on the stimulus or features of a situation. Although teachers want
students to generalize what they learn to other situations, they also want them to respond
 model's characteristics

discriminately.
 intrinsic rewards

What is the difference between operant conditioning and classical conditioning?

Retention:
The ability to store information is also an important part of the learning process. Retention can
In operant conditioning, a voluntary response is then followed by a reinforcing stimulus.  In be affected by a number of factors, but the ability to pull up information later and act on it is
this way, the voluntary response (e.g. studying for an exam) is more likely to be done by the vital to observational learning. Retention involves:
individual.  In contrast, classical conditioning is when a stimulus automatically triggers an
involuntary response.  Observer characteristics

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  cognitive skills  Event characteristics

 Event characteristics  external reinforcement

 cognitive organization  self-reinforcement

 cognitive rehearsal  vivacious reinforcement

Principles of Social Learning Theory

Motor Reproduction:
Once you have paid attention to the model and retained the information, it is time to actually
1. The highest level of observational learning is achieved by first organizing and rehearsing the
perform the behavior you observed. Further practice of the learned behavior leads to
modeled behaviour symbolically and then enacting it overtly. Coding modeled behaviour into
improvement and skill advancement. Motor Reproduction involves:
words, labels or images results in better retention than simply observing.
 Observer characteristics 2. Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled behaviour if it results in outcomes they value.
3. Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled behaviour if the model is similar to the
 physical capabilities
observer and has admired status and the behaviour has functional value.

 sub-skill mastery Social learning theory explains human behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction
between cognitive, behavioural, an environmental influences. Because it encompasses
 Event characteristics
attention, memory and motivation, social learning theory spans both cognitive and behavioural
frameworks, as a result it is sometimes called social cognitive learning.

 selection & organization of responses

 feedback

Motivation:
Finally, in order for observational learning to be successful, you have to be motivated to
imitate the behavior that has been modeled. Reinforcement and punishment play an important
role in motivation. While experiencing these motivators can be highly effective, so can
observing other experience some type of reinforcement or punishment. For example, if you see
another student rewarded with extra credit for being to class on time, you might start to show
up a few minutes early each day. Motivation involves:

 Observer characteristics

 incentive preference

 social bias

 internal standards

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From this theoretical perspective, human functioning is viewed as the product of a dynamic
interplay of personal, behavioral, and environmental influences. For example, how people
interpret the results of their own behavior informs and alters their environments and the
personal factors they possess which, in turn, inform and alter subsequent behavior. This is the
foundation of Bandura's (1986) conception of reciprocal determinism, the view that (a)
personal factors in the form of cognition, affect, and biological events, (b) behavior, and (c)
environmental influences create interactions that result in a triadic reciprocality.
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In school, for example, teachers have the challenge of improving the academic learning and
confidence of the students in their charge. Using social cognitive theory as a framework,
teachers can work to improve their students' emotional states and to correct their faulty self-
beliefs and habits of thinking (personal factors), improve their academic skills and self-
regulatory practices (behavior), and alter the school and classroom structures that may work to
undermine student success (environmental factors).
3. Cognitive Learning Theories
Cognitive Psychology focuses on the study of how people think, understand, and know. They
emphasizes on learning how people comprehend and represent the outside world within
themselves and how our ways of thinking about the world influence our behaviour. From a
cognitive learning perspective, learning involves the transformation of information in the
environment into knowledge that is stored in the mind. Learning occurs when new knowledge
is acquired or existing knowledge is modified by experience.
a. David Ausubel’s Meaningful Reception Learning
Ausabel believes that meaningful learning is crucial for classroom instruction. Meaningful
learning, according to Ausabel, entails new knowledge that relates to what one already knows
and that can easily be retained and applied. It is concerned with how students learn large
amounts of meaningful material from verbal/textual presentations in a school setting.
- Meaningful learning results when new information is acquired by linking the new information
in the learner’s own cognitive structure.
- A primary process in learning is subsumption in which new material is related to relevant
ideas in the existing cognitive structure on a non-verbatim basis(previous knowledge).
 5. Classroom application of Ausubel’s theory should discourage rote learning of
materials that can be learned more meaningfully.
A (new knowledge) + a (previous knowledge) = Aa (Modified knowledge)
6. The most important single factor influencing learning is what the learner already
knows.

A major instructional mechanism proposed by Ausubel is the use of advance organizers.

Organizers help to link new learning material with existing related ideas. b. Jerome Brunner’s Spiral Learning

Ausubel also proposed his EXPOSITORY TEACHING model to encourage meaningful rather Jerome Bruner proposed three modes of representation:
than rote reception learning. In his approach to learning, teachers present material in a carefully
organized, sequenced, and finished form. Students receive the most usable material in the most
 Enactive representation (action-based)
efficient way in this manner.
 Iconic representation (image-based)
Ausubel believes that learning should progress deductively - from the general to the specific,
i.e., in a top-down, or deductive manner.
 Symbolic representation (language-based)

Ausubel's theory consists of three phases:

Modes of representation are the way in which information or knowledge are stored and
- presentation of an advance organizer, encoded in memory.

- presentation of learning task or material, and

- strengthening the cognitive organization.
Advanced organizers serve three purposes:
(1) they direct attention to what is important in the coming material.
(2) they highlight relationships among ideas that will be presented; and,
Enactive (0 - 1 years)
This appears first.   It involves encoding action based information and storing it in our
memory. For example, in the form of movement as a muscle memory, a baby might remember
the action of shaking a rattle. The child represents past events through motor responses, i.e. an
infant will “shake a rattle” which has just been removed or dropped, as if the movements
themselves are expected to produce the accustomed sound. And this is not just limited to
children.

(3) they remind the student of relevant information already in memory.

Iconic (1 - 6 years)

Ausubel believed that children have a natural tendency to organize information into a
meaningful whole. Children should first learn a general concept and then move toward This is where information is stored visually in the form of images (a mental picture in the
mind’s eye). For some, this is conscious; others say they don’t experience it. This may explain
specifics.
why, when we are learning a new subject, it is often helpful to have diagrams or illustrations to
Principles of Ausubel’s meaningful reception learning theory within a classroom setting
accompany verbal information.
include:

Symbolic (7 years onwards)

1. The most general ideas of a subject should be presented first and then progressively
differentiated in terms of detail and specificity.
2. Instructional materials should attempt to integrate new material with previously This develops last. This is where information is stored in the form of a code or symbol, such as
presented information through comparisons and cross-referencing of new and old language. This is the most adaptable form of representation, for actions & images have a fixed
relation to that which they represent. Symbols are flexible in that they can be manipulated,
ideas.
ordered, classified etc., so the user isn’t constrained by actions or images. In the symbolic
3. Instructors should incorporate advance organizers when teaching a new concept.
stage, knowledge is stored primarily as words, mathematical symbols, or in other symbol
4. Instructors should use a number of examples and focus on both similarities and systems.
differences.

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Bruner proposed that the starting point of learning should be what learners know, believe and
can do already. He said, ‘Any subject can be taught effectively in some intellectually honest
form to any child at any stage of development’
Bruner believes a child (of any age) is capable of understanding complex information: 'We
begin with the hypothesis that any subject can be taught effectively in some intellectually
honest form to any child at any stage of development'. (p. 33). Bruner explained how this was
possible through the concept of the spiral curriculum. This involved information being
structured so that complex ideas can be taught at a simplified level first, and then re-visited at
more complex levels later on. Therefore, subjects would be taught at levels of gradually
increasing difficultly (hence the spiral analogy). Ideally teaching his way should lead to
children being able to solve problems by themselves. Building on students’ current knowledge
and understanding helps to make the
connections between earlier and later learning clear
With a spiral approach to curriculum planning, earlier learning can be used to make later
learning easier by providing a general picture in which connections between the things
encountered earlier and later are made clear. For example, a young child may simply recognise
a certain shape as being a square. Later he or she will refine this knowledge and come to know
that all the sides are equal and all the angles 90 degrees.
Educational Implications
Bruner’s learning theory is very influential and has direct implications on the teaching
practices and learning process.
Instruction must be appropriate to the level of the learners. For example, being aware of the
learners’ learning modes (enactive, iconic, symbolic) will help you plan and prepare
appropriate materials for instruction according to the difficulty that matches learners’ level.
The teachers must revisit material to enhance knowledge. Building on pre-taught ideas to grasp
the full formal concept is of paramount importance according to Bruner. Feel free to re-
introduce vocabulary, grammar points, and other topics now and then in order to push the
students to a deeper comprehension and longer retention.
Material must be presented in a sequence giving the learners the opportunity to:
a. acquire and construct knowledge,
b. transform and transfer his learning.
c. Robert Gagne’s Information Processing Model
Gagne's theory is based on the Information Processing model. The Information Processing
model places emphasis on how information entering through the senses is encoded, stored,
retrieved and utilised by the brain. In Information Processing memory is viewed from a
computer model perspective by which the mind takes in information, performs operations on it
to change its form and content, stores the information, retrieves it when needed, and generates
responses to it. It is hypothesised that processing involves three stages: Encoding (collecting
and representing information); Storage (holding information); Retrieval (obtaining the
information when needed); and a Control Process that determines how and when information
will flow through the system.

For Bruner (1961), the purpose of education is not to impart knowledge, but instead to
facilitate a child's thinking and problem solving skills which can then be transferred to a range
of situations. Specifically, education should also develop symbolic thinking in children.

Learning is an active process. Learners select and transform information. Learners use prior
experience to fit new information into the pre-existing structures

Bruner proposes that learners’ construct their own knowledge and do this by organizing and
categorizing information using a coding system through discovery rather than being told it by
the teacher. The concept of discovery learning implies that students construct their own
knowledge for themselves.

The role of the teacher should not be to teach information by rote learning, but instead to
facilitate the learning process. This means that a good teacher will design lessons that help
student discover the relationship between bits of information. To do this a teacher must give
students the information they need, but without organizing for them.

26
This model proposes that information is processed and stored in 3 stages.
 Go from simple to complex when presenting new
material.
The sensory register picks up all the sensations or stimuli (smells, sounds, etc.) reaching our
receptors (body mechanisms to perform activities such as smelling, tasting, etc.) from our
environment. The capacity of sensory memory is quite large, however sensory information 5. Show students how to  Present information in categories.
only lasts for milliseconds in the sensory register. categorize (chunk) related  Teach inductive reasoning.
information.
The short-term memory/working memory is seen as a temporary store (one to three seconds)
for a limited amount of information. If information is not attended to and encoded so as to pass  Connect new information to something already
into long-term memory it decays. It is suggested that short-term memory can handle about 6. Provide opportunities for known.
seven objects at once (7± 2), but that this can be improved by a process called chunking, which students to elaborate on new  Look for similarities and differences among
consists of grouping items into chunks numbering about seven. Information can be retained in information. concepts.
two distinct ways: constant repetition of information in the mind, so as to keep it in short-term
memory indefinitely, or association of the information you are trying to remember with pre-
existing knowledge.  Make up silly sentence with first letter of each word
7. Show students how to use in the list.
Long-term memory holds information which, unlike in previous stores, does not decay but coding when memorizing  Use mental imagery techniques such as the keyword
seems to be permanent. lists. method.

The prospect of information reaching the long-term memory depends on the length of the
information, the content, the opportunity for initial learning and the activity taking place  State important principles several times in different
between successive units of information. Long messages are less likely to be remembered than ways during presentation of information (STM).
short ones. The level of familiarity and the language used are significant for long-term storage.  Have items on each day's lesson from previous
8. Provide for repetition of
lesson (LTM).
learning.
USING THE INFORMATION PROCESSING APPROACH IN THE CLASSROOM  Schedule periodic reviews of previously learned
concepts and skills (LTM).
Principle Example
 Use cues to signal when you are ready to begin.
1. Gain the students'
 Move around the room and use voice inflections.
 Use daily drills for arithmetic facts.
attention. 9. Provide opportunities for
over learning of fundamental
 Play form of trivial pursuit with content related to
concepts and skills. class.
 Review previous day's lesson.
2. Bring to mind relevant
prior learning.
 Have a discussion about previously covered content.

 Provide handouts.
3. Point out important d. Jean Piaget’s Developmental Theory of Learning
information.
 Write on the board or use transparencies.
Piaget (1973) believed children will construct an understanding of the world around them and
4. Present information in an will then experience discrepancies between what they already know and what they discover in
 Show a logical sequence to concepts and skills.
organized manner. their environment. There are three basic components to Piaget's cognitive theory:

27
 1. Schemas (building blocks of knowledge) 3. Stages of Development
2. Processes that enable the transition from one stage to another
(equilibrium, assimilation and  accommodation) Sensory-Motor Stage: Ages Birth through Two
3. Stages of  Development:

The Sensory-Motor Stage extends from birth until approximately the age of two. The infant
 sensorimotor, knows the world through their movements and sensations. During this stage senses, reflexes,
 preoperational, and motor abilities develop rapidly. Intelligence is first displayed when reflex movements
 concrete operational, become more refined, such as when an infant will reach for a preferred toy, and will suck on a
 formal operational nipple and not a pacifier when hungry. Understanding of the world involves only perceptions
and objects with which the infant has directly experienced. Actions discovered first by accident
1. Schemas are repeated and applied to new situations to obtain the same results.

Piaget called the schema the basic building block of intelligent behavior – a way of organizing
knowledge. Indeed, it is useful to think of schemas as “units” of knowledge, each relating to
one aspect of the world, including objects, actions and abstract (i.e. theoretical) concepts.
When a child's existing schemas are capable of explaining what it can perceive around it, it is
said to be in a state of equilibrium, i.e. a state of cognitive (i.e. mental) balance. A schema can
be defined as a set of linked mental representations of the world, which we use both to
understand and to respond to situations. The assumption is that we store these mental
representations and apply them when needed.
2. Assimilation and Accommodation
Jean Piaget viewed intellectual growth as a process of adaptation (adjustment) to the world.
This happens through:
 Assimilation
– Which is using an existing schema to deal with a new object or situation.
 Accommodation
– This happens when the existing schema (knowledge) does not work, and needs to
be changed to deal with a new object or situation.
 Equilibration
–This is the force, which moves development along. Piaget believed that cognitive
development did not progress at a steady rate, but rather in leaps and bounds.
Equilibrium occurs when a child's schemas can deal with most new information through
assimilation. However, an unpleasant state of disequilibrium occurs when new information
cannot be fitted into existing schemas (assimilation). Equilibration is the force which drives the
learning process as we do not like to be frustrated and will seek to restore balance by mastering
the new challenge (accommodation). Once the new information is acquired the process of
assimilation with the new schema will continue until the next time we need to make an
adjustment to it.
Preoperational Stage: Ages Two through Seven
The child in the preoperational stage is not yet able to think logically. With the acquisition of
language, the child is able to represent the world through mental images and symbols, but in
this stage, these symbols depend on his own perception and his intuition. The preoperational
child is completely egocentric. Although he is beginning to take greater interest in objects and
people around him, he sees them from only one point of view: his own. This stage may be the
age of curiosity; preschoolers are always questioning and investigating new things. Since they
know the world only from their limited experience, they make up explanations when they don’t
have one.
Stage of Concrete Operations: Ages Seven through Eleven
The stage of concrete operations begins when the child is able to perform mental operations.
Piaget defines a mental operation as an interiorized action, an action performed in the mind.
Mental operations permit the child to think about physical actions that he or she previously
performed. During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about concrete events. The
preoperational child could count from one to ten, but the actual understanding that one stands
for one object only appears in the stage of concrete operations.
The primary characteristic of concrete operational thought is its reversibility. The child can
mentally reverse the direction of his or her thought. A child knows that something that he can
add, he can also subtract. He or she can trace her route to school and then follow it back home,
or picture where she has left a toy without a haphazard exploration of the entire house. A child
at this stage is able to do simple mathematical operations. Operations are labeled “concrete”
because they apply only to those objects that are physically present.
Conservation is the major acquisition of the concrete operational stage. Piaget defines
conservation as the ability to see that objects or quantities remain the same despite a change in

28
their physical appearance. Children learn to conserve such quantities as number, substance
(mass), area, weight, and volume; though they may not achieve all concepts at the same time.
Stage of Formal Operations: Ages Eleven through Sixteen
The child in the concrete operational stage deals with the present, the here and now; the child
who can use formal operational thought can think about the future, the abstract, the
hypothetical.
Piaget’s final stage coincides with the beginning of adolescence, and marks the start of abstract
thought and deductive reasoning. Thought is more flexible, rational, and systematic. The
individual can now conceive all the possible ways they can solve a problem, and can approach
a problem from several points of view. The adolescent can think about thoughts and “operate
on operations, not just concrete objects. He or she can think about such abstract concepts as
space and time. The adolescent develops an inner value system and a sense of moral judgment.
He or she now has the necessary “mental tools” for living his life.
Educational Implications
Discovery learning – the idea that children learn best through doing and actively exploring -
was seen as central to the transformation of primary school curriculum.
Because Piaget's theory is based upon biological maturation and stages the notion of 'readiness'
is important. Readiness concerns when certain information or concepts should be taught.
According to Piaget's theory children should not be taught certain concepts until they have
reached the appropriate stage cognitive development.
Within the classroom learning should be student centred a accomplished through active
discovery learning. The role of the teacher is to facilitate learning, rather than direct tuition.
Therefore teachers should encourage the following within the classroom:
o Focus on the process of learning, rather than the end product of it.
o Using active methods that require rediscovering or reconstructing "truths".
o Using collaborative, as well as individual activities (so children can learn from each other).
o Devising situations that present useful problems, and create disequilibrium in the child.
o Evaluate the level of the child's development, so suitable tasks can be set.
3. Constructivism
Constructivism refers to the idea that learners construct knowledge for themselves---each
learner individually (and socially) constructs meaning---as he or she learns.
Proponents of constructivism include: Jean Piaget, John Dewey, J. Brunner, Lev Vygotsky,
David Ausubel, Howard Gardner, etc
29
Constructivism, as perspective in education, is based on experiential learning through real life
experience to construct and conditionalize knowledge. It is problem based, adaptive learning,
that challenges faulty schema, integrates new knowledge with existing knowledge, and allows
for creation of original work or innovative procedures. The types of learners are self-directed,
creative, and innovative. The purpose in education is to become creative and innovative
through analysis, conceptualizations, and synthesis of prior experience to create new
knowledge. The educator’s role is to mentor the learner during heuristic problem solving of ill-
defined problems by enabling quested learning. The learning goal is the highest order of
learning: heuristic problem solving, metacognitive knowledge, creativity, and originality that
may modify existing knowledge and allow for creation of new knowledge..
Principles of learning
What are some guiding principles of constructivist thinking that we must keep in mind when
we consider our role as educators
1. Learning is an active process in which the learner uses sensory input and constructs meaning
out of it. The learner needs to do something; that learning is not the passive acceptance of
knowledge which exists "out there" but that learning involves the learner s engaging with the
world.
2. People learn to learn as they learn: learning consists both of constructing meaning and
constructing systems of meaning. For example, if we learn the chronology of dates of a series
of historical events, we are simultaneously learning the meaning of a chronology. Each
meaning we construct makes us better able to give meaning to other sensations which can fit a
similar pattern.
3. The crucial action of constructing meaning is mental: it happens in the mind. Physical
actions, hands-on experience may be necessary for learning, especially for children, but it is
not sufficient; we need to provide activities which engage the mind as well as the hands .
4. Learning involves language: the language we use influences learning. On the empirical
level. researchers have noted that people talk to themselves as they learn. According to
Vigotsky, language and learning are inextricably intertwined.
5. Learning is a social activity: our learning is intimately associated with our connection with
other human beings, our teachers, our peers, our family as well as casual acquaintances,
including the people before us or next to us at the exhibit.
6. Learning is contextual: we do not learn isolated facts and theories in some abstract ethereal
land of the mind separate from the rest of our lives: we learn in relationship to what else we
know, what we believe, our prejudices and our fears. We cannot divorce our learning from our
lives.
7. One needs knowledge to learn: it is not possible to assimilate new knowledge without
having some structure developed from previous knowledge to build on. The more we know,
the more we can learn. Therefore any effort to teach must be connected to the state of the
learner, must provide a path into the subject for the learner based on that learner's previous
knowledge.
8. It takes time to learn: learning is not instantaneous. For significant learning we need to
revisit ideas, ponder them try them out, play with them and use them. If you reflect on anything
you have learned, you soon realize that it is the product of repeated exposure and thought.
9. Motivation is a key component in learning. Not only is it the case that motivation helps
learning, it is essential for learning.
What are the benefits of constructivism?
1. Children learn more, and enjoy learning more when they are actively involved, rather than
passive listeners.
2. Education works best when it concentrates on thinking and understanding, rather than on
rote memorization. Constructivism concentrates on learning how to think and understand.
3. Constructivist learning is transferable. In constructivist classrooms, students create
organizing principles that they can take with them to other learning settings.
4. Constructivism gives students ownership of what they learn, since learning is based on
students' questions and explorations, and often the students have a hand in designing the
assessments as well. Constructivist assessment engages the students' initiatives and personal
investments in their journals, research reports, physical models, and artistic representations.
The students are also more likely to retain and transfer the new knowledge to real life.
5. By grounding learning activities in an authentic, real-world context, constructivism
stimulates and engages students. Students in constructivist classrooms learn to question things
and to apply their natural curiosity to the world.
6. Constructivism promotes social and communication skills by creating a classroom
environment that emphasizes collaboration and exchange of ideas. Students must learn how to
articulate their ideas clearly as well as to collaborate on tasks effectively by sharing in group
projects. Students must therefore exchange ideas and so must learn to "negotiate" with others
and to evaluate their contributions in a socially acceptable manner. This is essential to success
in the real world, since they will always be exposed to a variety of experiences in which they
will have to cooperate and navigate among the ideas of others.
30
1.8 Implications of learning theories to science teaching
Theories of learning, whether explicit or tacit, informed by study or intuition, well-considered
or not, play a role in the choices instructors make concerning their teaching. The major trend
in understanding how students learn has been a movement away from the behaviorist model to
a cognitive view of learning.
1. Learning is a process of active construction.
Learning is the interaction between what students know, the new information they encounter,
and the activities they engage in as they learn. Students construct their own understanding
through experience, interactions with content and others, and reflection.
Teaching Implication
Provide opportunities for students to connect with your content in a variety of meaningful ways
by using cooperative learning, interactive lectures, engaging assignments, hands-on lab/field
experiences, and other active learning strategies.
2. Students’ prior knowledge is an important determinant of what they will learn. 
Students do not come to your class as a blank slate. They use what they already know about a
topic to interpret new information. When students cannot relate new material to what they
already know, they tend to memorize—learning for the test—rather than developing any real
understanding of the content.
Teaching Implication
Learn about your students’ experiences, preconceptions, or misconceptions by using pre-tests,
background knowledge probes, and written or oral activities designed to reveal students’
thinking about the topic.
3. Organizing information into a conceptual framework helps students remember and
use knowledge. 
Students must learn factual information, understand these facts and ideas in the context of a
conceptual framework, and organize knowledge in ways that facilitate retrieval and application
in order to develop competence in a new topic.
Teaching Implication
Support students by using concept maps, flowcharts, outlines, comparison tables, etc., to make
the structure of the knowledge clear.
 4. Learning is a social phenomenon.  Learners work collaboratively, discuss materials while role-playing, debate, engage in case
study, take part in cooperative learning, or produce short written exercises, etc. Introducing
active learning activities (such as simulations, games, contrasting cases, labs,..) before, rather
Students learn with greater understanding when they share ideas through conversation, debate,
than after lectures or readings, results in deeper learning, understanding, and transfer. The
and negotiation. Explaining a concept to one’s peers puts knowledge to a public test where it
degree of instructor guidance students need while being "active" may vary according to the
can be examined, reshaped, and clarified.
task and its place in a teaching unit. In an active learning environment learners are immersed in
experiences within which they are engaged in meaning-making inquiry, action, imagination,
Teaching Implication invention, interaction, hypothesizing and personal reflection.
Use Cooperative learning strategies, long-term group projects, class discussions, and group
activities to support the social side of learning.
NOTE

5. Learning is context-specific. 
Most of the time, in a typical classroom setting, students are involved only passively in
learning, i.e., in listening to the instructor, looking at the occasional overhead or slide, and
It is often difficult for students to use what they learn in class in new contexts (i.e., other reading (when required) the text book. Research shows that such passive involvement
classes, the workplace, or their personal lives). generally leads to a limited retention of knowledge by students, as indicated in the 'cone of
learning' shown below.
Teaching Implication
Use problem-based learning, simulations or cases, and service learning to create learning
environments similar to the real world.

6. Students’ metacognitive skills (thinking about thinking) are important to their

learning.

Many students utilize few learning strategies and have a limited awareness of their thinking
processes.

Teaching Implication
Help students become more metacognitively aware by modeling your thinking as you solve a
problem, develop an argument, or analyze written work in front of the class. Teach
metacognitive strategies, such as setting goals, making predictions, and checking for
consistency. Focus attention on metacognition by having students write in a learning journal or
develop explanations of their problem-solving processes.

3.2 ACTIVE LEARNING

Active learning is an umbrella term that refers to several models of instruction that focus the
responsibility of learning on learners. To learn, students must do more than just listen: They
must read, write, discuss, or be engaged in solving problems. It relates to the three learning
domains referred to as knowledge, skills and attitudes (KSA), and that this taxonomy of
learning behaviours can be thought of as “the goals of the learning process” In particular,
students must engage in such higher-order thinking tasks as analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.
Active learning engages students in two aspects – doing things and thinking about the things
they are doing.

31

However, research also indicates that by re-organizing or adapting the ways they
present material to students, instructors can create an environment in which knowledge
retention is significantly increased; of course, such situations require the cooperation of the
students themselves. One of the best methods is to implement so-called active learning. It is
involving students directly and actively in the learning process itself. This means that instead
of simply receiving information verbally and visually, students are receiving and participating
and doing. The latter grouping is what is meant by active learning. So, in simple terms then,
active learning is: engaging students in doing something besides listening to a lecture and
taking notes to help them learn and apply course material. Students may be involved in talking
and listening to one another, or writing, reading and reflecting individually.
Examples of Active Learning Exercises
1. A class discussion may be held in person or in an online environment. Discussions can be
conducted with any class size, although it is typically more effective in smaller group settings.
This environment allows for instructor guidance of the learning experience. Discussion
requires the learners to think critically on the subject matter and use logic to evaluate their and
others' positions. As learners are expected to discuss material constructively and intelligently, a
discussion is a good follow-up activity given the unit has been sufficiently covered already.
32
Some of the benefits of using discussion as a method of learning are: it helps students explore a
diversity of perspectives, it increases intellectual agility, it shows respect for students’ voices
and experiences, it develops habits of collaborative learning, it helps students develop skills of
synthesis and integration, it helps students develop skills of synthesis and integration, it leads
to transformation .
2. A think-pair-share activity is when learners take a minute to ponder the previous lesson,
later to discuss it with one or more of their peers, finally to share it with the class as part of a
formal discussion. It is during this formal discussion that the instructor should clarify
misconceptions. However students need a background in the subject matter to converse in a
meaningful way. Therefore a "think-pair-share" exercise is useful in situations where learners
can identify and relate what they already know to others. So preparation is key. Prepare
learners with sound instruction before expecting them to discuss it on their own.
Think-pair-share is helpful for the instructor as it enables organizing content and tracking
students on where they are relative to the topic being discussed in class, saves time so that
he/she can move to other topics, helps to make the class more interactive, provides
opportunities for students to interact with each other
3. A learning cell is an effective way for a pair of students to study and learn together. A
learning cell is a process of learning where two students alternate asking and answering
questions on commonly read materials. To prepare for the assignment, the students will read
the assignment and write down questions that they have about the reading. At the next class
meeting, the teacher will randomly put the students in pairs. The process begins by designating
one student from each group to begin by asking one of their questions to the other. Once the
two students discuss the question, the other student will ask a question and they will alternate
accordingly. During this time, the teacher is going around the class from group to group giving
feedback and answering questions. This system is also referred to as a student dyad.
4. A short written exercise that is often used is the "one minute paper." This is a good way to
review materials and provide feedback. However a "one minute paper" does not take one
minute and for students to concisely summarize it is suggested that they have at least 10
minutes to work on this exercise.
5. A collaborative learning group is a successful way to learn different material for different
classes. It is where you assign students in groups of 3-6 people and they are given an
assignment or task to work on together. This assignment could be either to answer a question to
present to the entire class or a project. Make sure that the students in the group choose a leader
and a note-taker to keep them on track with the process. This is a good example of active
learning because it causes the students to review the work that is being required at an earlier
time to participate.
In order to create participation and draw on the wisdom of all the learners the classroom
arrangement needs to be flexible seating to allow for the creation of small groups.
6. A student debate is an active way for students to learn because they allow students the
chance to take a position and gather information to support their view and explain it to others.
These debates not only give the student a chance to participate in a fun activity but it also lets
them gain some experience with giving a verbal presentation.
7. A reaction to a video is also an example of active learning because most students love to
watch movies. The video helps the student to understand what they are learning at the time in
an alternative presentation mode. Make sure that the video relates to the topic that they are
studying at the moment. Try to include a few questions before you start the video so they will
pay more attention and notice where to focus at during the video. After the video is complete
divide the students either into groups or pairs so that they may discuss what they learned and
write a review or reaction to the movie.
8. A class game is also considered an energetic way to learn because it not only helps the
students to review the course material before a big exam but it helps them to enjoy learning
about a topic. Different games such as jeopardy and crossword puzzles always seem to get the
students' minds going.
9. Learning By Teaching is also an example of active learning because students actively
research a topic and prepare the information so that they can teach it to the class. This helps
students learn their own topic even better and sometimes students learn and communicate
better with their peers than their teachers
"What are the benefits of active Learning ?"
In addition to the obvious advantages of information retention many research studies show
that there will be improvements in:
 student-teacher interaction,
 student-student interaction,
 academic achievement (i.e., grades),
 communication skills,
 higher-level thinking skills,
 teamwork,
 attitude towards the subject and motivation to learn.
The reason why it works is that:
 individual students may get stuck on a problem and give up, whereas groups of
students tend to keep going,
33
 students become exposed to alternative problem-solving strategies,
 students are much less fearful of generating and answering questions among
themselves than individually and directly to the instructor in class,
 students learn best what they teach!
Infusing Active Learning into the Large-enrollment Biology Class: Strategies, from the
Simple to Complex
1. “Bookending” the Lecture with Questions that Focus Student Discussion
A structured question-and-response period is the simplest and shortest type of active-learning
activity. These are questions that students discuss. Short periods of discussion occur after every
10 to 20 minutes of lecture, or they can be used to open and close a class session. Students may
write ideas about answers, they may talk about answers with those sitting next to them, and
they may explain answers to each other. Closed questions (ones with one- or two-word right
answers) have their place, but they are not very effective at promoting student interaction and
reflection. Questions and discussion can be used in large classes and can contribute to student
learning.
2. Student Presentations and Projects
Devote nearly the entire class meeting time to student presentations and projects. The
instructor chooses the articles, provides some resources, meets with students outside of class as
a consultant on quality-control issues, and gives brief orienting lectures at the start of each
class. Science literacy goals are fostered because students research, review, and present
background material as well as key features of their assigned research studies.
In courses of this type, the instructor's role is largely displaced to behind the scenes, outside of
class activities such as planning and coaching presentation teams. Periodic formal and informal
feedback from students on their perceptions of the course can provide information that can help
the instructor to address any student concerns that may result
3. Learning-Cycle Instructional Models
The most common of these learning-cycle approaches in use in the sciences is the five-phased
“5E” instructional model. Here’s a common example of a learning-cycle model:
1) engagement that draws students in with a video clip, provocative question, or other short
activity.
2) exploration that uses other learning tasks to focus on the concepts and skills necessary to
understand the central topic;
3) explanation that provides more examples and opportunities for students to demonstrate their
understanding.
4) elaboration that seeks to deepen understanding with applications and implications; and
5) evaluation during which student understanding is assessed.
In this model the instructor’s presence is most visible during the explanation step, with
students doing much of the work in the other steps, although they do so using instructor-
designed tasks and materials.
4. Peer-Led Team Learning
Another way to address student concerns when active-learning activities increase in complexity
and intensity is to enlist the help of their near peers, typically students who have taken the
course before, to help guide students' efforts. This strategy uses peers to facilitate learning in
small groups and is described in detail in another article in this issue. - See more at:
5. Inquiry Approaches
Here students use simple equipment to do laboratory-type exercises in class. “Despite this
necessity for simplicity, students can exercise the intellectual power behind designing aspects
of the experiment, predicting outcomes that would lend support to their hypotheses, and
analyzing and interpreting their findings
6. Problem-Based Learning
These are the kinds of problems that promote learning on a need-to-know basis. They can be
formatted in a variety of ways, with students working on the problems in class. At various
intervals the instructor might lecture about relevant content or be available to answer questions
submitted by the groups.
7. Biology workshop
This model combines class and lab experiences as students explore a theme that is integrated
into the content, activities, and assignments of the course. “Students explore and discover
fundamental concepts through asking and answering their own questions.”
4.0 INSTRUCTION IN SECONDARY SCHOOL BIOLOGY
4.1 THEORIES OF INSTRUCTION AND THEIR APPLICATION TO THE
TEACHING OF BIOLOGY.
34
Most of the Biology Curricular Projects over the years have placed central emphasis on the
updating of content and on enquiry approaches to teaching and learning. The results of the
projects have usually been less encouraging due to:-
1. To Lack of careful delineation of concepts to be taught
2. Lack of any deliberate effort to select instructional materials that lead to meaningful
learning of the concepts
Modern learning theory indicates that concept learning is central to the development of an
understanding of the biological world. The curriculum and Instruction Theory reinforce this
view. The theory is exposed in the work of the following among others:-
1. M. Johnson
2. D. Ausubel
3. R. Gagne
4. J. Brunner
5. J. Piaget
A Curriculum and Instruction theory seeks to bridge the gap between curriculum
and
Instruction
For curriculum to be effective in the classroom it must reflect on the nature of
knowledge itself as well as the nature of the pupil and the learning and teaching processes
{A} Johnson’s Model for Curriculum and Instruction (1967)
According to this model curriculum development focuses on the following two key
issues:-
1. Selection and ordering of concepts to be learnt.
2. Selection of activities which will be meaningful to the learner; i.e. those
which will best relate to the framework of concepts in learner’s cognitive structures.
Johnson’s Model allows us to avoid the problem of confusing the processes of
extracting knowledge from Biology with the process of selecting good instructional
approaches
It was frequently assumed in the past that because a given instructional strategy
failed to teach a concept, to the majority of the learners in a class that concept was too difficult
for that class or age group
There is evidence to indicate that some reasonable degree of learning for almost any
concept can take place if proper instructional sequences are provided and examples and
activities are used that will relate to the prior experience of the learner
An example to illustrate the model:
The model can be employed to distinguish between the curriculum process involved in
selecting concepts for Biology and the instruction processes involved in selecting meaningful
examples and activities. E.g. Concept of the cell as a basic unit of biological structure can be
 taught at any grade level; however, young children’s motor skills are such that we usually
don’t go for instruction with microscopes much before the the Junior Secondary level. There
are also practical limitations regarding the average teacher’s ability to guide instructions in the
cell study. Therefore the study of the cell concept is usually postponed for reasons of
instruction difficulties rather than children learning capacity.
{B} Robert Gagne’s Hierarchy of Learning
According to Gagne, knowledge is hierarchically organized. Minor concepts in Biology
are related to subordinate concepts which should be mastered before the major ones are learnt ;
i.e. We begin with prerequisites and work up to the more complex ideas or concepts.

Major concepts
A
-Learning process

Prerequisites -Organization of content

For Gagne the highest level of learning is problem solving. Lower levels involve:-




Facts
Concepts
Principles
A1 A2
(upward movement)

 Laws etc.

But for each concept, principle or law there are prerequisites that must be learnt first. In curriculum Organization, the facts, concepts, principles and laws should be arranged or structured in such a way
that they contribute to major concepts or generalization.

Cell Concept

Learning 35
Cell Organelle Genetic and
Process
DNA Control
Mitochondria
Summary:
In practice we begin with the smallest, most specific concept and move to the most
general/complex concept. Gagne’s theory helps us in organizing biological content for the
purpose of effective teaching
According to Brunner, learning proceeds from more complex concepts to specific. i.e. less
complex subordinate concepts. To justify himself in general Brunner insist in the learner
manipulating material and dealing with incongruences or contrasts . In terms of curriculum
content and organization Brunner insists on outlining general concepts that guide the teaching
of specifics.

Brunner’s greatest contribution to curriculum

{C} BRUNER’S INSTRUCTIONAL THEORY
Spiral Curriculum: This refers to the arrangement of a given concept in a sequence that enables
According to Brunner it is rare that something outside the learner is discovered, the learner to go into greater details of the same as he/she moves vertically up the learning
rather the discovery involves an internal reorganization of previously known ideas in order to ladder.
establish a better fit between those ideas and the regularities of an encounter to which the
learner has had to accommodate (Cognitive restructuring). The Spiral Curriculum is predicated At each new level of the spiral the learner treats the concepts in more sophisticated
on cognitive theory advanced by Jerome Bruner (1960), who wrote, in his book: ways relating than to wider and wider network of more recently acquired understanding of the
concept.
“We begin with the hypothesis that any subject can be taught in some intellectually …………………………………………………………………………
honest form to any child at any stage of development” (p. 33).
………………………………………………………………………
In other words, even the most complex material, if properly structured and presented, can be ………………………………………………………………………
understood by very young children.
………………………………………………………………………
In terms of organization, Bruner’s theory is the opposite of Gagne’s theory. ………………………………………………………………………

36
……………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
4.2 METHODS, TECHNIQUES AND STRATEGIES OF TEACHING BIOLOGY

Method:

A method of teaching is a general approach to conducting a lesson which involves a

choice between whether learners will mainly be told or whether they will largely find out for
themselves

There are two general methods:

 Expository method/Transmission
 Discovery /Problem solving method/Inquiry

Expository method

It is the approach where the teacher largely provides information and the leaner is the
passive recipient

Discovery /Problem solving method

It is the approach where the teacher leads learners to search for answers and information
for themselves. In this process learners develop necessary knowledge, skills and attitude.

Techniques:

These are specific actions and processes through which the teaching method is
realized.
FIGURE

In the above figure the concept of evaporation builds upon the phenomenon of boiling, Method Technique
evaporation using solar energy and in Grade 7 evaporation is seen as an important aspect of the Method is the approach to instruction of An activity performed to achieve the
three states of matter. facts, concepts, generalizations etc. method
a) Expository
The spiral sequence is necessary in those subject areas where the learner cannot get deeply into a) Lecture, Recitation, Discussion
any topic until he/she already knows something about others. b) Problem-solving b) Debate, Project, Panels,
laboratory work, field work
The spiral sequence has been used in planning the Primary Science curriculum in
Kenya. The spiral approach is different from Gagne’s hierarchy of learning: Where Gagne says
that a child is ready to learn a concept when he/she has mastered the prerequisites he is
essentially referring to the capabilities which are subsumed unto the main concept to be learnt. Strategy:

On the other hand, Brunner’s spiral sequence refers to the learning of the concept in It is the sequence/ordering of the techniques in a given lesson.
piecemeal as he/she moves vertically up the learning ladder.

Method Technique Strategy

37
 1.Expository  Lecture Lecture then discussion, then work book, ………………………………………………………………………
 Recitation exercise the lecture
 Discussion
………………………………………………………………………
 Workbook ………………………………………………………………………
 Exercise ………………………………………………………………………
2.Problem Debate panel Field experience then debate the project ………………………………………………………………………
solving Field work then project the report.
Written report ………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
Problem solving method has two branches:
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
1. Deductive approach –General to specific e.g. Math ………………………………………………………………………
2. Inductive approach-Specific to general
………………………………………………………………………
A variety in teaching techniques increase the chances of reaching more students. At least 2 or 3 ………………………………………………………………………
different techniques need to be used in a lesson to increase learners' participation. This is ………………………………………………………………..
important because learners have different learning styles and teachers have different teaching
……………………..
styles……………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………….......................
………………………………………………………………………
...........................................................................................
………………………………………………………………………

E H

I 2
1
Very good
Most teachers use this approach
for sciences
and technique

E-Expository
3

4
(Discovery)
H-Heuristic/Discovery } Techniques

Approaches {
Highly teacher centered
38

D
Expository

Other Techniques

Factors To Consider in the Selection of Teaching Methods and Techniques b) Cognitive styles of the learner-the manner in which pupils process information
c) Age and practical experience of learners-cognitive development
1. The teacher d) Socio-cultural background of students
2. Objectives of teaching the lesson
3. Time available Objectives of Teaching
4. Materials and resources to be used Methods and techniques are selected with regard to their ability to facilitate the
5. Subject matter/Cognitive demand development of knowledge, skills and attitude given the great diversity of them to be learnt, the
6. The learner use of varied techniques of teaching will be necessary.

The Teacher Subject Matter/Cognitive Demand

The teacher’s mastery of subject matter, personality, knowledge of psychological Each topic in Biology has got its own specific features e.g. In Genetics elementary
and sociological principles of teaching and teaching experience greatly influence the teacher’s mathematical operations are required. Genetics could be taught through a combination of
choice of teaching technique and strategies lecture (using audio visual aids) and numerical exercises during which various concepts can be
mastered.
The Learner Each topic requires the learner to possess particular mental capabilities to be able to
The methods and techniques of teaching adopted should favor the learners in the learn it. However, the rate of mental maturation varies from individual to individual. If too
following:- much demand (Cognitive demand) is placed on certain pupils learning is inhibited. A selection
a) The intellectual level/entry behavior of suitable teaching techniques would reduce such cognitive demands on pupils, thus
facilitating learning.

39
 Planning for a lecture – what to be put in place.
Time and Material Resources Available Knowing something and knowing how to explain something are different things. A good
Decision on the choice of teaching methods and techniques depends on time, lecture is the result of planning, preparation, and hard work, and it is essential that you invest
financial resources and teaching materials and resources available; e.g. availability of rooms, the necessary time and energy into identifying resources, organizing the material, developing
audio visual aids and laboratory facilities may be a limiting factor in the teaching of Biology, examples, and preparing supporting documents for your students. When planning for a lecture,
so methods and techniques should take account of this. it is important to consider not only the selection and arrangement of content, but also the
strategies that can be used to communicate, connect, and reach out to your audience.
TEACHING TECHNIQUES IN BIOLOGY
1. Lecture Take a few minutes before each lecture to conduct a "quality control check."
2. Demonstration • Check the technology in the classroom, including the computer, overhead projector or visual
3. Laboratory work display, and Internet connection.
4. Project work • Review the order of your presentation materials and visual displays.
5. Assignment • Check your spelling on handouts, overheads, and PowerPoint slides.
6. Field work/trips/outdoor technique • If you are using a series of hyperlinks or Websites, check to see if the links are correct and up
7. Discussion to date.
8. Question/Answer • Always have a backup plan, and be prepared to deliver your lecture using alternative tools,
techniques, and supports.
1. Lecture Technique
A lecture is an exposition of knowledge, facts, principles, laws or other information Advantages and disadvantages of using lecture technique
a teacher wishes to present to the learners. It is a largely a one-way communication system.
T P Advantages
Many teachers spend at least 30-50% of the teaching time lecturing

Factors Considered in Selecting Lecture as a Teaching Technique • Setting the context of a topic or field for novice learners.
• Disseminating a common set of material to a broad audience.
1. Subject matter – Suitable for subject matter of high cognitive demand
2. Size of the class – Large classes can only be taught using lecture technique where  Providing a synthesis of information from various sources.
pupil-teacher eye contact is difficult to achieve.
3. Availability of resources – Suitable where there is scarcity of teaching resources
• Clarifying complex information.
4. Availability of time – Suitable where there is a limited number of periods of the
• Transmitting conceptual and systematic knowledge.
time table to cover the designated materials.
• Offering students a model of professional practice, i.e., the lecturer and his/her approach to
5. Purpose of the lecture(s) as a factor – to create interest as in introduction of a lesson the subject.
or giving new and interesting information.
 Clarifying an issue or information
Disadvantages
 Building up basic theoretical knowledge which must be gained
before practice of skills
 Giving general or detailed information on a topic or issue. (READ AND MAKE NOTES)
 Teaching of specific skill.
 Attempting to change students student’s attitudes
 Summarizing the lesson by highlighting key points
 Giving supplementary information to as a follow up or prior to Characteristic of a good lecture.
laboratory work and in presenting the findings of project work or Informative,
field trips. Engaging,
Participatory

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 Content- Regardless of the topic, you should restrict yourself to a few key points, 6. When the equipment used is very expensive – so demonstration is used to avoid
ideally, three to four main ideas. By presenting a manageable amount of damage e.g. microscopes
information, you provide your students with more-and better-opportunities for 7. When apparatus and chemicals are dangerous for learners to handle
processing and assimilating the material, connecting it to what they already know, 8. To serve as a model for some tasks subsequently expected for learners
and situating it within the larger framework of the discipline 9. When time is inadequate for the task.
Lecture should be complete-
A good lecture, like a good research paper, has three key components: an introduction, a body,
and a conclusion. How to improve or increase Effectiveness of a Demonstration
The introduction should include:
1. Involves learners by asking them to:
• An attention-grabber-a statement of the problem, topic, or subject that draws people in. a) Carry out specific tasks e.g. assembling of apparatus
Stories, analogies, issues drawn from current events, provocative quotes, videos, pictures, and b) Make key observations and collect necessary data
graphics can all serve as attention-grabbers. When selecting an attention-grabber, always strive c) Record results in their notebooks or card boards
to create relevance, and answer the question, "Why are we talking about this topic?" d) Ask them to describe orally or in writing what they see and whatever
• A statement of the context that connects this lecture to material covered in earlier sessions. they think and whatever they see happened.
• An overview of the lecture itself, with an outline of what you are going to discuss. e) Check their findings and make conclusions.
• A statement of the intended goals or outcomes of the lecture-a definition of what you want 2. Plan for the demonstration in advance.
the audience to know or be able to do as a result. 3. Skillful questioning and presentation of the demonstration will help arouse thinking
of discussion
The body should include: 4. The objectives for the demonstration should be orally identified.

• The core content of your discussion, including key concepts, principles, techniques,
approaches, issues, etc.
• The key instructional activities-small-group discussion, review of datasets or problem sets. READ AND MAKE NOTES ON:
• Opportunities for the audience to engage, review, and apply the material
Purpose of demonstration (Hand out)
The conclusion should include
• A summary of the material you covered in the lecture. Planning of Demonstration
• A statement that sets the foundation for future class sessions by connecting the material you
covered in the lecture to the larger aims of the course. Criteria for a good demonstration

2. Demonstration Advantages of Demonstration

It is a technique designed to show or illustrate a procedure, process or phenomenon. Disadvantages of Demonstration

Reasons for selecting Demonstration as a technique of teaching

1. Can be used as an initiating activity for a lesson to raise questions or problems to be
solved; and in clinching an idea that is to be used in the lesson. Instructional strategies and resources
2. To verify facts and principles. The teacher can construct very good instructional objectives and select the subject matter but
3. Used to develop specific skills e.g. measuring using micro-screw gauge. fail to communicate with the learners. This may be due to:
4. To show every stage or sequence or techniques which are too difficult for learners
to carry out e.g. making sections of tissues and fixing them on a slide for view  Wrong choice of instructional strategies
under a microscope.  Wrong choice of instructional materials
5. When apparatus equipment and materials for the whole class are inadequate  Use of difficult language by the teacher

41
  Poor questioning style by the teacher
 Lack of motivation on the part of the learners
The purpose of using suitable instructional strategies and resources is to overcome these
impediments of communication.
Suitable instructional strategies and resources promote participation of pupils in the learning
process as well as encouraging them to use scientific processes in constructing knowledge.
3. Laboratory Work
The main purpose of laboratory work in science education is to provide students with
conceptual and theoretical knowledge to help them learn scientific concepts, and through
scientific methods, to understand the nature of science. Laboratory work also gives the students
the opportunity to experience science by using scientific research procedures. In order to
achieve meaningful learning, scientific theories and their application methods should be
experienced by students. Moreover, laboratory work should encourage the development of
analytical and critical thinking skills and encourage interest in science
Purposes of laboratory work may be:
- To promote development of skills – manipulative and cognitive skills.
- Supporting or strengthening theoretical knowledge, in terms of facts, ideas, complete
generalizations, laws and theories
- Experiencing the pleasure of discovery and development of their psycho-motor skills,
- Teaching how scientific knowledge may be used in daily life,
- Increasing creative thinking skills,
- Gains in scientific working methods and higher order thinking skills,
- Developing communication skills,
- Development of scientific attitudes.
- Developing manual dexterity by using tools and equipment;
- and allowing students to apply skills instead of memorizing
Objectives that may be achieved through the use of the laboratory in science classes:
1. skills - manipulative, inquiry, investigative, organizational, communicative
2. concepts - for example, hypothesis, theoretical model, taxonomic category
3. cognitive abilities - critical thinking, problem solving, application, analysis,
synthesis
4. understanding the nature of science - scientific enterprise, scientists and how they
work, existence of a multiplicity of scientific methods, interrelationships between
science and technology and among the various disciplines of science
5. attitudes - for example, curiosity, interest, risk taking, objectivity, precision,
confidence, perseverance, satisfaction, responsibility, consensus, collaboration, and
liking science
3. Discussion Groups
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Group discussions can help young people increase their subject matter knowledge, learn skills
in leadership, and share with others. Some decisions regarding programs, meeting times,
expenses, etc. can be handled well in a discussion group where everyone contributes. Members
will have a greater commitment to a group where everyone contributes and they all help to
make the decision. As a member shares information to make a group decision, he or she will
become more aware of each person’s skills and contributions to the group.
Try to look at a member of the group, with no more authority or prestige than the young
people, but with a special function of helping all members to make and carry out group
decisions. The amount of direction needed will depend on the members’ ages and abilities. The
following suggestions may help:
1. Make sure the topics or questions for the discussion are clearly stated. Older members
should take the leadership role in determining the agenda.
2. Keep the list of topics or questions short for younger members.
3. Keep discussion short for younger members. They will lose interest and direction quickly.
4. Field Trips and Tours
Well planned and organized field trips develop more interest in project work. Trips create
group feeling and commitment. New experiences are a vital part of each person’s
development. Young people are always interested in meeting new people and seeing different
places. You will probably find that this is a popular teaching technique. Young people like to
get out and visit new places. To provide a meaningful learning experience, you will need to:
1. Plan carefully; involve all members.
2. Be sure to secure appropriate activity insurance.
3. If possible, visit the location or person ahead of time.
4. Provide transportation.
5. Make sure the purpose of the trip is clear.
6. Tell members enough of what to expect to arouse interest. Provide background and prepare
questions, if appropriate.
7. Evaluate and discuss the experience with the members soon afterwards.
8. Carry-over the learning from the trip into project activities.
9. Thank your host and/or host organization. (A written thank you from the group is the best.)
5. Project Work
Project Work, a student-centred methodology, involves several phases from the definition of
the research question to the evaluation of the project.
This is not an easy methodology to use with secondary school students as they are more
familiar with teacher-centred approaches, which tend to lead to a more passive learning style.
Project work is an intentional and original activity with a specific goal that promotes the
development of skills, such as autonomy, initiative, creativity, critical thought and
collaboration as it involves group work. However, it can generate complexity and uncertainty
among participants. Project work is characterized by the creation of an end-product, for
instance a presentation, an abstract, a poster or a three-dimensional model. Project work also
has a social approach, as a result of teamwork
Feedback/Evaluation
 Evaluation should be planned for to cover the entire process of learning and 2. Objectives
teaching. It provides evidence of pupil learning throughout the period of instruction. 3. Learning activities
4. Feedback/Assessment and evaluation
Feedback is carried out during learner’s performance in homework assignment,
Science project, class discussion and in formative evaluation tests. From such evidence the 1. Content Analysis
teacher can infer whether the instructional strategies and resources used is effective or not; so
that necessary adjustments are made. The teacher can also diagnose pupil – learning difficulties This involves analysis of the content in terms of ideas, facts, concepts, situations, processes,
and make decisions on how to handle them. generalizations etc. The analysis helps in getting a through in depth understanding of the topic
of planning the lessons. In this process we use concept web or concept map or concept tree; to
4.4 PLANNING FOR BIOLOGY TEACHING: THE SYLLABUS, SCHEMES OF develop ideas related to the concept topic under investigation.
WORK, LESSON PLANNING, LESSON NOTES AND RECORD OF WORK
COVERED.
………………………………………………………………………
After finding out the necessary content writing out instructional objectives, ………………………………………………………………………
identifying the learning experiences, selecting the instructional strategies and materials
………………………………………………………………………
(resources and identifying the means and ways of evaluating the pupils work , all those
components should be put in order suitable to the learners. This is achieved by using the ………………………………………………………………………
following apparatus: ………………………………………………………………………
a) A unit plan ………………………………………………………………………
b) Schemes of work ………………………………………………………………………
c) Lessons plan ………………………………………………………………………
The unit plan covers a biological theme or topic and usually takes from between 2-4 weeks of
teaching. ………………………………………………………………………
S.O.W is a breakdown of work to be covered over a period of time usually one term and ………………………………………………………………………
contains several unit plans. ………………………………………………………………………
The lesson plan shows what should be in a given lesson and shows its details from the skeleton
provided by the unit plan or S.O.W.
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
UNIT PLANNING ………………………………………………………………………
A unit in is a broad segment of subject matter having a common fabric of
………………………………………………………………………
knowledge e.g. “plants” is a unit covering different topics like:
 Germination ………………………………………………………………………
 Classification ………………………………………………………………………
 Growth and Development ………………………………………………………………………
 Reproduction ………………………………………………………………………
 Nutrition
 Transport
………………………………………………………………..
 Transpiration etc. ……………………..
………………………………………………………………………
A well planned unit integrates such topics in the unit and with the various learning activities it ………………………………………………………………………
can be presented to the pupils meaningfully
………………………………………………………………………
Steps in Unit Planning ………………………………………………………………………
1. Content analysis ………………………………………………………………………

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…………………………………………………………....................... ………………………………………………………………………
........................................................................................... ………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………… ……………………..
……………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………….......................
……………………………………………………………………… ...............................................................................................................
……………………………………………………………………… ...........................................................................................
………………………………………………………………………

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Concept Tree of “Plants”

Monocots Dicots

Flowering Non-Flowering Plants

Plants
Classification
Seeds Shapes and Sizes
Plants
Classification
Dispersal

Growth & Development

Function of Plant parts
Germination
Concept tree of Flowers

Can be
have Flowers
e.g. for
e.g. Gifts e.g.
have
Names for
Colors Holidays

B/Days
Daffodil Yellow Red
Rose for Easter
Valentines’ Day
has is
for
Thorns

is

45
Concept maps are different from flowcharts, classification charts, concept webs and concept It helps teachers to:
tree: in that concept maps show interconnections of concepts at similar hierarchical level
whereas the others are linear, progressing from one point to another without showing linkage 1. Decide on materials to be used in teaching a given topic
between branches 2. Decide on the scope and sequence of subject matter to be taught
3. Classify the general and specific objectives of teaching
DISPLAY 4. Cater for the needs, nature and aptitudes of learners
5. Decide on teaching experience to be given to the learners
Once content analysis is done, display the content; e.g. 6. Develop skills in students in a systematic manner
7. Present lesson in a cohesive, logical and meaningful way
Name of unit: Plants
SCHEMES OF WORK
Content analysis:-
Compiled from unit plans
I. Classification of plants
a) Flowering/Non flowering plants FORMAT
b) Monocots and Dicots
II. Function of plant parts A good S.O.W should contain the following:
a) Roots
b) Leaves a) Time allocation (week/lesson)
c) Stems b) Statement of content – knowledge and skills
d) Flowers c) Objective
III. Seeds d) Teaching resource
a) Type  Includes reference
b) Seed dispersal  Audio visual aids
c) Germination – Types  Equipment and apparatus
-Condition e) Learning activities – Teaching approaches to be used and Pupils activities
IV. Growth and Development
a) Patterns
b) Conditions CONSIDERATION WHEN SCHEMING

1. Find out time allocation guidelines for each topic (to avoid under or over scheming)
2. Objectives 2. Find out whether pupils have done aspects of the topic you are scheming for so that
you decide how much they can learn
After the content analysis specific objectives for the unit are written appear and resource 3. Decide on the nature of records to be made/kept on given topic by the pupils
required are identified then the unit is fully constructed and summarized in tabular form 4. Examine pupils textbooks and reference materials to determine the reading tasks or
exercises to be given
5. Examine library references and determine their usage
SUBJECT: CLASS:FORM
6. Decide carefully on the resources to be used i.e. apparatus, equipment and audio-
BIOLOGY 1
visual materials.
NAME OF UNIT:
7. Decide on the most appropriate mode of teaching i.e. instructional techniques and
PLANTS
strategies; e.g. worksheets, laboratory work etc.
NUMBER OF
8. Planning evaluation procedure
CLASSES: 4
9. Determine the time needed for each lesson.

LESSON CONTENT OBJECTIVES LEARNING RESOURCES

ACTIVITIES LESSON PLAN

This is a teacher’s plan of action. It is a detailed overview of what the teacher intends to do
with the learners in terms of what should be learnt, how it should be learnt and how it will be
established if this has been learnt; it gives an overview of objectives, presentation, instructional
Advantages of Unit Planning strategies to be adopted and feedback/Evaluation.

46
 This overview is normally a prescription of a specified time and day. associations, make generalizations and alternative explanation as well as
applying knowledge to new situations

THINGS TO BE DONE BEFORE LESSON PLANNNING CONCLUSION

1. Collect information on the topic you wish to teach, using a variety of resources There are culminating activities that put together the main part of the lesson.
The information may be in terms of: Recapitulation is done to ascertain whether the pupils have understood the subject matter and
 Concepts how effective the method of teaching has been.
 Facts and Ideas
 Diagrams and illustrations Other aspects to be included:
 Possible practical work a. A statement of instructional resource i.e. Reference material, apparatus,
 Demonstrations to be carried out equipment’s, visual aids
 Materials required e.g. apparatus, worksheets, equipment’s and visual b. A statement of self-evaluation
aids c. Lesson notes – to accompany a lesson plan. The notes should highlight
 Problems for investigation the key ideas of what students should learn
 End of lesson activities e.g. homework/Assignment Teachers experience and background matter a lot
2. Decide on the exact content of the particular lesson; basing on the time available d. Time limit for each activity.
3. If the topic is wide select and sequence the sub topics as they should appear in your
teachings. The topic may take more than two lessons if it is wide.
4. Decide on how to teach the lesson SAMPLE LESSON PLAN
 Objectives
 Introduction of the lesson
 Instructional strategies to be used
 Learning activities for the students Name of teacher:……………………………………………………….
 Organization of the learning activities
 Records that the students will keep e.g. notes fill in the blanks. Name of school:………………………………………………………..
 How the lesson ends Class:……………………………. Number of pupils in class:…………………………………
 How you will know that learning and teaching have been successful
(Evaluation) Subject:…………………………………………………

LESSON PLAN FORMAT Date:………………………………………………………. Time: 8.00-9.20 am (80 mins)

A good lesson plan is one which can be used by any other teacher to teach that specific Topic: - HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION; SAPROPHYTISM
lesson. The following are components of a lesson plan:
1. Title – States when and to whom the lesson is to be taught and the topic and sub – Sub-topic:- Structure and Nutrition in Fungi (Rhizopus)
topics to be taught
2. Objectives – Stated in behavioral terms following on knowledge and skills. Where
possible include objectives following on attitudes.
The above are Administrative details.
3. Introduction – Initiating activities of the lesson. They are meant to capture student’s
attention and focus it on the topic of the lesson. Meant to link the previous Objectives:
knowledge and the new lesson.
4. Lesson presentation/Development -  To use hand lenses and light microscope to study Rhizopus
Activities in which both the teacher and the pupils get involved  Observe and describe the structure of Rhizopus
Instructional strategies that the teacher employs  Draw and label the structure of the Rhizopus
The teacher, through questioning, guides pupils to make comparisons and  Describe the feeding habits of Rhizopus

STEP AND CONTENT TEACHER’S ACTIVITIES PUPILS’ ACTIVITIES RESOURCES REMARKS

TIME

47
 Introduction Introduction to Fungi Tell a story of….. (Hand Out) Listen to the story. D.G. Mockean
(5 mins) Establish by discussion that in fact that Give their experience on moulds and discuss Pg. 250, 325
moulds are significant and need to be the need to learn about them.
studied
Lesson event Structure and nutrition of Grouping of students in pairs. Pairing.  Hand lenses
Rhizopus.spp (common Display of equipment and apparatus for Check that all materials are available at their  Microscopes
STEP 1 mould) students to see. stations  P/dishes
(10 mins) Confirm all groups have materials.  Potato agar
Caution students about handling anything  Rhizopus
unless instructed  Dissecting needles
 Microscope slides + cover slips
 Bread pieces
 Oven
STEP II Observation of the Ask pupils to note that specimens A and B  Look at dishes X and Y and specimens A
(15 mins) structure in P/dishes X and Y were from the same and B
loaf but treated differently i.e.  Observe teachers demonstration and learn
Spec. A – Oven 40oC lid closed how to manipulate hand lenses
Spec. B – Moist dark 25 oC open lid.  Use hand lenses to observe any differences
(Control of Variables) between the two pieces of bread in the two
 Demonstrate how to use a hand lens to P/dishes
observe specimens  Describe the appearance of mould (With
 Lead students to the fact that mould had naked eye and hand lens)
grown on B not A, through question
 Ask students to describe appearance of
mould

CHAPTER 5. INSTRUCTIONAL RESOURCES IN BIOLOGY
5.1 Resources for teaching biology: Botanical gardens, arboreteum, herbaria, museums,
aquaria, ponds, specimens, etc.
Botanical Gardens
A botanical garden (or botanic garden) is a well-tended area displaying a wide range of plants
labeled with their botanical names. It may contain specialist plant collections such as cacti and
succulent plants, herb gardens, plants from particular parts of the world, and so on; there may
be greenhouses, shade houses, again with special collections such as tropical plants, alpine
plants, or other exotic plants. Visitor services at a botanical garden might include tours,
educational displays, art exhibitions, book rooms, open-air theatrical and musical
performances, and other entertainment.
A botanical garden is a controlled and staffed institution for the maintenance of a living
collection of plants under scientific management for purposes of education and research,
together with such libraries, herbaria, laboratories, and museums as are essential to its
particular undertakings.
Each botanical garden naturally develops its own special fields of interests depending on its
personnel, location, extent, available funds, and the terms of its charter. It may include
greenhouses, test grounds, an herbarium, an arboretum, and other departments. It maintains a
scientific as well as a plant-growing staff, and publication is one of its major modes of
expression.
Botanical gardens are often run by universities or other scientific research organizations, and
often have associated herbaria and research programmes in plant taxonomy or some other
aspect of botanical science. In principle, their role is to maintain documented collections of
living plants for the purposes of scientific research, conservation, display, and education,
although this will depend on the resources available and the special interests pursued at each
particular garden.

48
An Arborteum  Institute of Primate Research, Nairobi

An arboreteum (plural: arboreta) in a narrow sense is a collection of trees only. More

 Fort Jesus, Mombasa
commonly, today, an arboretum is a botanical garden containing living collections of woody  Gedi ruins, Gedi, near Malindi
plants intended at least partly for scientific study. It covers in some detail the many functions  Hyrax Hill Prehistoric site and Museum, near Nakuru
and activities generally associated with botanical gardens.
 Jumba la Mtwana, Mtwapa, near Mombasa
 Kabarnet Museum, Kabarnet
Herbaria  Karen Blixen Museum, Nairobi
 Kapenguria Museum, Kapenguria
A herbarium (plural: herbaria) is a collection of preserved plant specimens. These specimens
may be whole plants or plant parts: these will usually be in a dried form mounted on a sheet
 Kariandusi Museum, near Gilgil
but, depending upon the material, may also be kept in alcohol or other preservative. The same  Kisumu Museum, Kisumu
term is often used in mycology to describe an equivalent collection of preserved fungi,  Kitale Museum, Kitale
otherwise known as a fungarium.
The term can also refer to the building where the specimens are stored or to the scientific
 Koobi Fora, at Sibiloi National Park
institute that not only stores but researches these specimens. The specimens in a herbarium are  Lamu Museum, Lamu
often used as reference material in describing plant taxa; some specimens may be types.  Meru Museum, Meru
A xylarium is a herbarium specialising in specimens of wood. A hortorium is one specialising
in preserved specimens of cultivated plant.
 Mnarani ruins, Kilifi
 Narok Museum, Narok
Museums  Olorgesailie, near Magadi

A museum is an institution that cares for (conserves) a collection of artifacts and other objects
of scientific, artistic, cultural, or historical importance and makes them available for public
viewing through exhibits that may be permanent or temporary. Most large museums are
located in major cities throughout the world and more local ones exist in smaller cities, towns
and even the countryside. Museums have varying aims, ranging from serving researchers and
specialists to serving the general public. The continuing acceleration in the digitization of
information, combined with the increasing capacity of digital information storage, is causing
the traditional model of museums (i.e. as static “collections of collections” of three-
dimensional specimens and artifacts) to expand to include virtual exhibits and high-resolution
images of their collections for perusal, study, and exploration from any place with Internet. The
city with the largest number of museums is Mexico City with over 128 museums. According to
The World Museum Community, there are more than 55,000 museums in 202 countries.
Examples in Kenya include:
National Museum of Kenya (NMK), in Nairobi; Other museums, sites and monuments
operated by the NMK, including eco-tourist attractions are:
 Nairobi Gallery, Nairobi
 Uhuru Gardens, Nairobi
 Siyu Fort, Pate Island
 Takwa ruins, Manda Island
 Thimlich Ohinga, 45 km west of Migori
Ponds
A pond is a body of standing water, either natural or man-made, that is usually smaller than a
lake. They may arise naturally in floodplains as part of a river system, or they may be
somewhat isolated depressions (examples include vernal pools and prairie potholes). Usually
they contain shallow water with marsh and aquatic plants and animals. A few animals also
make ponds, including both alligators and beavers. The type of life in a pond is generally
determined by a combination of factors including water level regime (particularly depth and
duration of flooding) and nutrient levels, but other factors may also be important, including
presence or absence of shading by trees, presence or absence of streams, effects of grazing
animals, and salinity.
Humans also make ponds. A wide variety of man-made bodies of water are classified as ponds.
Some ponds are created specifically for habitat restoration, including water treatment. Others,
like water gardens, water features and ponds are designed for aesthetic ornamentation as
landscape or architectural features. Fish ponds are designed for commercial fish breeding, and
solar ponds designed to store thermal energy.

49
One of the most important features of ponds is the presence of standing water, which provides
habitat for wetland plants and animals. Familiar examples might include water-lilies, frogs, Weighing balance- Analytical balances- for weighing substance
turtles and herons. Often, the entire margin of the pond is fringed by wetland, and these
wetlands support the aquatic food web, provide shelter for wildlife, and stabilize the shore of Magnetic stirrer- uses magnets to mix
the pond. Some grazing animals like geese and muskrats consume the wetland plants directly
as a source of food. In many other cases, however, the pond plants fall into the water and Oven- drying/sterilization of glassware
decay. A large number of invertebrates then feed on the decaying plants, and these
Electrophoresis equipment- separation of proteins and genetic material, into distinct
invertebrates provide food for wetland species including fish, dragonflies and herons. The open
components
water may allow algae to grow, and these algae may support yet another food web that includes
aquatic insects and minnows. A pond, therefore, may have combinations of three different food Centrifuge- have higher gravitational force than the earth, when set at 13,000rpm, it revolves
webs, one based on larger plants, one based upon decayed plants, and one based upon algae. 13,000 times per minute- in the process it separates substances
Hence, ponds often have a large number of different animal species using the wide array of
food sources. They therefore provide an important source of biological diversity in landscapes. Extractor- purifies a given product from plants

5.2 Facilities for Teaching Biology Votex machine- for mixing

Microscopes Heat block- for evaporation

A microscope is an instrument used to see objects that are too small for the naked eye. The
science of investigating small objects using such an instrument is called microscopy.
Microscopic means invisible to the eye unless aided by a microscope. Microscopes can be
separated into several different classes. One grouping is based on what interacts with the
sample to generate the image, i.e., light or photons (optical microscopes), electrons (electron
microscopes) or a probe (scanning probe microscopes). Alternatively, microscopes can be
classed on whether they analyse the sample via a scanning point (confocal optical microscopes,
scanning electron microscopes and scanning probe microscopes) or analyse the sample all at
once (wide field optical microscope and transmission electron microscopes).
A magnifying glass- also called a hand lens in laboratory contexts is a convex lens that is used
to produce a magnified image of an object. The lens is usually mounted in a frame with a
handle
5.3 Laboratory design and management
(SEE SEPARATE HANDOUT)
5.4. Botanical techniques and resource building for biology teaching.
These are techniques and procedures for collecting, preserving, processing, and storing
botanical specimens
1. Collection of specimens- gathering the specimens and recording the data
2. Preservation of Specimens- Pressing, drying
3. Processing of Specimens- Identification, Label preparation, mounting,
accessioning/cataloguing
4. Storage of Specimens- Organization, handling, and maintenance

Freezer- different types e.g., upright freezer- for keeping reagent/specimens at freezing
conditions/minimize enzyme action; for keeping specimens that require long period of storage Preserving Plant Specimens
e.g., 2 years- helps maintain integrity of the specimen Techniques

Refrigerator- 4 and 21 degree compartments  Pressing and drying

 Alternative drying techniques
Water bath- incubation purposes or for non-direct heating
 Special preservation and processing techniques
Chemogram- for measuring activity of animals/how they react to given doses of chemicals,  Mounting
measuring rate of intestinal contractions  Long-term preservation and storage

Ice maker- for making ice

Pressing and drying
Bio reactor- fermentation process, making yoghourt

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The best specimens are plants that are pressed as soon as possible after collection, before
wilting and shrivelling. Most plants may be kept in sealed containers such as plastic bags for
up to a day if it is inconvenient to press immediately. However, some plants show such rapid
wilting, particularly of the flowers, that such delays are best avoided. Flowers with a lot of
nectar may go mouldy very quickly if excess nectar is not shaken off before pressing.
Specimens are pressed flat and dried between sheets of absorbent blotters or semi-absorbent
paper such as newspaper. Papers with a glossy surface should be avoided because they are not
absorbent enough to aid drying. The plant should be carefully laid out between the drying
sheets, as their form at this stage largely determines their ultimate appearance. The flowers
should be spread out with the petals carefully arranged, wilted leaves should be straightened
and unnecessary shoots of excessively twiggy shrubs may be cut away.
Large flowers or inflorescences are best cut in half lengthways before pressing. Large and/or
succulent fruit is often best preserved by cutting both longitudinal and transectional (from
different fruit) sections from them and drying these. Care is necessary to ensure that the
maximum amount of useful information s preserved.
Sheets of thick, preferably smooth-sided, centre-corrugated cardboard (such as used in
cardboard carton sides), placed between the drying folders will assist air circulation through
the press. These are particularly necessary when using a forced circulation of warm air. If such
cardboard is not available, additional sheets of newspaper or wooden board (e.g. plywood) may
be used to absorb moisture from succulent specimens.
When plants are uneven in thickness, e.g. where flowers are borne on thick twigs or arise from
a thick bulbous base, sheets of spongy plastic foam about 1 cm thick, placed between the
newspaper folders, help to distribute pressure evenly across the specimen. If foam sheets are
not available, several thicknesses of folded newspaper may be used. Care must be taken to
ensure 'damp spots' do not develop in the press. Circulate warm air around the press or change
the drying papers more frequently.
Specimens are best pressed with moderate pressure, preferably in an arrangement that will
permit as free a circulation of air as possible. This can be achieved by strapping the pile
together in a press, i.e. between frames made, for example, from sheets of heavy (non-bending)
cardboard, hardboard, plywood, pegboard or, best of all, a lattice of wood or weldmesh. The
press frames should be the same size as or a little larger than the drying papers.
The papers should be checked for dampness and changed when necessary. As the number of
changes required will vary with the original succulence/water content of the plants and with the
weather conditions, no exact guide can be given. Most plants should dry in less than ten days.
For the first few days the paper should be changed daily, but after that time the frequency of
changes needed depends on conditions and relative humidity levels. In tropical and wet
conditions daily changes will be necessary throughout the drying period, but in drier conditions
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the last one or two changes need only be given at intervals of three or four days. Used paper
should be discarded, or thoroughly dried again before re-use.
When in the field for an extended time, drying can be aided by placing the pressed plants in a
warm, sunny position during the day. In reasonably dry climates, drying is aided by securing
the presses to the roof rack of the vehicle whilst driving in dry daytime conditions. If available,
a hot-air fan directing air around the press will assist drying. Drying cabinets with a forced
circulation of warm air are used in large herbaria to shorten drying time and to lessen the need
to change drying papers, but are not necessary for small quantities of specimens.
A few species regularly turn black on drying, but in general, brownish or blackish colours in
the completed specimens, or the growth of mould, indicate that drying was too slow, often
because the papers were not changed frequently enough in the early stages of drying.
Microwave ovens
Small numbers of specimens can be dried using a microwave oven. Place the specimens
between unprinted absorbent paper, for example butcher's paper, not newspaper, which is
unsuitable because the chemicals present in the ink may cause a fire. The specimens should be
put in a special press which should be of a microwave-safe material (wood, acrylic or
polycarbonate sheeting e.g. plexiglass or perspex, NO metal components). You can use sheets
of cardboard can be placed above and below the specimens and then weighted down. Drying
time depends on the power of your oven. In most cases drying is accomplished by irradiating at
maximum power for 1-2 minutes per specimen, although it is often a case of trial and error. It
is best to process no more than 10-12 specimens of average thickness per batch. Specimens are
usually dried after the moisture that characteristically appears on the glass door has
disappeared. If the specimen is damp when taken out of the oven, allow it to stand before re-
radiating as moisture continues to evaporate from the specimen for some time. Care must be
taken not to irradiate the specimens for too long. It should be noted that microwave treatment
damages seeds and the cellular structure of the plants which may reduce the long-term value of
the specimens.
Alternative drying techniques
Silica gel/other desiccants & freeze drying
Alternative methods of drying plant specimens have been used for some time, but are mostly
restricted to special purpose collections. The main alternatives are freeze-drying and drying in
a desiccant powder such as desiccant silica gel. In general these techniques are used where it is
essential to preserve the shape of a delicate plant of organ of the plant such as the flower.
Freeze-drying has also been used to preserve the chemical composition of a plant as accurately
as possible for later study.
Disadvantages and special conservation problems of specimens dried in these manners are that
they are particularly susceptible to damage. The dried parts are fragile, lack support and often
catch on packing materials.
Special preservation and processing techniques
Wet or spirit collections
Very fleshy or delicate structures, including small algae and orchid flowers, are best preserved
in an air-tight glass or plastic jar with a liquid preservative rather than by drying. The type of
preservative used should be clearly labelled in the jar. Such material is often referred to as a
spirit collection or wet collection. Most material can be satisfactorily preserved in 70% ethyl
alcohol (or 70% methylated spirit or denatured alcohol) with 30% water.
Small algae
Microscopic algae are often collected in a jar and in the water in which they were found. If the
algae are to be stored for more than 2-3 days, a preservative needs to be used. Traditionally this
has been the extremely toxic formalin - a small amount can be added to the water to make a 5%
final solution, and the container labelled.
Another option is to fix the algae in formalin (or something similar) first, and then prepare a
microscope glass slide with a permanent water-soluble mounting medium.
Some plants and certain climatic conditions require the use of specialised processing
treatments. This is a brief summary:
Succulent plants
Very succulent plants e.g. cacti and many species of Ficus ('figs') drop their leaves entirely
upon drying or remain alive for an excessively long period in the press. This is overcome by
killing the plant before pressing, either by freezing the specimen for a few hours, dipping it in
boiling water for a few minutes, or by using a microwave oven. The correct time in a
microwave oven depends on the type of oven and the specimen itself, but is usually about 2
minutes. Succulent material is 'done' when it has a flaccid, water-soaked appearance.
When the cell tissue has been killed (by freezing, scalding or radiation) the specimen will still
require special attention until it has dried completely. The papers must be changed at least
daily for the first few days, and complete drying in the case of cacti may take more than a
month.
An alternative technique is to place collected succulent material in 70% alcohol, as this
preserves its original shape.
Water plants
These should be carefully laid on a sheet of paper, excess water removed, then pressed and
dried in the normal way. Very soft water plants may require special treatment such as being
floated onto a sheet of paper immersed in water and then dried (as is usual for marine algae) or
preserving in alcohol or formalin solutions).
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Mounting
Mounting specimens prevents most fragile material from fragmenting and prevents specimens
becoming separated from their labels. If the plant collection is a long-term project, specimens
should be mounted on sheets of archival (permanent) cardboard or paper with archival-quality
fixing media. These include stitching with cotton thread, nickel-plated copper wire (for heavier
specimens), narrow strips of archival paper, linen tape, or by using an archival adhesive such
as methyl cellulose adhesive.
One disadvantage of mounting specimens is that it can make parts of the specimen inaccessible
for examination, so it is essential that this be borne in mind during specimen arrangement and
mounting. For example, easily reversible mounting media should be used, specimens should be
strapped to the sheet, rather than glued all over, and the specimen should be carefully arranged
before it is attached so that it shows all features.
Full-size herbarium mounting sheets are usually about 43 cm long x 28 cm wide. The plant
name and accompanying field notes should be transcribed on a permanent label stuck to one
corner of the herbarium sheet (the bottom right-hand corner being the most common) or,
sometimes, annotations may be written directly on the sheet or card. Small pieces of material
which may have become separated from the specimen (e.g. seeds) can be placed in small
plastic bags and pinned to the sheet.
Long-term preservation and storage
The long-term preservation of dry plant specimens is largely dependent on protection from
insect attack. Specimens collected by Linnaeus in the eighteenth century, and by Banks and
Solander on the Endeavour voyage in 1788, are still excellently preserved.
Pests and their control
A range of pests attack dried plant material. The most common pests are insects and fungi,
though rodents and other large animals can cause damage in poor storage conditions. Insects
eat the material, the paper surrounding the material, and the adhesives and mounting media.
Many insects are particularly sensitive to relative humidity levels and do not thrive at levels
below 50%.
The most common and acceptable specimen treatments for insect control are:
Freezing
Freezing the specimens is the technique least dangerous to human health, and is very simple.
The specimens must be frozen to -18oC or colder and kept at that temperature for at least 48
hours. In practice, when specimens are frozen in domestic deep-freezers in bulk and/or in
boxes, it is necessary to freeze them for 72 hours (3 days and 3 nights) to ensure that the
centres of thick specimens and specimens in the middle of large bundles are reduced to a low
enough temperature for long enough time to kill all pests. Bundles of specimens should be
sealed in plastic bags to avoid moisture condensing on the sheets as they thaw, or alternatively,
dry air should be circulated around the parcel in a desiccating cabinet during re-warming.
Microwave
Specimens may also be treated in a microwave oven to kill any animal life present on them.
Microwave treatment is a fast method for small numbers of specimens. The technique is
similar to microwave drying of specimens except that a press is not essential for already dry
material, and times may be reduced from those required for drying. No absolute guidelines can
be given as it is best to use trial and error testing for each set of circumstances and different
types of microwave, but times of 1-2 minutes per dried plant specimen should be adequate.
damage or improper storage conditions. Properly dried plant specimens will not suffer from
fungal attack if stored in the correct conditions (see recommendations below) though freeze-
dried fungal bodies such as mushrooms have been reported to be very susceptible to mould
growth. Specimens with sugary exudations or large quantities of nectar are also particularly
attractive to fungi, and need special care during drying to ensure that they dry fast enough to
prevent mould growth.
If fungus grows on the specimens these can be brushed with alcohol or methylated spirits
(denatured alcohol). However, this may alter the specimen unacceptably for chemical and other
investigative research, and only kills the fungus present on the specimen; it does not correct the
problems that allowed the fungus to develop. Specimens treated for fungal attack should be
clearly annotated as such, including date and treatment given.
Storage

Poisoning
Dried and pressed plant specimens can be stored in cardboard or plastic boxes, or tied in
bundles in light-weight cardboard folders placed in 'pigeon holes'. Alternatively, they can be
A traditional method of insect control was to poison the specimens with a chemical to make
placed in protective plastic jackets and displayed in ring folders which is recommended if they
them unpalatable or deadly to pests. However, this is not recommended due to obvious health
are to be frequently handled, such as for a reference collection.
hazards. Domestic spray-type insecticide is of limited effectiveness and, to avoid staining,
should not be sprayed directly on mounted sheets. Many spray insecticides are now regarded as
possibly detrimental to human health, so health and safety should be carefully considered Filing
before these are used. It is essential that specimens that have been poisoned be so identified, Specimens should be filed in a systematic order if a relatively permanent collection is being
made. The major groups, i.e. ferns and fern allies, cycads, conifers, dicotyledons and
both to warn users of the health risks involved and to avoid misleading any later chemical
monocotyledons, are best kept separately or according to some classification scheme, such as
research using the specimens.
that given in a flora or handbook. Similarly, the genera within each family and the species
within each genus may be filed alphabetically or following some such classification.
Insect deterrents

5.5 Using computers in biology teaching/learning.

A number of chemicals have been used or proposed for use as insect deterrents. Of these
naphthalene (commonly found as 'moth balls') is probably the most commonly used in herbaria
There are different types of computer usage in science and biology classrooms. Examples
because of its reputation for reasonable effectiveness in insect control, coupled with low
include: computer simulations, computer-assisted instructions, and the Internet.
toxicity to humans. It should be noted, however, that naphthalene is poisonous if ingested,
naphthalene dust can cause eye health problems for people with contact lenses, and chronic Computer Assisted Instruction
exposure is believed to be implicated in the formation of cataracts. Thee are also reports of
naphtha vapour causing allergies and headaches and of possible carcinogenic effects at very Computer Assisted Instruction was planned to meet some learning subjects that are necessary
high concentrations. If naphthalene is used as an insect deterrent the levels around specimens drill and practice. The main advantage of this technology is that it supplies the learner an
must be maintained at a steady, level to ensure effective insect control. Because of the immediate feedback and reinforcements from a computer. Lately, this type of instruction has
exposure limits for humans this is best done by storing specimens in boxes or in a sealed made such a progressive movement that the learner can interactively use the software to help
cupboard. the understanding of a topic in science education. However, CAI may make students to be
bored easily.
Fungal pests
Simulations
Fungal (mould) attack is mainly a danger to damp specimens, either through incomplete drying
during specimen preparation, or to collections that become wet later through flood, other water

53
While CAI enables students especially in science laboratories to do lab experiments accurately How Do Assessment and Evaluation Relate to Student
in a short time accurately, simulation are little different from CAI. One of the main differences Learning?
is that a simulation provides a situation that cannot be experienced to a learner. Also, some lab
exercise can be very expensive or take too much time, and may not be suitable for students, Learning Cycle
such as dissections in biology labs. A simulation encourages students to understand a situation
easily and can present dynamic representations to complex relationships. In science labs,
naturally occurring events could be simulated using computer-based simulations.

Internet

Another important development in computer usage in science courses as well as other courses
is to use the Internet. Many times, there are different terminologies for the Internet, for
example, World Wide Web (WWW), e-mail, gopher. On the other hand, the main idea is the
same that using different computers via phone lines provides tremendous knowledge and
interactive communication with the other user(s). Especially, receiving and sending
information from one computer to another computer change the world to a big library or
learning environment. Today, some simulation or other computer programs can be used by
means of Internet browsers. Therefore, using the Internet can be classified as a computer
assisted instruction or simulation in science classrooms but some cases, it can, also, bring some
specific problems related to using this technology.

6.0 ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION IN BIOLOGY

6.1 Meaning of Assessment and Evaluation

Assessment is defined as the gathering and synthesizing of information concerning students

while evaluation is defined as ‘‘making judgments about students’ learning. The processes of
assessment and evaluation can be viewed as progressive: first assessment; then evaluation
- Assessment focuses on learning, teaching and outcomes. It provides information for
improving learning and teaching. Assessment is an interactive process between students and
teachers that informs teachers how well their students are learning what they are teaching.
The information is used by teachers to make changes in the learning environment, and is
shared with students to assist them in improving their learning and study habits. This
information is learner-centered, course based, frequently anonymous, and not graded.
Sometimes the term assessment is used to describe the process of trying to determine what
students already know about a topic before instruction, whereas the term evaluation refers to
the process of monitoring progress during and after instruction
- Evaluation focuses on grades and may reflect classroom components other than course
content and mastery level. These could include discussion, cooperation, attendance, and verbal
ability.
Where are my students now? Assessment provides information about what students already
know, understand, or what they can do.
What do I want my students to learn? Standards, Objectives, Performance Measures
How will my students get there? (Teaching and learning strategies)
Consider: Teaching Strategies, Classroom Organization, Learning Environment. How can
students demonstrate learning?
How do I know when my students get there?
Assessment: Conventional Assessment (Testing) and Alternative Methods
Most of the assessment done in schools today is after the fact and
designed to indicate only whether students have learned. Little is
done to assess students' thinking during learning so we can help
them learn better. Nor do we collect and aggregate student-

54
 learning data in ways that make the information valuable to and
accessible by educators, schools, districts, province, and the
nation to support continuous improvement and innovation. We
are not using the full flexibility and power of technology to
design, develop, and validate new assessment materials and
processes for both formative and summative uses.
FORMATIVE VS. SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT
Formative Assessment: Happens during the lesson.
- Allows teachers to see how successfully students are progressing in relation to
objectives
- Allows students to benefit from the teacher’s feedback while the lesson is still
happening
- Can tell teachers where to go next (review, spend more time, move on)
Examples:
- Checks for understanding (CFU)- are monitoring opportunities that,
when done correctly provide teachers with excellent ways to evaluate
whether students are learning
- Observation
- Conversations with students
Summative Assessment:
Can happen at the end of a lesson, unit, school year, etc.
- Allows teachers to compare student performances to objectives and standard
- Tells the teacher whether a student has mastered the objective
- Helps shape future instructional plans
Examples:
- Assessment can be many things for many situations. Assessment can be informal,
formal, authentic, multidimensional, alternative, dynamic, written, oral, etc.!
NOTE
Formative assessment is designed to assist the learning process by providing feedback to the
learner, which can be used to identify strengths and weakness and hence improve future
performance. Formative assessment is most appropriate where the results are to be used
internally by those involved in the learning process (students, teachers, curriculum developers).
Summative assessment is used primarily to make decisions for grading or determine readiness
for progression. Typically summative assessment occurs at the end of an educational activity
and is designed to judge the learner’s overall performance. In addition to providing the basis
for grade assignment, summative assessment is used to communicate students’ abilities to
external stakeholders, e.g., administrators and employers.
55
No matter what the type of assessment, it should emphasize
learning rather than better grades or scores.
Assessment information is not valuable if it does not lead to a course of action for the students’
and teachers’ benefit.
6.2 Assessment of Performance in Biology: Products Vs Processes
Performance assessment is a method of teaching and learning that involves both process and
product. It is not just a testing strategy. Performance assessment tasks involve students in
constructing various types of products for diverse audiences. Students also are involved in
developing the process that leads to the finished product. Performance assessment measures
what students can do with what they know, rather than how much they know. Performance
assessment tasks are based on what is most essential in the curriculum and what is interesting
to a student. Performance assessments are very effective for measuring the process and
products involved with student achievement. Also referred to as authentic assessment or
alternative assessment, performance assessments involve observing student performances and
examining products they have created
In its simplest terms, a performance assessment is one which requires students to demonstrate
that they have mastered specific skills and competencies by performing or producing
something.
Advocates of performance assessment call for assessments of the following kind: designing
and carrying out experiments; writing essays which require students to rethink, to integrate, or
to apply information; working with other students to accomplish tasks; demonstrating
proficiency in using a piece of equipment or a technique; building models; developing,
interpreting, and using maps; making collections; writing term papers, critiques, poems, or
short stories; giving speeches; playing musical instruments; participating in oral examinations;
developing portfolios; developing athletic skills or routines, etc
How Technology Supports Better Assessment
Adaptive Assessment Facilitates Differentiated Learning
As we move to a model where learners have options in terms of how they learn, there is a new
role for assessment in diagnosing how best to support an individual learner. This new role
should not be confused with computerized adaptive testing, which has been used for years to
give examinees different assessment items depending on their responses to previous items on
the test in order to get more precise estimates of ability using fewer test items.
Adaptive assessment has a different goal. It is designed to identify the next kind of learning
experience that will most benefit the particular learner. The School of One demonstration
project (see the sidebar on the School of One in the Learning section) used adaptive assessment
to differentiate learning by combining information from inventories that students completed on
how they like to learn with information on students' actual learning gains after different types
of experiences (working with a tutor, small-group instruction, learning online, learning through
games). This information was used to generate individual "playlists" of customized learning
activities for every student. (See the sidebar on meshing learning and assessment for an
example of adaptive assessment in higher education.)
Meshing Learning and Assessment in Online and Blended Instruction
The online learning systems being developed through the Open Learning Initiative (OLI) at
Carnegie Mellon University illustrate the advantages of integrating learning and assessment
activities. The OLI R&D team set out to design learning systems incorporating the learning
science principle of providing practice with feedback. In the OLI courses, feedback
mechanisms are woven into a wide variety of activities. In a biology course, for example, there
are
 Interactive simulations of biological processes that students can manipulate; the
student's interaction with the simulation is interspersed with probes to get at his or
her understanding of how it works;
 "Did I Get This?" quizzes following presentation of new material so that students
can check for themselves whether or not they understood, without any risk of
hurting their course grade;
 Short essay questions embedded throughout the course material that call on students
to make connections across concepts; and
 "Muddiest Point" requests that ask students what they thought was confusing.
Tutored problem solving gives students a chance to work through complex problems with the
opportunity to get scaffolds and hints to help them. The students receive feedback on their
solution success after doing each problem, and the system keeps track of how much assistance
students needed for each problem as well as whether or not they successfully solved it.
When OLI courses are implemented in a blended instruction mode that combines online and
classroom learning, the instructor can use the data that the learning system collects as students
work online to identify the topics students most need help on so that they can focus upcoming
classroom activities on those misconceptions and errors (Brown et al. 2006). OLI is now doing
R&D on a digital dashboard to give instructors an easy-to-read summary of the online learning
data from students taking their course.
The OLI has developed learning systems for engineering statics, statistics, causal reasoning,
economics, French, logic and proofs, biology, chemistry, physics, and calculus. A study
contrasting the performance of students randomly assigned to the OLI statistics course with
those in conventional classroom instruction found that the former led to better student learning
outcomes in half the time (Lovett, Meyer, and Thille 2008).
Universal Design for Learning and Assistive Technology Improve Accessibility
Technology allows the development of assessments using Universal Design for Learning
principles that make assessments more accessible, effective, and valid for students with greater
diversity in terms of disability and English language capability. (See the sidebar on universal
design for textbooks in the Learning section.)
Most traditional tests are written in English and can be taken only by sighted learners who are
fluent in English. Technology allows for presentation and assessment using alternative
representations of the same concept or skill and can accommodate various student disabilities
and strengths. Moreover, having the option of presenting information through multiple
modalities enlarges the proportion of the population that can be assessed fairly.
Technology also can support the application of UDL principles to assessment design. For
example, the Principled-Assessment Designs for Inquiry (PADI) system developed by Geneva
Haertel, Robert Mislevy, and associates (Zhang et al. 2010) is being used to help states develop
science assessment items that tap the science concepts the states want to measure and minimize
the influence of such extraneous factors as general English vocabulary or vision. Technology
56
can support doing this labor-intensive work more efficiently and provides a record of all the
steps taken to make each assessment item accessible and fair for the broadest number of
students.
Similarly, assistive technology can make it possible for students who have disabilities that
require special interfaces to interact with digital resources to demonstrate what they know and
can do in ways that would be impossible with standard print-based assessments. Designing
assessments to work with assistive technologies is much more cost-effective than trying to
retrofit the assessments after they have been developed.
Technology Speeds Development and Testing of New Assessments
One challenge associated with new technology-based assessments is the time and cost of
development, testing for validity and reliability, and implementation. Here, too, technology can
help. When an assessment item is developed, it can be field-tested automatically by putting it
into a Web-based learning environment with thousands of students responding to it in the
course of their online learning. Data collected in this way can help clarify the inferences
derived from student performance and can be used to improve features of the assessment task
before its large-scale use.
Technology Enables Broader Involvement in Providing Feedback
Some performances are so complex and varied that we do not have automated scoring options
at present. In such cases, technology makes it possible for experts located thousands of miles
away to provide students with authentic feedback. This is especially useful as educators work
to incorporate authentic problems and access to experts into their instruction.
The expectation of having an audience outside the classroom is highly motivating for many
students. Students can post their poems to a social networking site or make videotaped public
service announcements for posting on video-sharing sites and get comments and critiques.
Students who are developing design skills by writing mobile device applications can share their
code with others, creating communities of application developers who provide feedback on
each other's applications. The number of downloads of their finished applications provides one
way of measuring success.
For many academic efforts, the free-for-all of the Internet would not provide a meaningful
assessment of student work, but technology can support connections with online communities
of individuals who do have the expertise and interest to be judges of students' work. Practicing
scientists can respond to student projects in online science fairs. Readers of online literary
magazines can review student writing. Professional animators can judge online filmmaking
competitions. Especially in contests and competitions, rubrics are useful in communicating
expectations to participants and external judges and in helping promote judgment consistency.
Technology also has the potential to make both the assessment process itself and the data
resulting from that process more transparent and inclusive. Currently, only average scores and
proficiency levels on state assessments are widely available through both public and private
systems. Still, parents, policymakers, and the public at large can see schools' and districts' test
scores and in some instances test items. This transparency increases public understanding of
the current assessment system.
Technology Could Reduce Test Taking for Accountability Only
Many educators, parents, and students are concerned with the amount of class time devoted to
taking tests for accountability purposes. Students not only are completing the tests required
every year by their states, but they also are taking tests of the same content throughout the year
to predict how well they will perform on the end-of-year state assessment (Perie, Marion, and
Gong 2009).
When teaching and learning are mediated through technology, it is possible to reduce the
number of external assessments needed to audit the education system's quality. Data streams
captured by an online learning system can provide the information needed to make judgments
about students' competencies. These data-based judgments about individual students could then
be aggregated to generate judgments about classes, schools, districts, and states.
West Virginia uses this strategy in its assessment of students' technology skills. (See sidebar on
moving assessment data from the classroom to the state.)
Moving Assessment Data From the Classroom to the State
West Virginia's techSteps program is an example of an assessment system coordinated across
levels of the education system. techSteps is organized around six technology integration
activities per grade level. The activities are sequenced to introduce technology skills
developmentally and in a 21st-century context and are largely open-ended and flexible, so they
can be integrated into county and school curricula.
Each techSteps activity includes a classroom assessment rubric. After a student completes a
techSteps activity, the teacher enters an assessment of his or her performance against the rubric
into the techSteps website. techSteps uses the teacher-completed rubric form to identify the
target skills demonstrated by that student and uses this information to build the student's
Technology Literacy Assessment Profile.
Through techSteps, West Virginia is able to have statewide student data on technology
proficiencies at each grade level without requiring a separate "drop-in-from-the-sky"
technology test.
Prospects for Electronic Learning Records
Much like electronic medical records in this country, electronic learning records could stay
with students throughout their lives, accumulating evidence of growth across courses and
across school years. A logical extension of online grade books and other electronic portfolios,
electronic learning records would include learning experiences and demonstrated
competencies, including samples of student work.
Many schools are using electronic portfolios of students' work as a way to demonstrate what
they have learned. (See sidebar on how New Tech High School uses technology to document
student accomplishments.) Although students' digital products are often impressive on their
face, a portfolio of student work should be linked to an analytic framework if it is to serve
assessment purposes. The portfolio reviewer needs to know what competencies the work is
intended to demonstrate, what the standard or criteria for competence are in each area, and
what aspects of the work provide evidence of meeting those criteria. Definitions of desired
outcomes and criteria for levels of accomplishment can be expressed in the form of rubrics.
An advantage of using rubrics is that they can be communicated not only to the people judging
students' work, but also to the students themselves. When students receive assessment rubrics
before doing an assignment—and especially when students participate in developing the
rubrics—they can develop an understanding of how quality is judged in the particular field
they are working in (for example, an essay of literary criticism, the design of a scientific
experiment, or a data analysis).
As with any other kind of assessment score, ratings derived from rubrics should be both valid
(demonstrated to measure what they are intended to measure) and reliable (consistent no matter
who the rater is). Before rubrics are used on a larger scale for assessments that have
consequences for schools and students, their validity and reliability must be established.
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6.3 Test construction in biology
A test commonly refers to a set of items or questions under specific conditions. Testing is a
systematic procedure for observing persons and describing them with either a numerical scale
or a category system. thus test may give either a qualitative or quantitative information
Type of Tests
1. Essay type tests
2. Objective Tests
1. Essay Type Test
It is an item format that requires the student to structure a rather long written response up to
several paragraphs.
Characteristics of Essay Test
•Generally essay tests contain more than one question in the test
•Essay tests are to be answered in writing only
•Essay test tests require completely long answers
•Essay tests are attempted on the basis of recalling the memory
Advantages of Essay Type Test
 Can measure complex learning outcomes
 Emphasizes integration and application of thinking and problem solving skills
 Can be easily constructed
 Examinee free to respond
 No guessing as in objective item
 Require less time for typing, duplicating or printing, can be written on board
 Can be used as device for measuring and improving language and expression skills
Limitations
 lack of consistency in judgements even among competent examiners
 they have halo effect- If the examiner is measuring one characteristic, he can be
influenced in scoring by another characteristic. For example, a well behaved student
my score more marks on account of his good behaviour.
 question to question carry effect- If the examinee has answered satisfactorily in the
beginning of the question or questions he is likely to score more than the one who
did not do well in the beginning but did well later on
 Examinee to examinee carry effect- A particular examinee gets marks not on the
basis of what he has written but also on the basis that whether the previous
examinee whose answer book was examined by the examiner was good or bad.
 Language mechanic effect- The examiners not only assess the content of the answer
but they are also influenced by the language of the examinee. Even in non-language
subjects, the examiners punish examinees for spelling, punctuation, and grammar.
 The length of the answer rather than the depth of the content also influences the •question form
examiner. •identification or association form
 Limited content validity- because only a sample of questions can only be asked in •completion form
essay type test
 They are time consuming both for the examiner and examinee Advantages
•very easy to construct
 They eliminate guessing yes but they encourage bluffing. Some examinees answer
•low probability of guessing the answer because it has to be supplied by the examinees rather
essay questions in such a way that the examiner cannot understand whether the
than select identify from the given answers
examinee understands the concept or not and such students get pass marks by •they are good to test the lowest level of cognitivetaxonomy (knowledge, terminology, facts)
answering something even if it is not directly related to the question.
 they generally emphasize the lengthy enumeration of memorised facts. Limitations
•they are unsuitable for measuring complex learning outcomes

Suggestions for Construction of Essay Tests Suggestions for Construction of Short Answer Tests
•as for as possible question form should be used
•ask questions that require the examinee to show command of essential knowledge •the question should not be picked up exactly from the book
•make questions as explicit as possible •the question should not provide any clue
•should be no choice in questionin question paper  the scoring key should be prepared
•test constructor should prepare ideal answers to all questions •the blank space is to be completed by an important word rather than trevial words
•intimate the examinee about desired length
make each question relatively short but increase number of questions Objective Type Tests
•test constructor should get his test reviewed y one ao more colleagues •any test having clear and unambigious scoring criteria
•questions should be so worded that all examinees interpret them in the same way as the •test that can be objectively scored
examiner wants characteristics
•they can be reliably scored
suggestions for scoring essay tests •they allow for adequate content sampling
•prepare scoring guide in the form of outline
•particular question should be scored at one time of all the examinees Forms of Objective Type Tests
•to avoid holo effect, identity of the examinee should not be communicated to the examiner a)Two Choice Items
•if possible appoint more than one examiners. the examiners should not know who is the other
examiner 1. true/false items
2. completion type (if two choices are given against each blank)
b) more than two choice items
the correctness of the subject matter should not be mixed with the good handwriting, better 1. matching items
language, if they are to be given any weight, it should be clearly indicated 2. MCQs

True/False Tests (Shooting Questions)

short answer type tests a true false item consists of a statement or proposition which the examinee must judge and
•short answer items requires the examinee to respond to the item with a word, short phrase, mark as either true or false
number or a symbol.
Advantages
Characteristics •it takes less time to construct true false items
•the test has supply response rather than select or identify •high degree of objectivity
•in the form of question or incomplete statement •teacher can examine students on more material
•the test can be answered by a word, a phrase, a number or symbol
Limitations
Forms of Short Answer Items •high degree of guessing

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•largely limited to learning outcomes in the knowledge area incorrect or less appropriate alternatives are called distractors or foils and the student’s task is
•they expose students to error which is psychologically undesirable to select the correct or best alternative from all the options.
•they may encourage students to study and accept only oversimplified statements of truth ans
factual learning Forms Of MCQs
1.the correct answer form
Suggestions 2.the best answer form
•balance between true and false items 3.the incomplete statement form
•each statement should be unequivocally true or false. it should not be partly true or partly false 4.the negative form
•double negatives should be avoided 5.the combined response form
•long and complex statements should not be used as they measure reading comprehension 6.subtitution form
only one idea should be measured in one statement
•explain which judgement is to be used true/false, yes/no, correct/incorrect advantages
•clues should be avoided  they can measure complex level knowledge i.e. understanding, judgement, ability to
•statements should not be taken directly from the textbook solve problems
 a substantial amount of course content can be tested because the examinees do not
Matching Type Tests require much time for writing the answer
a test consisting of a two column format, premises and responses that requires the student to
 objectivity in scoring even a layman can score
take a correspondence between the two
 they can check discrimination ability of students
Advantages  reduce the effect of guessing
•simple to construct and score  can be easily adapted for machine scoring
•well suited to measure association  this format is helpful in item analysis
•reduce the effect of guessing
•they can be used to evaluate examinee’s understanding of concepts, principle, schemes for limitations
classifying objects, ideas or even •they require examinee to select the answer from a fixed list and not permit to create or express
and organize their own ideas
Limitations •examinees who do not the correct answer can succeed in guessing
•they generally provide clues •sometimes difficult to find four or five choices in construction
•they are restricted to factual information which encourages memorization •time consuming at teacher end
•if the same number of items are written in both the columns, the matching type is converted to
mcqs at late stage and in the end it is converted to true and false category suggestions
•stem should introduce what is expected of the examinee
suggestions •specific determoners should be avoided
•homogeneous items shold be selected •vocabulary according to the level of students
•no clue should be provided in both the columns •all the choices should be plausible
•clear instruction to attempt •test items should have defensible correct or best answer
•all the items should be printed on the same page •the correct choice should not be at the same place in all or most of the items the choice like
•premise should be written in the left hand columnamd be numbered, responses should be “none of the above” “all the above” should be avoided
written in the right hand column and be lettered responses should be more than the premises to •each item should pose only one problem
ensure that examinee has to think even upto last premise •teacher should construct mcqs on daily basis
•clear directions
•incomplete sentences should not be used for premise 6.4 marking and scoring tests in biology

6.5 progress records and profiles in biology

Multiple Choice Items (READ and MAKE NOTES)
multiple choice items consist of two parts: a stem and number of options or alternatives. the
stem is a question or statement that is answered or completed by one of the alternatives. all 6.6 national examinations in biology

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(READ and MAKE NOTES)

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